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Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
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Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
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Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
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Louisville, Kentucky
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Louisville is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Kentucky and the 30th-most populous city in the United States. It is one of two cities in Kentucky designated as first-class, the other being the states second-largest city of Lexington, Louisville is the historical seat and, since 2003, the nominal seat of Jefferson County. Louisville was founded in 1778 by George Rogers Clark and is named after King Louis XVI of France, making Louisville one of the oldest cities west of the Appalachian Mountains. Sited beside the Falls of the Ohio, the major obstruction to river traffic between the upper Ohio River and the Gulf of Mexico, the settlement first grew as a portage site. It was the city of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. Its main airport is also the site of United Parcel Services worldwide air hub, since 2003, Louisvilles borders have been the same as those of Jefferson County because of a city-county merger. The official name of this consolidated city-county government is the Louisville/Jefferson County Metro Government, the citys total consolidated population as of the 2014 census estimate was 760,026. However, the total of 612,780 excludes other incorporated places and semiautonomous towns within the county and is the population listed in most sources. As of 2014, the MSA had a population of 1,269,702, the history of Louisville spans hundreds of years, and has been influenced by the areas geography and location. The rapids at the Falls of the Ohio created a barrier to river travel, the first European settlement in the vicinity of modern-day Louisville was on Corn Island in 1778 by Col. George Rogers Clark, credited as the founder of Louisville. Several landmarks in the community are named after him, two years later, in 1780, the Virginia General Assembly approved the town charter of Louisville. The city was named in honor of King Louis XVI of France, early residents lived in forts to protect themselves from Indian raids, but moved out by the late 1780s. In 1803, explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark organized their expedition across America in the town of Clarksville, Indiana at the present-day Falls of the Ohio opposite Louisville, Kentucky. The citys early growth was influenced by the fact river boats had to be unloaded and moved downriver before reaching the falls. By 1828, the population had swelled to 7,000, the city grew rapidly in its formative years. Louisville was a shipping port and slaves worked in a variety of associated trades. The city was often a point of escape for slaves to the north, during the Civil War, Louisville was a major stronghold of Union forces, which kept Kentucky firmly in the Union. It was the center of planning, supplies, recruiting, and transportation for numerous campaigns, by the end of the war, Louisville had not been attacked, although skirmishes and battles, including the battles of Perryville and Corydon, took place nearby
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Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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NCAA Division I
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Division I is the highest level of intercollegiate athletics sanctioned by the National Collegiate Athletic Association in the United States. This level was called the University Division of the NCAA, in contrast to the lower level College Division. For football only, Division I was further subdivided in 1978 into Division I-A, Division I-AA, in 2006, Division I-A and I-AA were renamed Football Bowl Subdivision and Football Championship Subdivision, respectively. FCS teams are allowed to award scholarships, a practice technically allowed. FBS teams also have to meet attendance requirements, while FCS teams do not need to meet minimum attendance requirements. Another difference is post season play, starting with the 2014 postseason, a four-team playoff called the College Football Playoff, replaced the previous one game championship format. Even so, Division I FBS football is still the only NCAA sport in which a champion is not determined by an NCAA-sanctioned championship event. All D-I schools must field teams in at least seven sports for men and seven for women or six for men and eight for women, with at least two team sports for each gender. Division I schools must meet minimum financial aid awards for their athletics program, Several other NCAA sanctioned minimums and differences that distinguish Division I from Divisions II and III. Each playing season has to be represented by each gender as well, there are contest and participant minimums for each sport, as well as scheduling criteria. Mens and womens teams have to play all but two games against Division I teams, for men, they must play one-third of all their contests in the home arena. The NCAA has limits on the financial aid each Division I member may award in each sport that the school sponsors. Equivalency sports, in which the NCAA limits the total financial aid that a school can offer in a sport to the equivalent of a set number of full scholarships. Roster limitations may or may not apply, depending on the sport, the term counter is also key to this concept. The NCAA defines a counter as an individual who is receiving financial aid that is countable against the aid limitations in a sport. The number of scholarships that Division I members may award in sport is listed below. In this table, scholarship numbers for head-count sports are indicated without a point, for equivalency sports, they are listed with a decimal point. An exception exists for players at non-scholarship FCS programs who receive aid in another sport, participants in basketball are counted in that sport, unless they also play football
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Atlantic Coast Conference
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The ACC sponsors competition in twenty-five sports with many of its member institutions athletic programs held in high regard nationally. ACC teams and athletes have claimed dozens of championships in multiple sports throughout the conferences history. Generally, the ACCs top athletes and teams in any sport in a given year are considered to be among the top collegiate competitors in the nation. Also, the conference enjoys extensive media coverage, the ACC was one of the six collegiate power conferences, which had automatic qualifying for their football champion into the Bowl Championship Series. With the advent of the College Football Playoff in 2014, the ACC is one of five conferences with a contractual tie-in to an access bowl, the additions in recent years extended the conferences footprint into the Northeast and Midwest. The most recent expansion in 2013 saw the additions of the University of Notre Dame, the University of Pittsburgh, in 2012, the University of Marylands Board of Regents voted to withdraw from the ACC to join the Big Ten Conference effective July 1,2014. On November 28,2012, the ACCs Council of Presidents voted unanimously to invite the University of Louisville as a full member, replacing Maryland effective July 1,2014. Seven universities in the South Atlantic States were charter members of the ACC, Clemson, Duke, Maryland, North Carolina, North Carolina State, South Carolina, previously members of the Southern Conference, they left partially due to that leagues ban on post-season football play. After drafting a set of bylaws for the creation of a new league, the bylaws were ratified on June 14,1953, and the ACC was created, becoming the second conference formed by schools collectively withdrawing from the SoCon, after the Southeastern Conference. On December 4,1953, officials convened in Greensboro, North Carolina, and admitted Virginia, in 1960, the ACC implemented a minimum SAT score for incoming student-athletes of 750, the first conference to do so. This minimum was raised to 800 in 1964, but was struck down by a federal court in 1972. In 1971, South Carolina left the ACC to become an independent, the ACC operated with seven members until the addition of Georgia Tech from the Metro Conference on April 3,1978. The total number of member schools reached nine with the addition of Florida State, also formerly from the Metro Conference, on July 1,1991. The expansion was controversial, as Connecticut, Rutgers, Pittsburgh, and West Virginia filed lawsuits against the ACC, Miami, and Boston College for conspiring to weaken the Big East Conference. The ACC Hall of Champions opened on March 2,2011, next to the Greensboro Coliseum arena, on September 17,2011, Big East Conference members Syracuse University and the University of Pittsburgh both tendered formal written applications to the ACC to join its ranks. The two schools were accepted into the conference the day, once again expanding the conference footprint like previous expansions. Because the Big East intended to hold Pitt and Syracuse to the 27-month notice period required by league bylaws, however, on July 16,2012, the Big East and Syracuse came to an agreement that allowed Syracuse to leave the Big East on July 1,2013. Two days later, the Big East and Pittsburgh reached an identical agreement, on September 12,2012, Notre Dame agreed to join the ACC in all sports except football and hockey as the conferences first member in the Midwestern United States
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Louisville Cardinals
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The Louisville Cardinals are the athletic teams representing the University of Louisville. Teams play in the Atlantic Coast Conference, beginning in the 2014 season, on November 28,2012, Louisville received and accepted an invitation to join the Atlantic Coast Conference and became a participating member in all sports in 2014. In 2013, Louisville defeated the Michigan Wolverines to win the 2013 Mens Basketball NCAA Championship, capturing their third such championship in school history. Also, it is the first school ever to win a BCS bowl game, appear in the mens and womens basketball Final Fours, U of L currently fields 13 womens teams and 10 mens teams. The total sales of U of L merchandise, tripling since 2001, U of L finished the 2015–16 year ranked 29th in the NACDA Learfield Sports Directors Cup. The 2015–16 season began with Louisville ranked 24th through the final fall standings.409 batting average. In 2007, the Cardinals finished the season with a 47–24 record, team Established,1911 All Time Record,1, 803–901 Playing Facility, KFC Yum. The Cards never had a season in Hickmans 23 years. In 1956, Hickmans team won the NIT, then considered a championship on a par with the NCAA tournament. The mens basketball team currently ranks fifth in all-time NCAA Tournament wins and has been in the top-five in average each year since the 1982–83 season. Perennial rivals include the University of Kentucky, University of Cincinnati, the Cardinals hired Rick Pitino as Head Coach in 2001. Pitino led the Cardinals to the Final Four in the 2004–2005, 2011–2012, and 2012–2013 seasons, the team was established in 1975. All Time Record, 825–502 Playing facility, KFC Yum, the University of Louisville Spirit Groups hold more national titles than any other sport offered at the university. The Cardinal Bird Mascot also falls under the jurisdiction of the University of Louisville Spirit Groups, the Bird also competes with the cheerleaders in national competitions and makes regular appearances in the Louisville Metro Area.65 GPA, which was the highest in the nation. The team also won two MAC tourney titles in 2003 and 2004 and finished one game back in their first Big East season, Smith and Bobby Petrino, the Louisville football program went to nine consecutive bowl games, a streak that ended in the 2007 season. Under Coach Smith, the Cardinals spent 11 weeks in the AP Top 25, under Coach Petrino, the Cardinals were ranked in all but three of the weekly AP polls since the beginning of the 2004 season. This includes a #6 final finish in both 2004 and 2006, as well as a #19 final finish in 2005, the Cardinals went to the Liberty Bowl, where they defeated #10-ranked and previously-undefeated Boise State. In 2005, the Cardinals finished 9–3 after falling to Virginia Tech in the Gator Bowl and completed the season ranked #19 in the AP Poll and #20 in the Coaches Poll
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Oak Ridge Associated Universities
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The organization was first established in 1946 as the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies by a consortium of southern universities. This was an effort championed by William G. Pollard, who was its director until 1974. The name Oak Ridge Associated Universities was adopted in 1966, in 1950, ORINS opened a hospital where it conducted clinical research for the United States Atomic Energy Commission on the use of radiation and radioactive materials in cancer treatment. The hospital treated patients until the mid-1970s, ORINS also conducted training courses in radioisotopes and established resident training programs in nuclear medicine. In the 1980s, clinical research at ORINS was the subject of investigation by the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, the Institute for Energy Analysis was organized as a unit of ORAU in January 1974, under the leadership of former Oak Ridge National Laboratory director Alvin Weinberg. This institutes focus was evaluation of alternatives for meeting future energy requirements, from 1976 until it ceased operation with Weinbergs retirement in 1984, the Institute for Energy Analysis was a center for study of diverse issues related to carbon dioxide and global climate. In the mid-1970s, ORAU operated the Training And Technology Project, TAT taught basic sciences, as well as technical skill concentrations, such as welding, machining, mechanical operations, drafting and physical testing. Employment search assistance was provided to trainees to integrate with regional industrial company opportunities, oRAUs mission continues to be the advancement of scientific research and education. ORAU operates the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education under contract to the Department of Energy, health physics and epidemiology continue to be major areas of activity for ORAU and ORISE. Activities include radiological surveys, dose reconstruction, and health screening for workers who may have exposed to radioactive material, beryllium. The Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site continues to operate as a part of ORISE, imperial College London is the British university affiliated with the ORAU. Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory
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Cardinal Bird (mascot)
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The Cardinal Bird is the mascot of the University of Louisville. The Cardinal was chosen as the mascot after 1913, selected because the northern cardinal is the bird of Kentucky. The school colors of black and red were adopted later, the Cardinal Bird appears at university sporting events, notably skydiving into Papa Johns Cardinal Stadium for each home football game. He also attends other community events during the year and he is considered a part of the Spirit Groups and is a member of the Cheerleading team. In 2004, the Cardinal Bird was presented with the National Cheerleaders Associations Most Collegiate Mascot award, on occasion, the Cardinal Bird will travel over to the school marching bands section to conduct the players from the bands podium. The Cardinal Bird is nicknamed Louie and this is an homage to the name of both its school and city, as they are sometimes pronounced as Louie-ville. Others choose to abbreviate his name, nicknaming him C. B and his costume weighs over 50 pounds
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University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
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State university system
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A state university system in the United States is a group of public universities supported by an individual state, or a similar entity such as the District of Columbia. These systems constitute the majority of public-funded universities in the country, each state supports at least one such system. State university systems should not be confused with federally funded colleges and universities, at which attendance is limited to military personnel, members of foreign militaries and governments also attend some schools. These schools include the United States service academies, Naval Postgraduate School, a state university system normally means a single legal entity and administration, but may consist of several institutions, each with its own identity as a university. Some states—such as California and Texas—support more than one such system, State universities get subsidies from their states. As more and more Americans attend college, and private tuition rates increase well beyond the rate of inflation, admission to universities is becoming more and more competitive. State university systems were a product of the demand for education in the newly formed United States. The tradition of publicly funded state colleges began primarily in the southern states, there remains significant debate about which institution or institutions are the oldest public universities in the United States. The University of Georgia is the countrys first chartered public university, however, the University of Georgia did not hold classes until 16 years later in the fall of 1801. The first collegiate-level classes conducted by an institution were at another Georgia institution. The school eventually dropped high school instruction, but remained a community college until becoming an institution in 1963. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, while chartered four years after Georgia in 1789, was the first state university to hold classes, classes began at UNC in 1795, and UNC is the only state university to have graduated students in the 18th century. The University of South Carolina was chartered in 1801 and held classes for the first time in 1805, determining which state university was the first is further complicated by the case of New Jerseys state university system. Rutgers University, which had previously been a school affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church, was designated as a state university by acts of the legislature in 1945 and 1956. It became a System with the absorptions of Newark University in 1946 and The College of South Jersey in 1950, becoming Rutgers Newark and Camden campuses, respectively. Rutgers was chartered in 1766, nineteen years before the University of Georgia, castleton State College in Vermont is the oldest state university in New England, chartered in 1787. This was soon followed by the charter of The University of Vermont in 1791, however, neither institution was a state university in the modern sense of the term until many decades later. Castleton State began as the Rutland County Grammar School and it did not become a postsecondary institution until the campus became home to the State Normal School in 1867
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Allegheny Mountains
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The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet in northeastern West Virginia, in the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau which extends into Ohio, the principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Cumberland, Maryland. The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape Indians, is not definitively known but is translated as fine river. A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the Allegewi who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape, Allegheny is the early French spelling, and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling. The word Allegheny was once used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee, around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the Alleghanies, but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System, as late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word Alleghanies in referring to the southern Appalachians. There was no agreement about the Appalachians versus the Alleghanies until the late 19th century. From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 miles, from west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 miles. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau, the westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains in West Virginia. The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies—the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, the Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians. The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front and this great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies, to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon, and to the west the New River Gorge. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay, the highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to 3,000 feet. Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet, the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob, on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia
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Kentucky General Assembly
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The Kentucky General Assembly, also called the Kentucky Legislature, is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Kentucky. The General Assembly meets annually in the capitol building in Frankfort, Kentucky. In even-numbered years, sessions may not last more than 60 legislative days, in odd-numbered years, sessions may not last more than 30 legislative days, and cannot extend beyond March 30. Special sessions may be called by the Governor of Kentucky at any time for any duration, the first meeting of the General Assembly occurred in 1792, shortly after Kentucky was granted statehood. Legislators convened in Lexington, the temporary capital. Among the first orders of business was choosing a permanent state capital, after women gained suffrage in Kentucky, Mary Elliott Flanery was elected to the Kentucky House of Representative from the 89th District representing Boyd County, Kentucky. When Flanery took her seat in January 1922, she was the first female legislator elected in Kentucky. Operation Boptrot lead to the conviction of more than a dozen legislators between 1992 and 1995, the investigation also led to reform legislation being passed in 1993. Officially, Kentucky remained neutral during the Civil War, however, the majority of the General Assembly had strong Union sympathies. A group of Confederate sympathizers met in Russellville to establish a Confederate government for the state, the group decided to establish the Confederate state capital in Bowling Green, but never successfully displaced the elected General Assembly in Frankfort. The General Assembly played a role in the disputed gubernatorial election of 1900. Initial vote tallies had Republican William S. Taylor leading Democrat William Goebel by a scant 2,383 votes, the General Assembly, however, wielded the final authority in election disputes. With a majority in both houses, the Democrats attempted to invalidate enough votes to give the election to Goebel, during the contentious days that followed, an unidentified assassin shot Goebel as he approached the state capitol. As Goebel hovered on the brink of death, chaos ensued in Frankfort, the Republican minority naturally heeded the call and headed to London. Democrats predictably resisted the call, many retiring to Louisville instead, both factions claimed authority, but the Republicans were too few in number to muster a quorum. The General Assembly is bicameral, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, the House and Senate chambers are on opposite ends of the third floor of the capitol building, and legislators have offices in the nearby Capitol Annex building. Section 33 of the Kentucky Constitution requires that the General Assembly divide the state into 38 Senate and 100 House districts, districts are required to be as nearly equal in population as possible. Districts can be formed by joining more than one county, districts must be reviewed every 10 years and be re-divided if necessary
16.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
17.
University of Louisville School of Medicine
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The University of Louisville School of Medicine at the University of Louisville is a medical school located in Louisville, Kentucky, United States. Opened as the Louisville Medical Institute in 1837, it is one of the oldest medical schools in North America and the 9th oldest in the United States. In 2013, U. S. News & World Report ranked the University of Louisville School of Medicine #76 in research in its annual list of Best Medical Schools in the United States. The school offers dual degree programs including MD/MS, MD/MA, MD/MBA, MD/MPH. For the 2013 entering class,159 students enrolled in the Doctor of Medicine program, in May 2013, Dr. Toni M. Ganzel was selected as the next dean of the School of Medicine. By the early 1830s, Louisville had become a center for transportation into the United States. Seeking to develop cultural institutions, citizens called for a school to be founded in Louisville. The city government appropriated funds for a new school at Eighth. Much of the Louisville Medical Institutes early faculty came from Transylvania Medical Institute in Lexington, classes at the Louisville Medical Institute began in temporary quarters in fall 1837, eventually moving to a building designed by Kentucky architect Gideon Shryock eight months later. Clinical teaching took part in the wards of Louisville City Hospital, in 1846, by ruling of the Kentucky Legislature, the Louisville Medical Institute became the Medical Department of the newly founded University of Louisville. Many notably physicians and researchers affiliated with the medical department, including Daniel Drake, Charles Wilkins Short, J. Lawrence Smith, Benjamin Silliman. The 1960s saw a period of growth in the University of Louisville Medical Department. University officials began construction of a Health Sciences Center, where health-related study and research would take place, the Health Sciences Center included a 120, 000-square-foot Medical-Dental Research Building, new buildings to house the medical and dental schools, a library, and laboratory buildings. Vice President for health affairs Harold Boyer oversaw state appropriation of funds for the construction of a new teaching hospital, in 1997, the Kentucky General Assembly approved House Bill 1, also known as the Higher Education Reform Act. It included the mandate that the University of Louisville become a premier research university by 2020. There are five hospitals within walking distance of the Health Sciences Center campus, with the VA Hospital 5 minutes away, griswold also developed autotransfusion, the process by which a person receives their own blood for a transfusion rather than banked donor blood. In 1998, Dr. Roberto Bolli led a U of L team that identified a molecule that could protect the heart from ischemic myocardial damage. This group presented its findings to 40,000 cardiologists at the 1998 American Heart Association conference, Dr. Bolli also headed a U of L team that was awarded an $11
18.
Artificial heart
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An artificial heart is a device that replaces the heart. Artificial hearts are used to bridge the time to heart transplantation. An artificial heart is distinct from a ventricular assist device designed to support a failing heart, a synthetic replacement for the heart remains one of the long-sought holy grails of modern medicine. The obvious benefit of an artificial heart would be to lower the need for heart transplants. Although the heart is conceptually a pump, it embodies subtleties that defy straightforward emulation with synthetic materials, consequences of these issues include severe foreign-body rejection and external batteries that limit mobility. These complications limited the lifespan of early human recipients to hours or days, the first artificial heart was made by the Soviet scientist Vladimir Demikhov in 1937. It was transplanted to a dog, on July 3,1952, 41-year-old Henry Opitek, suffering from shortness of breath, made medical history at Harper University Hospital at Wayne State University in Michigan. The Dodrill-GMR heart machine, considered to be the first operational mechanical heart, was used while performing heart surgery. A heart–lung machine was first used in 1953 during an open heart surgery. John Heysham Gibbon, the inventor of the machine, performed the operation, following these advances, scientific interest for the development of a solution for heart disease developed in numerous research groups worldwide. The external pump successfully bypassed the heart of a dog for more than an hour, Paul Winchell invented an artificial heart with the assistance of Henry Heimlich and held the first patent for such a device. The University of Utah developed a similar apparatus around the same time, the university requested that Winchell donate the heart to the University of Utah, which he did. There is some debate as to how much of Winchells design Robert Jarvik used in creating Jarviks artificial heart, Heimlich states, I saw the heart, I saw the patent and I saw the letters. The basic principle used in Winchells heart and Jarviks heart is exactly the same, Jarvik denies that any of Winchells design elements were incorporated into the device he fabricated for humans which was successfully implanted into Barney Clark in 1982. On December 12,1957, Willem Johan Kolff, the worlds most prolific inventor of artificial organs, the dog lived for 90 minutes. In 1958, Domingo Liotta initiated the studies of TAH replacement at Lyon, France and he presented his work at the meeting of the American Society for Artificial Internal Organs held in Atlantic City in March 1961. In 1964, the National Institutes of Health started the Artificial Heart Program, the purpose of the program was to develop an implantable artificial heart, including the power source, to replace a failing heart. In February 1966, Adrian Kantrowitz rose to prominence when he performed the worlds first permanent implantation of a partial mechanical heart at Maimonides Medical Center
19.
Ambulance
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The word is often associated with road going emergency ambulances which form part of an emergency medical service, administering emergency care to those with acute medical problems. The term ambulance does, however, extend to a range of vehicles other than those with flashing warning lights. The term ambulance comes from the Latin word ambulare as meaning to walk or move about which is a reference to medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling. The word originally meant a hospital, which follows an army in its movements. Ambulances were first used for transport in 1487 by the Spanish forces during the siege of Málaga by the Catholic Monarchs against the Emirate of Granada. During the American Civil War vehicles for conveying the wounded off the field of battle were called ambulance wagons, there are other types of ambulance, with the most common being the patient transport ambulance. These vehicles are not usually equipped with equipment, and are usually crewed by staff with fewer qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances. Their purpose is simply to transport patients to, from or between places of treatment, in most countries, these are not equipped with flashing lights or sirens. In some jurisdictions there is a form of the ambulance used, that only carries one member of ambulance crew to the scene to provide care. In these cases a patient who requires transportation to hospital will require an ambulance to attend in addition to the first responder. The history of the ambulance begins in ancient times, with the use of carts to transport incurable patients by force, Ambulances were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish, and civilian variants were put into operation during the 1830s. Advances in technology throughout the 19th and 20th centuries led to the modern self-powered ambulances, Ambulances can be grouped into types depending on whether or not they transport patients, and under what conditions. In some cases, ambulances may fulfil more than one function, Emergency ambulance – The most common type of ambulance, which provide care to patients with an acute illness or injury. These can be road-going vans, boats, helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft or even converted vehicles such as golf carts. Patient transport ambulance – A vehicle, which has the job of transporting patients to and these can be vans, buses or other vehicles. Response units may be backed up by an ambulance which can transport the patient, or may deal with the problem on scene. These can be a variety of vehicles, from standard cars, to modified vans, motorcycles, pedal cycles. These units can function as a vehicle for officers or supervisors, Fire & Rescue services in North America often staff EMTs or Paramedics to their apparatuses to provide medical care without the need to wait for an ambulance
20.
Emergency department
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The emergency department is usually found in a hospital or other primary care center. In some countries, emergency departments have become important entry points for those without means of access to medical care. The emergency departments of most hospitals operate 24 hours a day, griswold also equipped police and fire vehicles with medical supplies and trained officers to give emergency care while en route to the hospital. Today, a hospital has its emergency department in its own section of the ground floor of the grounds. As patients can present at any time and with any complaint, triage is normally the first stage the patient passes through, and consists of a brief assessment, including a set of vital signs, and the assignment of a chief complaint. Most emergency departments have an area for this process to take place. Most patients will be assessed at triage and then passed to another area of the department, or another area of the hospital. Conversely, patients with serious conditions, such as cardiac arrest, will bypass triage altogether. The resuscitation area, commonly referred to as Trauma or Resus, is a key area in most departments, the most seriously ill or injured patients will be dealt with in this area, as it contains the equipment and staff required for dealing with immediately life-threatening illnesses and injuries. Typical resuscitation staffing involves at least one attending physician, and at least one and these personnel may be assigned to the resuscitation area for the entirety of the shift, or may be on call for resuscitation coverage. Examples of majors include chest pain, difficulty breathing, abdominal pain, Advanced diagnostic testing may be conducted at this stage, including laboratory testing of blood and/or urine, ultrasonography, CT or MRI scanning. Medications appropriate to manage the condition will also be given. Depending on underlying causes of the chief complaint, he or she may be discharged home from this area or admitted to the hospital for further treatment. Patients whose condition is not immediately life-threatening will be sent to an area suitable to deal with them, such patients may still have been found to have significant problems, including fractures, dislocations, and lacerations requiring suturing. Children can present particular challenges in treatment, many hospitals have a separate area for evaluation of psychiatric problems. These are often staffed by psychiatrists and mental health nurses and social workers, there is typically at least one room for people who are actively a risk to themselves or others. Fast decisions on life-and-death cases are critical in emergency rooms. As a result, doctors face great pressures to overtest and overtreat, other common variations include emergency ward, emergency centre or emergency unit
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Blood bank
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A blood bank is a center where blood gathered as a result of blood donation is stored and preserved for later use in blood transfusion. The term blood bank typically refers to a division of a hospital where the storage of blood product occurs, however, it sometimes refers to a collection center, and indeed some hospitals also perform collection. For blood donation agencies in countries, see List of blood donation agencies. Whole blood or blood with RBC is transfused to patient with anemia/iron defeciency and it also helps to improve the oxygen saturation in blood. It can be stored at 1. 0°c-6. 0°c for 35-45 days It is transfused to those who suffer from low platelate count and this can be stored at room temperature for 5-7 days. John Braxton Hicks was the first to experiment with methods to prevent the coagulation of blood at St Marys Hospital. His attempts, using phosphate of soda, however, were unsuccessful, the first non-direct transfusion was performed on March 27,1914 by the Belgian doctor Albert Hustin, though this was a diluted solution of blood. The Argentine doctor Luis Agote used a much less diluted solution in November of the same year, both used sodium citrate as an anticoagulant. The First World War acted as a catalyst for the development of blood banks. Canadian Lieutenant Lawrence Bruce Robertson was instrumental in persuading the Royal Army Medical Corps to adopt the use of blood transfusion at the Casualty Clearing Stations for the wounded, in October 1915, Robertson performed his first wartime transfusion with a syringe to a patient suffering from multiple shrapnel wounds. He followed this up with four subsequent transfusions in the months and his success was reported to Sir Walter Morley Fletcher. Robertson went on to establish the first blood transfusion apparatus at a Casualty Clearing Station on the Western Front in the spring of 1917. He used sodium citrate as the anticoagulant and the blood was extracted from punctures in the vein and was stored in bottles at British and he also experimented with preserving separated red blood cells in iced bottles. Geoffrey Keynes, a British surgeon, developed a machine that could store blood to enable transfusions to be carried out more easily. The worlds first blood donor service was established in 1921 by the secretary of the British Red Cross, volunteers were subjected to a series of physical tests to establish their blood group. The London Blood Transfusion Service was free of charge and expanded rapidly, by 1925, it was providing services for almost 500 patients and it was incorporated into the structure of the British Red Cross in 1926. Similar systems were established in cities including Sheffield, Manchester and Norwich. Similar services were established in France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Australia, vladimir Shamov and Sergei Yudin in the USSR pioneered the transfusion of cadaveric blood from recently deceased donors
22.
National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
23.
Neurology
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Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, which is the study of the nervous system. A neurologist is a physician specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, or diagnose, neurologists may also be involved in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research. While neurology is a specialty, its corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery. There is significant overlap between the fields of neurology and psychiatry, with the boundary between the two disciplines and the conditions they treat being somewhat nebulous, a large number of neurological disorders have been described as listed. These can affect the nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system. Many neurologists also have additional training or interest in one area of neurology, such as stroke, epilepsy, neuromuscular, sleep medicine, pain management, in the United States and Canada, neurologists are physicians having completed postgraduate training in neurology after graduation from medical school. Neurologists complete, on average, at least 10–13 years of college education, the four-year residency consists of one year of internal medicine internship training followed by three years of training in neurology. Some neurologists receive additional subspecialty training focusing on an area of neurology. These training programs are called fellowships, and are one to two years in duration, in Germany, a compulsory year of psychiatry must be done to complete a residency of neurology. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine, a generation ago, some neurologists would have also spent a couple of years working in psychiatric units and obtain a Diploma in Psychological Medicine. However, this requirement has become uncommon, and, now that a basic psychiatric qualification takes three years to obtain, the requirement is no longer practical. A period of research is essential, and obtaining a higher degree aids career progression, Many found it was eased after an attachment to the Institute of Neurology at Queen Square, London. Some neurologists enter the field of medicine to specialise in neurological rehabilitation. During a neurological examination, the neurologist reviews the patients history with special attention to the current condition. The patient then takes a neurological exam, typically, the exam tests mental status, function of the cranial nerves, strength, coordination, reflexes, and sensation. This information helps the neurologist determine whether the problem exists in the nervous system, localization of the pathology is the key process by which neurologists develop their differential diagnosis. Further tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis and ultimately guide therapy, neurologists examine patients who are referred to them by other physicians in both the inpatient and outpatient settings
24.
Spinal cord
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The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The spinal cord begins at the bone and extends down to the space between the first and second lumbar vertebrae, it does not extend the entire length of the vertebral column. It is around 45 cm in men and around 43 cm long in women, also, the spinal cord has a varying width, ranging from 13 mm thick in the cervical and lumbar regions to 6.4 mm thick in the thoracic area. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects the relatively shorter spinal cord, the spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. The length of the cord is much shorter as compared to the length of the vertebral column. The human spinal cord extends from the magnum and continues through to the conus medullaris near the second lumbar vertebra. It is about 45 cm long in men and around 43 cm in women, ovoid-shaped, the cervical enlargement, located from C5 to T1 spinal segments, is where sensory input comes from and motor output goes to the arms. The lumbar enlargement, located between L1 and S3 spinal segments, handles input and motor output coming from and going to the legs. The spinal cord is continuous with the portion of the medulla. It does not run the length of the vertebral column in adults. It is made of 31 segments that contain sensory nerve root. The first cervical segment is very small and may be absent in most individuals. Nerve roots merge into 31 bilaterally symmetric pairs of spinal nerves, the peripheral nervous system is made up of these spinal roots, nerves, and ganglia. Dorsal root ganglia hold the bodies of dorsal root ganglia in the spinal ganglia related with that spinal segment. Ventral roots only have efferent fibers that arise from motor neurons whose cell bodies are found in the ventral horns of the spinal cord. The spinal cord are protected by three layers of tissue or membranes called meninges, that surround the canal, the dura mater is the outermost layer, and it forms a tough protective coating. Between the dura mater and the bone of the vertebrae is a space called the epidural space
25.
NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament
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The tournament was created in 1939 by the National Association of Basketball Coaches, and was the idea of Ohio State University coach Harold Olsen. Played mostly during March, it has one of the most famous annual sporting events in the United States. The tournament teams include champions from 32 Division I conferences, and 36 teams which are awarded at-large berths, the 68 teams are divided into four regions and organized into a single-elimination bracket, which pre-determines, when a team wins a game, which team it will face next. Each team is seeded, or ranked, within its region from 1 to 32, after an initial four games between eight lower-ranked teams, the tournament occurs during the course of three weekends, at pre-selected neutral sites across the United States. The Final Four is usually played during the first weekend of April and these four teams, one from each region, compete in a pre-selected location for the national championship. The tournament has been at least partially televised since 1969, currently, the games are broadcast by CBS, TBS, TNT, and truTV under the trade-name NCAA March Madness. Since 2011, all games are available for viewing nationwide and internationally, such as in the Philippines, as television coverage has grown, so too has the tournaments popularity. Currently, millions of Americans fill out a bracket, attempting to predict the outcome of all 67 games of the tournament. With 11 national titles, UCLA has the record for the most NCAA Mens Division I Basketball Championships, the University of Kentucky is second, with eight national titles. The University of North Carolina is in place, with six titles, while Duke University. The University of Connecticut is sixth with four national titles, the University of Kansas and University of Louisville are tied with three championships. During that time Villanova, Michigan, UNLV, Duke, Arkansas, Arizona, Connecticut, Maryland, Syracuse, the NCAA has changed the tournament format several times since its inception, most often representing an increase of the number of teams. This section describes the tournament as it has operated since 2011, for changes during the course of its history, and to see how the tournament operated during past years, go to Format history, below. A total of 68 teams qualify for the tournament played during March, thirty-two teams earn automatic bids as their respective conference champions. Of the 32 Division I all-sports conferences, all 32 currently hold championship tournaments to determine which team receives the automatic qualification. The Ivy League was the last Division I conference that did not conduct a tournament, through the 2015–16 season, if two or more Ivies shared a regular-season championship, a one-game playoff was used to decide the tournament participant. Since 2017, the league conducts their own postseason tournament, the committee also determines where all sixty-eight teams are seeded and placed in the bracket. The tournament is divided into four regions and each region has at least sixteen teams, the committee is charged with making each of the four regions as close as possible in overall quality of teams from wherever they come from
26.
Bowl Championship Series
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The system was in place for the 1998 through 2013 seasons and in 2014 was replaced by the College Football Playoff. The BCS was created to end split championships and for the champion to win the title on the field between the two selected by the BCS. The system also selected match-ups for four other prestigious BCS bowl games, the ten teams selected included the conference champion from each of the six Automatic Qualifying conferences plus four others. The BCS was created by agreement by those six conferences. For the 1998 through 2005 seasons eight teams competed in four BCS bowls and it had been in place since the 1998 season. The BCS replaced the Bowl Alliance, in place from 1995 to 1997, prior to the Bowl Coalitions creation in 1992, the AP Polls number one and two teams had met in a bowl game only 8 times in 56 seasons. The APs top two teams met 13 out of the 16 seasons the BCS was in place, in the 2014 season, the BCS was discontinued and replaced by the College Football Playoff, which organizes a four-team playoff and national championship game. The NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision is the only NCAA-sponsored sport without an officially organized NCAA tournament to determine its champion, instead, the postseason has historically consisted of individual bowl games. The bowl system began in 1902 with the first ever East-West game in Pasadena, California and this game was an exhibition game pitting a highly rated team from the west coast against a team from east of the Mississippi River. This was a time for a postseason game, as fans could take off work or school during this holiday period to travel to the game. In the first game, the University of Michigan Wolverines represented the east, due to the lopsided victory the game did not resume until 1916. The game was renamed the Rose Bowl in the 1920s when play shifted to the Rose Bowl stadium, by the 1930s, the Cotton Bowl Classic, Orange Bowl, and the Sugar Bowl were also held on January 1 to showcase teams from other regions of the country. By the 1940s, college football conferences began signing contracts that tied their team to a particular bowl. This system raised the possibility that the two top-ranked teams in the poll would not play each other in a bowl game. Under these circumstances, it was not uncommon to have the Coaches Poll crown a different national champion than the AP Poll and this situation arose a total of ten different seasons before BCS was formed. For example, in 1991, the University of Miami Hurricanes, since the Huskies were locked into the Rose Bowl as the Pac-10 Conference champion against Big Ten champion Michigan, they could not play then-independent Miami, who played in the Orange Bowl. Both teams won their bowl games convincingly and shared the championship, Miami winning the Associated Press poll. A split national championship has happened on occasions since then as well
27.
Orange Bowl
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The Orange Bowl is an annual American college football bowl game played at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. This bowl game is sponsored by Capital One and part of the College Football Playoff and it has been played annually since January 1,1935. The Orange Bowl, along with the Sugar Bowl and the Sun Bowl, is the second-oldest bowl game in the country, behind the Rose Bowl. In its early years, the Orange Bowl had no defined conference tie-ins, from the 1950s until the mid-1990s, the Orange Bowl had a strong relationship with the Big 8 Conference. The champion was invited to the game in most years during this time. Opponents of the Big 8 varied, but were often major independents, runners-up in the Southeastern Conference, in the 1990s, the Orange Bowl was a member of the Bowl Coalition, but kept its Big 8 tie-in. It was later a member of the Bowl Alliance, from 1998 to 2013, The Orange Bowl was a member of the now-defunct Bowl Championship Series. The Orange Bowl served as the BCS National Championship Game in 2001 and 2005, however, beginning with the 2006 season, the BCS National Championship Game became a stand-alone event, hosted by the local bowl organization about one week following the New Years Day bowl games. Under that format the Orange Bowl Committee hosted two games in both 2009 and in 2013, all at Sun Life Stadium. The BCS ended after the 2013 season, being replaced by the current College Football Playoff, since 2007, the Orange Bowl has been host to the Atlantic Coast Conference champion unless they are involved in the national championship game and has used the brand Home of the ACC Champion. The 2013 match-up ended with the Florida State Seminoles, who won the ACC championship and this was the first time a non-AQ team that had suffered a loss previously in the season made it to the Orange Bowl. In 1890, Pasadena, California held its first Tournament of Roses Parade to showcase the citys mild weather compared to the winters in northern cities. As one of the said, In New York, people are buried in snow. Here, our flowers are blooming and our oranges are about to bear, lets hold a festival to tell the world about our paradise. In 1902, the festival was enhanced by adding an American football game. In 1926, leaders in Miami, Florida, decided to do the same with a Fiesta of the American Tropics that was centered around a New Years Day football game. Although a second Fiesta was never held, Miami leaders- Earnest E Seiler, later revived the idea with the Palm Festival, in 1932, George E. Hussey, official greeter of Miami, organized the first Festival of Palms Bowl, a predecessor of the Orange Bowl. With Miami suffering from both the Great Depression and the preceding Florida land bust, Hussey and other Miamians sought to help its economy by organizing a similar to Pasadenas Rose Bowl
28.
Sugar Bowl
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The Sugar Bowl is an annual American college football bowl game played in the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. The Sugar Bowl has been played annually since January 1,1935, the Sugar Bowl, along with the Orange Bowl and Sun Bowl, are the second-oldest bowl games in the country, behind the Rose Bowl Game. The Sugar Bowl is also a member of the College Football Playoff, presently, its official title is the Allstate Sugar Bowl after its current sponsor, the Allstate insurance company. The Sugar Bowl has had a longstanding — albeit not exclusive — relationship with the Southeastern Conference, from 1950 to 1995, only once did the Sugar Bowl not feature an SEC team. The SECs opponent varied from year to year, but was often the runner-up of the Big 8 or SWC, or a major independent. Since 2015, The Sugar Bowl, along with the Rose, Orange, Cotton, Peach and it hosted a playoff semifinal following the 2014 season, and will next host one following the 2017 season. As a member of the Bowl Championship Series, the Sugar Bowl hosted the BCS National Championship Game twice. However, from the 2006 season to the 2013 season, the BCS National Championship Game had been a stand-alone event, the payout for the 2006 game was $14–17 million per participating team. According to Sports Illustrated, the 2007 salary for Sugar Bowl CEO Paul Hoolahan was $607,500, in 1890, Pasadena, California held its first Tournament of Roses Parade to showcase the citys mild weather compared to the harsh winters in northern cities. As one of the said, In New York, people are buried in snow. Here, our flowers are blooming and our oranges are about to bear, lets hold a festival to tell the world about our paradise. In 1902, the festival was enhanced by adding a football game. In 1926, leaders in Miami, Florida decided to do the same with a Fiesta of the American Tropics that was centered around a New Years Day football game, although a second Fiesta was never held, Miami leaders later revived the idea with the Palm Festival. The football game and associated festivities of the Palm Festival were soon named the Orange Bowl. In New Orleans, Louisiana, the idea of a New Years Day football game was first presented in 1927 by Colonel James M. Thomson, publisher of the New Orleans Item, and Sports Editor Fred Digby. Every year thereafter, Digby repeated calls for action, and even came up with the name Sugar Bowl for his football game. By 1935, enough support had been garnered for the first Sugar Bowl, the game was played in Tulane Stadium, which had been built in 1926 on Tulane Universitys campus. Warren V. Miller, the first president of the New Orleans Mid-Winter Sports Association, much controversy preceded the 1956 Sugar Bowl, when Bobby Griers Pitt Panthers met the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets
29.
College World Series
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The College World Series, or CWS, is an annual June baseball tournament held in Omaha, Nebraska. The CWS is the culmination of the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Baseball Championship series, the eight participating teams are split into two, four-team, double-elimination brackets with the winners of each bracket playing in a best-of-three championship series. Since 1950, the College World Series has been held in Omaha and it was held at Rosenblatt Stadium from 1950 through 2010, starting in 2011, it has been held at TD Ameritrade Park Omaha. Earlier tournaments were held at Hyames Field in Kalamazoo, Michigan and Wichita, the name College World Series is derived from that of the Major League Baseball World Series championship, it is currently an MLB trademark licensed to the NCAA. A memorandum of understanding had been reached by all parties on April 30, the currently binding contract began in 2011, the same year the tournament moved from Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium to TD Ameritrade Park Omaha, a new ballpark across from CenturyLink Center Omaha. 1947 – Eight teams were divided into two, four-team, single-elimination playoffs, the two winners then met in a best-of-three final in Kalamazoo, Michigan. 1948 – Similar to 1947, but the two, four-team playoffs were changed to double-elimination tournaments, again in the finals, the two winners met in a best-of-three format in Kalamazoo. 1949 – The final was expanded to a four-team, double-elimination format, Eight teams began the playoffs with the four finalists decided by a best-of-three district format. 1950–1987 – An eight-team, double-elimination format for the College World Series coincided with the move to Omaha in 1950, 1950–1953, a baseball committee chose one team from each of the eight NCAA districts to compete at the CWS. Through 1987 the College World Series was a pure double-elimination event and that ended with the 1987 College World Series. The single-game championship was designed for television, with the final game on CBS on a Saturday afternoon. Before expanding to 64 teams in 1999, the Division I tournament began with 48 teams, the winner of each regional advanced to the College World Series. The regionals were a test of endurance, as teams had to win at least four games over four days, sometimes five if a team dropped into the losers bracket, placing a premium on pitching. 1999–2002 – With some 293 Division I teams playing, the NCAA expanded the tournament to a 64-team Regional field in 1999, with 8 National Seed teams. The winners of each of the 16 Regionals advanced to 8 two-team, the 8 Super Regional winners advanced to the CWS in Omaha. While the CWS format remained the same, the field meant that eight Super Regional champions would advance. The 64-team bracket is set at the beginning of the championship, since the 1999 College World Series, the four-team brackets in the CWS have been determined by the results of regional and super-regional play, much like the NCAA basketball tournament. Prior to 1999, the pairings for the CWS were not determined until after the completion of the regional tournaments, 2003–present – The championship final became a best-of-three series between the two four-team bracket winners, with games scheduled for Saturday, Sunday, and Monday evenings
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Fundraising
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Fundraising is a significant way that non-profit organizations may obtain the money for their operations. Many non-profit organizations take advantage of the services of professional fundraisers and these fundraisers may be paid for their services either through fees unrelated to the amounts of money to be raised, or by retaining a percentage of raised funds. The latter approach is expressly forbidden under the Code of Ethics of the Association of Fundraising Professionals, however, by far the most common practice of American non-profits is to employ a staff person whose main responsibility is fund raising. This person is paid a salary like any employee, and is usually a part of the top management staff of the organization. Some non-profit organizations nonetheless engage fundraisers who are paid a percentage of the funds they raise, in the United States, this ratio of funds retained to funds passed on to the non-profit is subject to reporting to a number of states Attorneys General or Secretaries of state. This ratio is variable and subject to change over time and place. Although potentially confusing, the distinction is an important one to note, the CFRE credential is administered by CFRE International, an independent 5016 whose sole mission is dedicated to setting standards in philanthropy through a valid and reliable certification process. A specialty within the profession is the grant professional. Grant professionals with at least three years experience, and other requirements, can become certified as Grant Professional Certified, equally important are fundraising efforts by virtually every recognized religious group throughout the world. These efforts are organized on a local, national, and global level, sometimes, such funds will go exclusively toward assisting the basic needs of others, while money may at other times be used only for evangelism or proselytism. Usually, religious organizations mix the two, which can cause tension. Fundraising also plays a role in political campaigns. This fact, despite numerous campaign finance laws, continues to be a highly controversial topic in American politics. Political action committees are the organizations that back candidates and political parties. Some advocacy organizations conduct fundraising for-or-against policy issues in an attempt to influence legislation, while public broadcasters are completely government-funded in much of the world, there are many countries where some funds must come from donations from the public. In the United States less than 15% of local broadcasting stations funding comes from the federal government. Pledge drives, a type of annual giving, commonly occur three times each year, usually lasting one to two weeks each time. Viewership and listenership often declines significantly during funding periods, so special programming may be aired in order to regular viewers and listeners interested
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City council
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A city council, town council, town board, or board of aldermen is the legislative body that governs a city, town, municipality or local government area. Because of the differences in legislation between the states, the definition of a City Council varies. However, it is only those local government areas which have been specifically granted city status that are entitled to refer to themselves as cities. The official title is Corporation of the City of ------ or similar, some of the larger urban areas of Australia are governed mostly by a single entity, while others may be controlled by a multitude of much smaller city councils. Also some significant urban areas can be under the jurisdiction of rural local governments. Periodic re-alignments of boundaries attempt to rationalize these situations and adjust the deployment of assets, the 2001 Local Government Act restyled the five county boroughs of Dublin, Cork, Galway, Waterford, and Limerick as city councils, with the same status in law as county councils. For many decades until the government reforms of 1989, a borough with more than 20,000 people could be proclaimed a city. The boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, as a result, the term city began to take on two meanings. The word city came to be used in a formal sense to describe major urban areas independent of local body boundaries. This informal usage is jealously guarded, gisborne, for example, adamantly described itself as the first city in the world to see the new millennium. Gisborne is administered by a council, but its status as a city is not generally disputed. Under the current law the minimum population for a new city is 50,000, in the Republic of China, a city council represents a provincial city. Members of the councils are elected through local elections for provincial cities which are held every 4–5 years, Councils for the provincial cities in Taiwan are Chiayi City Council, Hsinchu City Council and Keelung City Council. In the UK, a city council is, In England, a parish council that has been granted city status. The council of a London borough that has been granted city status, in Wales, The council of a principal area that has been granted city status. A community council that has been granted city status, in Scotland, The council of one of four council areas designated a City by the Local Government etc. City councils and town boards generally consist of elected aldermen or councillors. In the United States, members of city councils are typically called council member or council man/woman, while in Canada they are typically called councillor
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Charles Caldwell (physician)
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Charles Caldwell was a noted 19th-century U. S. physician who is best known for starting what would become the University of Louisville School of Medicine. Charles Caldwell was born on May 14,1772 in Caswell County, Caldwell earned an M. D. from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1796 while studying under Benjamin Rush. Caldwell practiced medicine in Philadelphia and was a lecturer at his alma mater and he also edited the Port Folio and published over 200 medical publications. Caldwell was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815, a significant number of copies of Caldwells 18th and 19th century publications, including copies of the Port folio, survive in the collections of the AAS. Other institutions holding copies of Caldwells publications include the United States National Library of Medicine. In 1819, Caldwell left Philadelphia to join the medical school at Lexington, Kentuckys Transylvania University. In 1821, he convinced the Kentucky General Assembly to purchase $10,000 worth of science and medical books from France, despite his success, his abrasive and arrogant temperament created enemies at Transylvania. The universitys medical program would soon afterwards. The school dismissed him in 1837, and he traveled with several colleagues to Louisville. As at Transylvania, he made the new school an instant success, however, he was forced out in 1849 due to a personal rivalry with Lunsford Yandell. Caldwell was one of the earliest supporters of polygenism in America, Caldwell died on July 9,1853, Louisville, Kentucky. An attempt to establish the original sameness of three phenomena of fever A semi-annual oration, on the origin of pestilential diseases An eulogium to the memory of Dr. D. D
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Lexington, Kentucky
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Lexington, consolidated with Fayette County, is the second-largest city in Kentucky and the 61st largest in the United States. Known as the Horse Capital of the World, it is the heart of the states Bluegrass region, with a mayor-alderman form of government, it is one of two cities in Kentucky designated by the state as first-class, the other is the states largest city of Louisville. In the 2016 U. S. Census Estimate, the population was 318,449, anchoring a metropolitan area of 506,751 people. Lexington ranks tenth among US cities in college education rate, with 39. 5% of residents having at least a bachelors degree and this area of fertile soil and abundant wildlife was long occupied by varying tribes of Native Americans. European explorers began to trade with them but settlers did not come in force until the late 18th century, Lexington was founded by European Americans in June 1775, in what was then considered Fincastle County, Virginia,17 years before Kentucky became a state. A party of frontiersmen, led by William McConnell, camped on the Middle Fork of Elkhorn Creek at the site of the present-day McConnell Springs, upon hearing of the colonists victory in the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, they named their campsite Lexington. It was the first of what would be many American places to be named after the Massachusetts town, the risk of Indian attacks delayed permanent settlement for four years. In 1779, during the American Revolutionary War, Col. Robert Patterson and 25 companions came from Fort Harrod and they built cabins and a stockade, establishing a settlement known as Bryan Station. In 1780, Lexington was made the seat of Virginias newly organized Fayette County, colonists defended it against a British and allied Shawnee attack in 1782, during the last part of the American Revolutionary War. The town was chartered on May 6,1782, by an act of the Virginia General Assembly, the First African Baptist Church was founded c. 1790 by Peter Durrett, a Baptist preacher and slave held by Joseph Craig. Durrett helped guide The Travelling Church, a migration of several hundred pioneers led by the preacher Lewis Craig and Captain William Ellis from Orange County. It is the oldest black Baptist congregation in Kentucky and the third oldest in the United States, I would suppose it contains about five hundred dwelling houses, many of them elegant and three stories high. The country around Lexington for many miles in every direction, is equal in beauty and fertility to anything the imagination can paint and is already in a state of cultivation. Residents have fondly continued to refer to Lexington as The Athens of the West since Espys poem dedicated to the city, in the early 19th century, planter John Wesley Hunt became the first millionaire west of the Alleghenies. London Ferrill, second preacher of First African Baptist, was one of three clergy who stayed in the city to serve the suffering victims, additional cholera outbreaks occurred in 1848–49 and the early 1850s. Cholera was spread by using contaminated water supplies, but its transmission was not understood in those years. Often the wealthier people would flee town for outlying areas to try to avoid the spread of disease, planters held slaves for use as field hands, laborers, artisans, and domestic servants. In the city, slaves worked primarily as servants and artisans, although they also worked with merchants, shippers
34.
Transylvania University
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Transylvania University is a private university in Lexington, Kentucky, United States. It was founded in 1780, making it the first university in Kentucky and it offers 36 major programs, as well as dual-degree engineering programs, and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Its medical program graduated 8,000 physicians by 1859 and its enduring footprint, both in national and southern academia, make it among the most prolific cultural establishments and the most storied institutions in the South. Transylvania was the first college west of the Allegheny Mountains, and was the namesake of the Colony of Transylvania, Latin for across the woods, Thomas Jefferson was governor of Virginia when the Virginia Assembly chartered Transylvania Seminary in 1780. Called Transylvania University by 1799, its first sponsor was the Christ Episcopal Churchs rector, the school later became affiliated with the Presbyterian Church. Originally situated in a log cabin in Boyle County, Kentucky, the first site in Lexington was a single building in what is now the historic Gratz Park. By 1818, a new building was constructed for students classes. Later, in 1829, that burned, and the school was moved to its present location north of Third Street. Old Morrison, the campus building at the time, was constructed 1830–34, under the supervision of Henry Clay. After 1818, the university included a school, a law school, a divinity school. This school was not affiliated with the modern University of Kentucky, founded by Baptist churches in Kentucky, Bacon College operated from 1837 to 1851. It was also distinct from nearby Georgetown College, another Baptist-supported institution and this school closed in 1860 and its Harrodsburg building burned in 1864. By mutual agreement and an act of the legislature the college was merged with Transylvania University in 1865. It attracted many politically ambitious young men including Stephen F. Austin, following the devastating Civil War, Kentucky University was hit by a major fire, and both it and Transylvania University were left in dire financial straits. In 1865, both institutions secured permission to merge, the new institution used Transylvanias campus in Lexington while perpetuating the Kentucky University name. However, due to questions regarding having a federally funded land-grant college controlled by a religious body, the A&M of Kentucky soon developed into one of the states flagship public universities, the University of Kentucky. Kentucky Universitys College of the Bible, which traced its roots to Bacon Colleges Department of Hebrew Literature, Transylvanias seminary eventually became a separate institution, but remained housed on the Kentucky University campus until 1950. It later changed its name to the Lexington Theological Seminary, in 1903, Hamilton College, a Lexington-based womens college founded in 1869, merged into Kentucky University
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Medical school
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A medical school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches medicine, and awards a professional degree for physicians and surgeons. Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Doctor of Medicine, many medical schools offer additional degrees, such as a Doctor of Philosophy, Masters degree, a physician assistant program, or other post-secondary education. Medical schools can also employ medical researchers and operate hospitals, around the world, criteria, structure, teaching methodology, and nature of medical programs offered at medical schools vary considerably. Medical schools are highly competitive, using standardized entrance examinations, as well as grade point average and leadership roles. In most countries, the study of medicine is completed as a degree not requiring prerequisite undergraduate coursework. However, a number of places are emerging for graduate entrants who have completed an undergraduate degree including some required courses. In the United States and Canada, almost all medical degrees are second entry degrees, many modern medical schools integrate clinical education with basic sciences from the beginning of the curriculum. More traditional curricula are usually divided into preclinical and clinical blocks, in preclinical sciences, students study subjects such as biochemistry, genetics, pharmacology, pathology, anatomy, physiology and medical microbiology, among others. Subsequent clinical rotations usually include internal medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, psychiatry, although medical schools confer upon graduates a medical degree, a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensing may also require passing a test, undergoing a background check, checking references, paying a fee. Basic Medical education lasts 6 years in all the medical schools, Entry into these medical schools are highly competitive and it is usually based on successful completion of the Senior High School Examinations. The University of Ghana Medical School has however introduced a graduate medical program to admit students with mainly science-related degrees into a 4-year medical school program. Students graduating from any of these schools get the MBChB degree. For the First 3 years Students are awarded BSc in the field of Medical science for University of Ghana medical school, Medical graduates are then registered provisionally with the Medical and Dental Council of Ghana as House Officers. Upon completion of the mandatory 2-year housemanship, these doctors are permanently registered with the MDC. Medical officers are sometimes hired by the Ghana Health Service to work in the Districts/Rural areas as Primary Care Physicians. In Kenya, medical school is a faculty of a university, Medical education lasts for 5 years after which the student graduates with an undergraduate degree. The first two years of medical school cover the medical sciences while the last four years are focused on the clinical sciences
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Collegiate institute
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A collegiate institute is a school either of secondary education or higher education. The definition varies regionally, and has been largely unused outside of Canada since the early 20th century, in Canada, collegiate institute has a specific meaning. In 1871, the province of Ontario set up two parallel secondary education systems, at this time Galt Collegiate Institute was the first, and one of only six schools in Ontario to have the name and privileges of being called a Collegiate Institute. Collegiate institutes offered arts and humanities education, including Greek and Latin, high schools offered vocational and science programs for those planning to enter the workforce upon graduation. This system was adopted by other provinces including Manitoba, Alberta. It was quite quickly realized that this division did not work very well, over time, high schools responded to students needs and increasingly offered the arts courses that were essential for the workforce. At the same time, as universities began teaching science and engineering, within a decade, the distinctions between the two systems were greatly blurred, and eventually the two systems were merged in to a single secondary school system. Most new Ontario schools were then on named either high schools or secondary schools. In most cities, the oldest and most established high schools are known as collegiate institutes. Most cities in Ontario have a collegiate institute near the centre, in some cases, a more academic focus has been retained, and collegiate institutes are thus sometimes regarded as better than standard high schools. In the case of Marc Garneau Collegiate Institute, Macleans magazine ranked it as the top school in Canada due to its TOPS Program. Almost every high school in the city of Toronto is a collegiate institute, contrasting the city, secondary schools in suburban Greater Toronto use a variety of titles. In western Canada, far fewer schools are known as collegiate institutes, outside of Saskatoon, some remain such as Lethbridge Collegiate Institute in Lethbridge, Alberta, and Mennonite Brethren Collegiate Institute in Winnipeg, Manitoba. In the United States, the term has fallen into disuse. Collegiate institutes in the United States were, for the most part, colleges, but the definition of a college in the U. S. also differs from that of other countries, and has been primarily based on the liberal arts college model of higher education
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University of Louisville Belknap Campus
