1.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
2.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
3.
Universities in the United Kingdom
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Universities in the United Kingdom have generally been instituted by Royal Charter, Papal Bull, Act of Parliament or an instrument of government under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. For new public universities, approval is required from the Privy Council, the exact criteria for University title vary between the four countries of the United Kingdom. These include a number of institutions that feature regularly in the tables of the worlds top universities, such as UCL. The central co-ordinating bodies for universities in the United Kingdom is Universities UK, Universities in Britain date back to the dawn of mediaeval studium generale, with Oxford and Cambridge taking their place among the worlds oldest universities. No other universities were founded in England during this period, opposition from Oxford and Cambridge blocked attempts to establish universities in Northampton. Medical schools in London, though not a university in its own right, were among the first to provide medical teachings in England, in Scotland, St Andrews, Glasgow and Kings College, Aberdeen were founded by Papal Bull. Post-Reformation, these were joined by Edinburgh, Marischal College, Aberdeen, gresham College was, however, established in London in the late 16th century, despite concerns expressed by Cambridge. In Ireland, Trinity College Dublin was founded as the mother of a University by a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth, the 18th century saw the establishment of medical schools at Edinburgh and Glasgow universities and at hospitals in London. A number of dissenting academies were also established, but the next attempt to found a university did not come until the Andersonian Institute was established in Glasgow in 1798. The French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic wars led to over 40% of universities in Europe closing, from 153 universities in 1789, numbers fell to only 83 in 1815. The next quarter century saw a rebound, with 15 new universities founded, by then, the higher education revolution was well under way. This would, however, have required government support, the opinion of Robert Peel – cabinet minister and MP for Oxford University – was sought, and he advised against proceeding. This period also saw the establishment of Mechanics Institutes in a number of cities, many others would eventually become polytechnics and then, in 1992, universities. Very soon after news of the York scheme broke, Thomas Campbell wrote to The Times proposing a university be founded in London and this would become UCL, founded in 1826 as a joint stock company under the name of London University. This became Kings College London, granted a charter in 1829 –. Neither of the Colleges was residential – a break from the two ancient English universities, although non-residential universities were the norm in Scotland, Cambridge voted to petition the King not to allow the awarding of degrees with the same name as theirs or Oxfords. Then, later in 1831, a plan was announced to found a university in Durham, greys government supported the bill to establish the university, despite it limiting its degrees to Anglicans. Thus the University of Durham was established by Act of Parliament in 1832, in 1836 it pioneered the system of external examiners for its final degree examinations, bringing in Oxford academics to ensure the same standards
4.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
5.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
6.
Jackie Kay
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Jackie Kay MBE FRSE is a Scottish poet and novelist. She is the third modern Makar, the Scottish poet laureate, Jackie Kay was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1961 to a Scottish mother and a Nigerian father. They adopted Jackie in 1961 having already adopted her brother, Maxwell, Jackie and Maxwell also have siblings who were brought up by their biological parents. Her adoptive father worked for the Communist Party full-time and stood for Member of Parliament, in August 2007, Jackie Kay was the subject of the fourth episode of the BBC Radio 4 series The House I Grew Up In, in which she talked about her childhood. Kay writes extensively for stage, screen and for children and her drama The Lamplighter is an exploration of the Atlantic slave trade. It was broadcast on BBC Radio 3 in March 2007 and published in form in 2008. In 2010 she published Red Dust Road, an account of her search for her biological parents and she had a 15-year relationship with poet Carol Ann Duffy. Jackie Kay was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire on 17 June 2006 and she is currently Professor of Creative Writing at Newcastle University, and Cultural Fellow at Glasgow Caledonian University. She took part in the Bush Theatres 2011 project Sixty-Six Books, in October 2014, it was announced that she had been appointed as the Chancellor of the University of Salford, and that she would be the universitys Writer in Residence from 1 January 2015. In March 2016, it was announced that Kay would be taking up the position of Scots Makar, succeeding Liz Lochhead, whose tenure ended in January 2016
7.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
8.
City of Salford
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The City of Salford is a city and metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, England. The city has a population of 218,000, and is administered from the Salford Civic Centre in Swinton, the current city boundaries were set as part of the provisions of the Local Government Act 1972, and cover an amalgamation of five former local government districts. It is bounded on the south east by the River Irwell, which forms its boundary with the city of Manchester and by the Manchester Ship Canal to the south, the metropolitan boroughs of Wigan, Bolton and Bury lie to the west, northwest and north respectively. Some parts of the city, which lies directly west of Manchester, are highly industrialised and densely populated and this is because the western half of the city stretches across an ancient peat bog known as Chat Moss. Salford has a history of human activity stretching back to the Neolithic age, there are over 250 listed buildings in the city, including Salford Cathedral, and three Scheduled Ancient Monuments. With the Industrial Revolution, Salford and its neighbours grew along with its textile industry, the former County Borough of Salford was granted city status in 1926. The city and its industries experienced decline throughout much of the 20th century, since the 1990s, parts of Salford have undergone regeneration, especially Salford Quays, home of BBC North and Granada Television, and the area around the University of Salford. Salford Red Devils are a rugby league club in Super League. Although the metropolitan borough of the City of Salford was a 20th-century creation, Neolithic flint arrow-heads and tools, and evidence of Bronze Age activity has been discovered in Salford. In 1142, a cell and priory dedicated to St. Leonard was established in Kersal, Salford became a free borough in about 1230, when it was granted a charter as a free borough by the Earl Ranulph of Chester. The cell in Kersal was sold in 1540 during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, a 16th-century manor house, called Kersal Cell, was built on the site of the priory. In the English Civil War between King Charles I and parliament, Salford was Royalist, during the Industrial Revolution, Salford grew as a result of the textile industry. Although Salford experienced an increase in population, it was overshadowed by the dominance of Manchester, on 15 September 1830, Eccles was site of the worlds first railway accident. Although Huskisson was taken to Eccles for treatment he died of his injuries, in 1894, the Manchester Ship Canal was opened, running from the River Mersey to Salford Quays, when it was complete it was the largest navigation canal in the world. Along the route of the canal, it was necessary to create an aqueduct carrying the Bridgewater Canal over the Ship Canal, the Barton Swing Aqueduct, designed by Sir Edward Leader Williams, is 100 metres long and weighs 1,450 metric tons. At the start of the 20th century, Salford began to due to competition from outside the UK. A survey in 1931 concluded that parts of Salford were amongst the worst slums in the country, Salford was granted city status in 1926. During World War II, Salford Docks were regularly bombed, in the decades following the Second World War there was a significant economic and population decline in Salford
9.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
10.
Park
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A park is an area of natural, semi-natural, or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. It may consist of areas, rocks, soil, and trees. In North America, many parks have fields for playing such as soccer, baseball and football. Many parks have trails for walking, biking and other activities, some parks are built adjacent to bodies of water or watercourses and may comprise a beach or boat dock area. Often, the smallest parks are in areas, where a park may take up only a city block or less. Urban parks often have benches for sitting and may contain picnic tables, the largest parks can be vast natural areas of hundreds of thousands of square kilometres, with abundant wildlife and natural features such as mountains and rivers. In many large parks, camping in tents is allowed with a permit, many natural parks are protected by law, and users may have to follow restrictions. Large national and sub-national parks are typically overseen by a ranger or a park warden. Large parks may have areas for canoeing and hiking in the months and, in some northern hemisphere countries. The first parks were English deer parks, land set aside for hunting by royalty and they had walls or thick hedges around them to keep game animals in and people out. It was strictly forbidden for commoners to hunt animals in these deer parks and these game preserves evolved into landscaped parks set around mansions and country houses from the sixteenth century onwards. These may have served as hunting grounds but they also proclaimed the owners wealth, an aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home parks where the natural landscape was enhanced by landscape architects such as Capability Brown. As cities became crowded, the hunting grounds became places for the public. With the Industrial revolution parks took on a new meaning as areas set aside to preserve a sense of nature in the cities, sporting activity came to be a major use for these urban parks. Areas of outstanding natural beauty were also set aside as national parks to prevent their being spoiled by uncontrolled development, in some parks or time periods with high pollen counts, parks tend to be avoided. Park design is influenced by the purpose and audience, as well as by the available land features. A park intended to provide recreation for children may include a playground, a park primarily intended for adults may feature walking paths and decorative landscaping. Specific features, such as riding trails, may be included to support specific activities, the design of a park may determine who is willing to use it
11.
University Alliance
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University Alliance is an association of British universities which was formed in 2006 as the Alliance of Non-Aligned Universities, adopting its current name in 2007. Alliance institutions educate more than a quarter of students in the UK, including 27% of those on STEM courses and they deliver 40% of the UK’s sandwich degrees and maintain links with 19,000 businesses, including 13,000 SMEs. It is the only UK university association or grouping which is above benchmark on both access and retention of students, a large proportion of courses offered by Alliance universities are accredited by professional bodies. In 2015, University Alliance launched the Doctoral Training Alliance, the UKs largest multi-partner doctoral training programme building on its members research strengths, the initial programme in applied biosciences for health was followed in 2016 with a second programme, focused on energy. University Alliance has put forward proposals on lifelong learning, calling on the government to take steps to ensure people can benefit from opportunities at all stages of life. Its policy work has focused on the role of universities in supporting the UK’s industrial strategy and nurturing arts, culture. The association is headed by the Chair, Deputy Chair and the Treasurer who are elected, operational running on a daily business is overseen by the Chief Executive
12.
Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
13.
Salford, Greater Manchester
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Salford is a town lying at the heart of the City of Salford, a city and metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, in North West England. Salford is sited in a meander of the River Irwell, which forms in part its boundary with the city of Manchester to the east, the Salford wards of Broughton and Kersal are on the other side of the river. Together with its towns to the west, Salford forms the local government district of the City of Salford. The wider City of Salford district has a population of 219,200, historically in Lancashire, Salfords early history is marked by its status as a Royal caput and the judicial seat of the ancient hundred of Salfordshire, to which it lent its name. It was granted a charter by Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester, in about 1230, Salford became a major factory town and inland port during the 18th and 19th centuries. Cotton and silk spinning and weaving in local mills attracted an influx of families, Salford Docks was a principal dockyard of the Manchester Ship Canal. By the end of the 19th century Salford had a working class community. Industrial activities declined during the 20th century however, causing an economic depression. Salford subsequently became one of contrasts, with regenerated inner-city areas like Salford Quays next to some of the most socially deprived, Salfords MediaCityUK became the headquarters of CBBC and BBC Sport in 2011. The name of Salford derives from the Old English word Sealhford and it referred to the willows or sallows that grew alongside the banks of the River Irwell. The ford was about where Victoria Bridge is today, willow trees are still found in Lower Broughton. Salford appears in the roll of 1169 as Sauford and in the Lancashire Inquisitions of 1226 as Sainford. The raw material for tools was scarce and unsuitable for working. The Brigantes were the major Celtic tribe in what is now Northern England, following the Roman conquest of Britain, General Agricola ordered the construction of a Roman fort named Mamucium to protect the routes to Deva Victrix and Eboracum from the Brigantes. The fort was completed in AD79, and for over 300 years the Pax Romana brought peace to the area. Both the main Roman road to the north, from Mamucium to Ribchester, and a road to the west, ran through what is now Salford. The withdrawal of the Romans in AD410 left the inhabitants at the mercy of the Saxons, the Danes later conquered the area and absorbed what was left of the Brigantes. Angles settled in the region during the Early Middle Ages and gave the locality the name Sealhford, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Sealhford was part of the Kingdom of Northumbria until it was conquered in 923 by Edward the Elder
14.
Greater Manchester
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Greater Manchester is a metropolitan county in North West England, with a population of 2.8 million. Greater Manchester was created on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Local Government Act 1972, Greater Manchester spans 493 square miles, which roughly covers the territory of the Greater Manchester Built-up Area, the second most populous urban area in the UK. It is landlocked and borders Cheshire, Derbyshire, West Yorkshire, Lancashire, for the 12 years following 1974 the county had a two-tier system of local government, district councils shared power with the Greater Manchester County Council. The county council was abolished in 1986, and so its districts became unitary authority areas. However, the county has continued to exist in law and as a geographic frame of reference, and as a ceremonial county, has a Lord Lieutenant. A further devolution of powers to Greater Manchester is set to place upon the election of the inaugural Mayor of Greater Manchester scheduled for 2017. Before the creation of the county, the name SELNEC was used for the area. Since deindustrialisation in the century, Greater Manchester has become known as an exporter of media and digital content, for its guitar and dance music. Although the modern county of Greater Manchester was not created until 1974, there is evidence of Iron Age habitation, particularly at Mellor, and Celtic activity in a settlement named Chochion, believed to have been an area of Wigan settled by the Brigantes. Stretford was also part of the believed to have been occupied by the Celtic Brigantes tribe. The remains of 1st-century forts at Castlefield in Manchester, and Castleshaw Roman fort in Saddleworth, are evidence of Roman occupation. Much of the region was omitted from the Domesday Book of 1086, Redhead states that this was only a partial survey was taken. During the Middle Ages, much of what became Greater Manchester lay within the hundred of Salfordshire – an ancient division of the county of Lancashire, Salfordshire encompassed several parishes and townships, some of which, like Rochdale, were important market towns and centres of Englands woollen trade. The development of what became Greater Manchester is attributed to a tradition of domestic flannel and fustian cloth production. Infrastructure such as rows of terraced housing, factories and roads were constructed to house labour, transport goods, however, it was Manchester that was the most populous settlement, a major city, the worlds largest marketplace for cotton goods, and the natural centre of its region. In the 1910s, local government reforms to administer this conurbation as an entity were proposed. In the 18th century, German traders had coined the name Manchesterthum to cover the region in, however, the English term Greater Manchester did not appear until the 20th century. One of its first known recorded uses was in a 1914 report put forward in response to what was considered to have been the creation of the County of London in 1889
15.
Manchester city centre
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Manchester city centre is the central business district of Manchester, England, within the boundaries of the River Irwell, Great Ancoats Street and Whitworth Street. The City Centre ward had a population of 17,861 at the 2011 census, Manchester city centre evolved from the civilian vicus of the Roman fort of Mamucium, on a sandstone bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell. This became the township of Manchester during the Middle Ages, and was the site of the Peterloo Massacre of 1819, the city centre acts as the transport interchange for Greater Manchester and over 7 million people live within an hours drive of it. The 1996 Manchester bombing provided the impetus for the redevelopment of the city centre, the economy of the city centre is built primarily on retail and services, accounting for nearly 40% of Grade A city centre office space outside London. Manchester evolved from the vicus associated with the Roman fort of Mamucium. AD79 on a bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell. Once the Romans had abandoned Britain, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the rivers Irwell, during the Dark Ages which followed – and persisted until the Norman Conquest – the settlement was in the territory of several different petty kingdoms. In the Middle Ages, what is now the city centre was the township of Manchester, Manchester Castle – a medieval fortification, probably taking the form of a ringwork – was located on a bluff where the rivers Irk and Irwell meet. The castle was first mentioned in 1184 and recorded in 1215 as belonging to the barons of Manchester and it has been described as of no political or military importance. The Grelleys replaced the castle with a manor house, which in turn was replaced by a college of priests. By royal charter in 1665 Chethams Hospital was established and this became Chethams School of Music, Manchester city centre is the commercial and cultural hub for 2.5 million people in the Greater Manchester region and new developments are forthcoming. A competition has been held to decide upon the new design of the square and it has recently been suggested that the Cenotaph should be moved to make room for a further tram line. One St Peters Square – a new office building in St Peters Square. The building will offer 14 floors of Grade A office space in a city centre location opposite the Midland Hotel, Central Library. Manchester Victoria station – Manchesters second station after Piccadilly – it has been rated as one of the worst stations in the United Kingdom, the station has been undergoing a modernisation program since 2013. A new ETFE roof covering the station is being constructed at a cost of £20 million while historical elements of the interior such as the tiled wall are being cleaned and preserved. The site will be branded NOMA53 in reference to NOrth MAnchester, the City Building will become the luxurious Hotel Indigo, which will include a Marco Pierre White restaurant and is set to open in autumn 2012. Two buildings on the corner of Corporation Street and Balloon Street to be converted into 106,000 sq ft of grade A office accommodation, completion by second half of 2013
16.
River Irwell
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The River Irwell is a 39-mile long river which flows through the Irwell Valley in North West England. Its source is at Irwell Springs on Deerplay Moor, approximately 1.5 miles north of Bacup and it forms the boundary between Manchester and Salford and empties into the River Mersey near Irlam. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Irwells lower reaches were a route that became part of the Mersey. In the 19th century, the rivers downstream of Manchester was permanently altered by the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal which opened in 1896. The canal turned Manchester and Salford into an inland seaport. Further changes were made in the 20th and 21st centuries to prevent flooding in Manchester and Salford, such as the Anaconda Cut in 1970, the Irwell is used for recreational activities, such as pleasure cruising, rowing, racing and fishing. From its source to the confluence with the River Mersey the Irwell is about 39 miles long, rising on the moors above Cliviger, it flows south through Bacup, Rawtenstall, Ramsbottom and Bury before merging with the River Roch near Radcliffe. Turning west, it joins the River Croal near Farnworth before turning southeast through Kearsley, Clifton and it then meanders around Lower Kersal and Lower Broughton. It bisects Salford and Manchester, joining the rivers Irk and Medlock and its course ends just east of Irlam, where it empties into the Mersey. Until the early 19th century the Irwell was well stocked with fish and other wildlife, with living near Manchester Cathedral using its water for drinking. Problems with water quality in some of the former Manchester Docks basins became apparent with the redevelopment of Salford Quays, years of runoff from sewers and roads had accumulated in the slow running waters of this area and decomposition of organic matter was causing oxygen depletion. In 2001, an air injection system was introduced. Spawning and growth rates of species such as roach and perch have also increased. Two Sites of Special Scientific Interest are located close to the banks of the Irwell, nob End is also designated as a Local Nature Reserve. The second site is Ashclough, which is a site of geological interest and these two SSSIs are among the 21 found in Greater Manchester. In Salford the river flows through Clifton Country Park and Kersal Dale Country Park, herons, cormorants, mute swans, kingfishers and many species of geese and ducks are regularly sighted on the river. The Manchester Ship Canal near Salford Quays is one of the top ten sites in Britain for diving ducks, the Irwell is all that remains of the shallow seas that covered most of south-east Lancashire in the Late Carboniferous period, when deposits of mud and sand were laid down. Ashclough is a site of importance for interpreting the coal measure palaeogeography of Great Britain
17.
Peel Building
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The Peel Building is a building at the University of Salford located in their Peel Park campus adjacent to the A6 Crescent and is the universitys oldest building in current use. Originally the home for Salford Royal Technical Institute it was opened by the then Duke, the building was renamed Peel Building in 1967 as the Royal College of Advanced Technology was granted university status. Like several buildings in the area such as Salford Museum and Art Gallery. The building still is in use and is home to the Universities School of Environment. University of Salford – official website
18.
Mechanics' Institutes
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Mechanics Institutes are educational establishments, originally formed to provide adult education, particularly in technical subjects, to working men. Similar organisation are sometimes simply called Institutes, as such, they were often funded by local industrialists on the grounds that they would ultimately benefit from having more knowledgeable and skilled employees. The Mechanics Institutes were used as libraries for the working class. Its purpose was to address societal needs by incorporating fundamental scientific thinking, the school revolutionised access to education in science and technology for ordinary people. The second Institute in Scotland was incorporated in Glasgow in November 1823, under the auspices of the Andersonian University, Birkbeck had first instituted free lectures on arts, science and technical subjects in 1800. This mechanics class continued to meet after he moved to London in 1804, the first Mechanics Institute in England was opened at Liverpool in July 1823. The London Mechanics Institute followed in December 1823, and the Mechanics Institutes in Ipswich, by the mid-19th century, there were over 700 institutes in towns and cities across the UK and overseas, some of which became the early roots of other colleges and universities. See for example the University of Gloucestershire, which has the Cheltenham Mechanics Institute and it was as a result of delivering a lecture series at the Cheltenham Mechanics Institute that the famous radical George Holyoake was arrested and then convicted on a charge of blasphemy. From the 1850s, Mechanics Institutes quickly spread throughout Victoria wherever a hall, over 1200 Mechanics Institutes were built in Victoria but just over 500 remain today, and only six still operate their lending library services. The Industrial Revolution created a new class of reader in Britain by the end of the 18th century, mechanics, later popular non-fiction and fiction books were added to these collections. The first known library of type was the Birmingham Artisans Library. Some mechanics libraries only lasted a decade or two, many eventually became public libraries or were given to public libraries after the Public Libraries Act 1850 passed. Beyond a lending library, Mechanics Institutes also provided lecture courses, laboratories, the Glasgow Institute, founded in 1823, not only had all three, it was also provided free light on two evenings a week from the local Gas Light Company. The London Mechanics Institute installed gas illumination by 1825, revealing the demand, Ballarat Mechanics Institute, Ballarat Berwick Mechanics Institute, Berwick Briagolong Mechanics Institute, Briagolong Footscray Mechanics Institute Inc. Birkbeck, University of London Lurgan, County Armagh and it is chartered the following year and is eventually superseded in New Haven by The Young Mens Institute Library. 1795 The Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association of Boston, Massachusetts, was formed for the purposes of promoting the mechanic arts. 1820 General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of the City of New York established, renamed and became the Mechanics Institute in 1858. 1821 The English High School is established in Boston, MA, as the first public high school,1824 The Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts opens in Philadelphia
19.
Duke of York
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The Duke of York is a title of nobility in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Since the 15th century, it has, when granted, usually given to the second son of English monarchs. The equivalent title in the Scottish peerage was Duke of Albany, initially granted in the 14th century in the Peerage of England, the title Duke of York has been created eight times. Additionally, the title Duke of York and Albany has been created three times and these occurred during the 18th century, following the 1707 unification of the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into a single, united realm. The double naming was done so that a territorial designation from each of the separate realms could be included. The current Duke of York is Prince Andrew, the son of Queen Elizabeth II. Prince Andrew currently has no heirs and has been unmarried since his 1996 divorce. In medieval times, York was the city of the North of England. Yorkshire was Englands largest shire in area, York under its Viking name Jorvik was a petty kingdom in the Early Medieval period. In the interval between the fall of independent Jorvik under Eirik Bloodaxe, last King of Jorvik, and the first creation of the Dukedom of York, there were a few Earls of York. The title Duke of York was first created in the Peerage of England in 1385 for Edmund of Langley, the surviving son of Edward III. His son Edward, who inherited the title, was killed at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, the title passed to Edwards nephew Richard, the son of Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge. The younger Richard managed to obtain a restoration of the title, but when his eldest son, who inherited the title, became king in 1461 as Edward IV, the title was next created for Richard of Shrewsbury, second son of King Edward IV. Richard was one of the Princes in the Tower, and, as he died without heirs, the third creation was for Henry Tudor, second son of King Henry VII. When his elder brother Arthur, Prince of Wales, died in 1502, when Henry ultimately became King Henry VIII, his titles merged into the crown. The title was created for the time for Charles Stuart. When his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, died in 1612 and he was created Prince of Wales in 1616 and eventually became Charles I in 1625 when the title again merged into the Crown. The fifth creation was in favour of James Stuart, the son of Charles I
20.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
21.
Mary of Teck
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Mary of Teck was Queen of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Empress of India as the wife of King-Emperor George V. Although technically a princess of Teck, in the Kingdom of Württemberg, she was born and her parents were Francis, Duke of Teck, who was of German extraction, and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, a granddaughter of King George III. She was informally known as May, after her birth month, the following year, she became engaged to Albert Victors next surviving brother, George, who subsequently became king. Before her husbands accession, she was successively Duchess of York, Duchess of Cornwall and she supported her second son, Albert, who succeeded to the throne as George VI, until his death in 1952. She died the year, during the reign of her granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II. Princess Victoria Mary of Teck was born on 26 May 1867 at Kensington Palace and her father was Prince Francis, Duke of Teck, the son of Duke Alexander of Württemberg by his morganatic wife, Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde. Her mother was Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, the child and younger daughter of Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge. She was baptised in the Chapel Royal of Kensington Palace on 27 July 1867 by Charles Thomas Longley, before she became queen, she was known to her family, friends and the public by the diminutive name of May, after her birth month. Mays upbringing was merry but fairly strict and she was the eldest of four children, the only girl, and learned to exercise her native discretion, firmness, and tact by resolving her three younger brothers petty boyhood squabbles. They played with their cousins, the children of the Prince of Wales, may was educated at home by her mother and governess. Although her mother was a grandchild of King George III, May was only a member of the British Royal Family. Her father, the Duke of Teck, had no inheritance or wealth, however, the Duchess of Teck was granted a parliamentary annuity of £5,000 and received about £4,000 a year from her mother, the Duchess of Cambridge. Despite this, the family was deeply in debt and lived abroad from 1883, the Tecks travelled throughout Europe, visiting their various relations. They stayed in Florence, Italy, for a time, where May enjoyed visiting the art galleries, churches, in 1885, the Tecks returned to London, and took up residence at White Lodge, in Richmond Park. May was close to her mother, and acted as an secretary, helping to organise parties. She was also close to her aunt, the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, during the First World War, the Crown Princess of Sweden helped pass letters from May to her aunt, who lived in enemy territory in Germany until her death in 1916. In December 1891, May was engaged to her second cousin once removed, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, the eldest son of the Prince of Wales. The choice of May as bride for the Duke owed much to Queen Victorias fondness for her, as well as to her strong character, however, Albert Victor died six weeks later, in a recurrence of the worldwide 1889–90 influenza pandemic
22.
Red brick university
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The term is now used more broadly to refer to British universities founded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in major cities. Six of the original institutions, or their predecessor institutes. Eight of the nine institutions are members of the Russell Group, the term red brick or redbrick was first coined by Edgar Allison Peers, a professor of Spanish at the University of Liverpool, to describe the civic universities. Although Peers used red brick in the title of the book, he used redbrick adjectivally in the text. He is said to have regretted his use of red brick in the title. Peers reference was inspired by the fact that The Victoria Building at the University of Liverpool is built from a distinctive red pressed brick, with terracotta decorative dressings. On this basis the University of Liverpool claims to be the red brick institution, although the titular. The University of Birmingham grew from the Mason Science College, a red brick. In this sense they owed their structural heritage to the Humboldt University of Berlin, scotlands ancient universities were founded on a different basis between 1400 and 1600. These universities developed out of various 19th-century private research and education institutes in industrial cities, the 1824 Manchester Mechanics Institute formed the basis of the Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, and thus led towards the current University of Manchester formed in 2004. The University of Birmingham has origins dating back to the 1825 Birmingham Medical School, the University of Leeds also owes its foundations to a medical school, the 1831 Leeds School of Medicine. Reading was established as a college by Oxford University in 1892, incorporating pre-existing schools of art and science. All of the redbricks, with the exception of Reading, were non-residential, in contrast to Oxford, Cambridge, graduates of Oxford, Cambridge, and London had already been enfranchised and graduates of the University of Wales were enfranchised at the same time. Reading University was added to the Combined English Universities constituency in 1928, the constituency was abolished in 1950. Various other civic institutions with origins dating from the 19th and early to mid-20th centuries have also described as Red Brick. According to historian William Whyte of the University of Oxford, Truscotts original definition includes the University of Dundee, Newcastle University, notably, Whyte does not include Reading or Nottingham, which Truscot lists in his second edition. The Robbins Report lists Reading, Nottingham, Southampton, Hull, Exeter and Leicester, as a result it meets the dictionary definition of a red brick university, and is sometimes named as such. The term red brick is also used more widely to mean any of the non-ancient universities
23.
Higher education
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Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level. The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school. Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy. In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field
24.
Plate glass university
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The term plate glass university refers to a group of universities established or expanded in the United Kingdom during the mid-twentieth century. This contrasted with the red brick universities and the ancient universities. I had at the start to decide upon a generic term for the new universities – they will not be new for ever, none of the various caps so far tried have fitted. Greenfields describes only a transient phase, whitebrick, Whitestone, and Pinktile hardly conjure up the grey or biscuit concrete massiveness of most of their buildings, and certainly not the black towers of Essex. Newbridge is fine as far as the novelty goes, but where on earth are the bridges, sir Edward Boyle more felicitously suggested Shakespeare. But I have chosen to call them the Plateglass Universities and it is architecturally evocative, but more important, it is metaphorically accurate. e. Essex House, Kent House, Lancaster House, Norwich House, dates refer to the granting of university status by Royal Charter, not to founding of the institution. 21, pp 3–9 Sheffield University Library Collection
25.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
26.
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Philip was born into the Greek and he was born in Greece, but his family was exiled from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, he joined the Royal Navy in 1939, from July 1939, he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets, after the war, Philip was granted permission by King George VI to marry Elizabeth. After an engagement of five months, he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947, just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Philip left active service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952. He was formally made a Prince of the United Kingdom in 1957, Philip has four children with Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward. He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren, a keen sports enthusiast, Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving. He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburghs Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 and he is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family. Philips four elder sisters were Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, and he was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church. His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece and the Mayor of Corfu, shortly after Philips birth, his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg, then known as Louis Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, died in London. Louis was a naturalised British citizen, who, after a career in the Royal Navy, had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War. After visiting London for the memorial, Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War, the war went badly for Greece and the Turks made large gains. On 22 September 1922, Philips uncle, King Constantine I, was forced to abdicate, the commander of the army, General Georgios Hatzianestis, and five senior politicians were executed. Prince Andrews life was believed to be in danger, and Alice was under surveillance, in December, a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life. The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrews family, with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box. Philips family went to France, where settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt, Princess George of Greece. Because Philip left Greece as a baby, he not have a strong grasp of Greek
27.
BAE Systems
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BAE Systems plc is a British multinational defence, security, and aerospace company. Its headquarters are in London in the United Kingdom and it has operations worldwide and it is among the worlds largest defence companies, it was ranked as the third-largest based on applicable 2015 revenues. Its largest operations are in the United Kingdom and United States, other major markets include Australia, India and Saudi Arabia. The company was formed on 30 November 1999 by the £7. V, since its formation it has made a number of acquisitions, most notably of United Defense and Armor Holdings of the United States, and sold its shares in Airbus, Astrium, AMS and Atlas Elektronik. BAE Systems is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, BAE Systems was formed on 30 November 1999 by the £7.7 billion merger of British Aerospace and Marconi Electronic Systems. As a result, BAE Systems is the successor to many of the most famous British aircraft, defence electronics, British Aerospace was a civil and military aircraft manufacturer, as well as a provider of military land systems. The company had emerged from the consolidation of UK aircraft manufacturers since World War II. British Aerospace was formed on 29 April 1977 by the nationalisation and merger of The British Aircraft Corporation, both BAC and Hawker Siddeley were themselves the result of various mergers and acquisitions. Marconi Electronic Systems was the subsidiary of British engineering firm The General Electric Company, dealing largely in military systems integration, as well as naval. Marconis heritage dates back to Guglielmo Marconis Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company, GEC purchased English Electric in 1968 and thereafter used the Marconi brand for its defence businesses. GECs own defence heritage dates back to World War I, when its contribution to the war effort included radios, World War II consolidated this position, as the company was involved in important technological advances, notably the cavity magnetron for radar. Between 1945 and 1999, GEC-Marconi/Marconi Electronic Systems became one of the worlds most important defence contractors, in June 1998, MES acquired Tracor, a major American defence contractor, for £830 million. In June 1997 British Aerospace Defence managing director John Weston commented Europe, is supporting three times the number of contractors on less than half the budget of the U. S. European governments wished to see the merger of their defence manufacturers into a single entity, as early as 1995 British Aerospace and the German aerospace and defence company DaimlerChrysler Aerospace were said to be keen to create a transnational aerospace and defence company. The two companies envisaged including Aérospatiale, the other major European aerospace company, but only after its privatisation, as well as Airbus, British Aerospace and DASA were partners in the Panavia Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft projects. A merger was agreed between British Aerospace chairman Richard Evans and DASA CEO Jürgen Schrempp in December 1998, meanwhile, GEC was also under pressure to participate in defence industry consolidation. GEC favours forging a national champion defence group with BAe to compete with the giant US organisations, when GEC put MES up for sale on 22 December 1998, British Aerospace abandoned the DASA merger in favour of purchasing its British rival. The merger of British Aerospace and MES was announced on 19 January 1999, Evans stated that in 2004 that his fear was that an American defence contractor would acquire MES and challenge both British Aerospace and DASA
28.
University Challenge
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University Challenge is a British quiz programme which first aired in 1962. University Challenge aired for 913 episodes on ITV from 21 September 1962 to 31 December 1987, the BBC revived the programme on 21 September 1994 with Jeremy Paxman as the quizmaster. The current holders are Peterhouse, Cambridge, who won the 45th series in 2016, the 46th series is being shown on the BBC. The show is produced by Granada Television, under licence from Richard Reid Productions and it was recorded at Granada Studios in Manchester from its inception until the studios closed down in 2013, it is now recorded at MediaCityUK in Salford. Despite periodic changes to the sets, studio layout, and presentation, some commentators have cited this as an essential element of its success. College Boy was originally scored for an ensemble of tubular bells, Flugelhorn, harpsichord, brushed Hi-hat, bass drum, the original theme returned for the early Paxman era episodes, and was later replaced by a string quartet arrangement of the theme recorded by the Balanescu Quartet. The programme had its beginnings in an American television quiz show called College Bowl, cecil Bernstein, brother of Sidney Bernstein who founded Granada Television in 1954, had seen the programme in the United States and liked the format. It was decided that Granada would produce a programme with competing teams from universities across the United Kingdom. From its inception in 1962, University Challenge was hosted by Bamber Gascoigne, the show was a cult favourite with a small but loyal core audience, and was one of a select few ITV shows that were transmitted without any advertising breaks. In the absence of a regular networked slot, audience figures would often fall, in October 1983 LWT decided to broadcast the series no longer, with Thames following suit, which resulted in no broadcasts in the London area. The series was given a rest for the whole of 1985, before returning in April 1986, the final series was also network but broadcast around 11am during the summer holiday period. Even so, the new networked time did little to save the series from the axe and this was one ostensible inspiration for an unusual 1975 protest. It did, however, get broadcast, although portions of the episode still exist in the archives of Granada TV. Granada banned the University of Manchester for several years and it was eventually revived in 1994 by the BBC, although still produced by Granada Television, using the original format with minor differences and presented by Jeremy Paxman. During the shows hiatus, an edition of the show was made, not by Granada but by BBC Television. It was presented by Bamber Gascoigne, and screened on BBC2 on 28 December 1992 and this show was preceded by a short documentary about the shows history. Bamber Gascoignes final appearance as host was in Universe Challenge in 1998, the show has, since its revival in 1994, featured a number of very high standard teams of postgraduate and mature students, who perhaps have a greater breadth of general knowledge. The Open University won the 1999 series with a team whose ages averaged 46, in the quarter-final, they beat a slightly younger team from part-time and mature student specialist Birkbeck, University of London, by only one question
29.
Peel Park, Salford
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Peel Park is a public urban park in Salford, Greater Manchester, England, located on the flood plain of the River Irwell below Salford Crescent and adjacent to the University of Salford. It was the first of three public parks to be opened on 22 August 1846, for the people of Manchester and Salford, paid for by public subscription. The park was the public venue for the 1851 royal visit of Queen Victoria to Manchester and Salford and has been the subject of a number of paintings by the Salford artist. Peel Park fell into disrepair during the part of the twentieth century but is presently undergoing a £1. 6m refurbishment after a successful bid to the Heritage Lottery Fund. Early 19th-century reformers had become concerned about the consequences of enclosure and thought that public walks and they gathered witnesses from dozen or so of the large manufacturing towns to try to establish remedies. One of their conclusions was that having a place to which they might resort on a Sunday Evening would tend to promote that self-respect which is so advantageous to all classes and that you would let your readers understand that Hyde park and St. Jamess Park are not public parks. Victoria park and the parks are intended for the public — the former parks for the aristocracy. St. Jamess park has for some time been very exclusive, last Wednesday every decently dressed mechanic was turned out of Hyde-park. The warden in green said this was in accordance, with new orders received from the Ranger, what is the use of this excessive exclusiveness with regard to parks which used to be considered public. It is enough to any persons blood boil to see a well-dressed mechanic refused admission into a park considered public. I wish, Sir, you would either enlighten me on the subject or attempt some improvement of the notions of the men in green. Their behaviour proves that no one is so exclusive as one of the classes when placed in authority. I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, C. D. Hyde-park-square, the most prominent supporters of the campaign in the north of England were Liberal MP for Manchester Mark Philips, and the then Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel. Large sums of money were contributed to the fund by both men and also by the local workers. From the Premier of England to the humblest operative and we have already noticed the handsome contributions of Mr. J. and W. Philips and Co. Including all classes of employees youths, porters, &c. we find that 90 individuals in this establishment have contributed the very large, in aid of the fund for public parks. - Manchester Guardian After seven years of campaigning, Manchester set up the Committee for Public Walks, on 29 March 1845 the Committee bought the 32 acres of the Lark Hill estate from William Garnett Esq for £5,000. A design competition was held for the three parks — Queens Park and Philips Park, in Manchester, and Peel Park in Salford
30.
Salford Crescent railway station
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Salford Crescent railway station is a railway station in Salford, Greater Manchester, England, opened by British Rail in 1987. The station is 1 mile west of Salford Central,1.75 miles west of Manchester Victoria and 2.25 miles west of Manchester Piccadilly and it consists of a single island platform with a ticket office and waiting room. The station is near the University of Salford, between the Peel Park and Frederick Road Campus, Manchester North signalling centre was formerly located at the station, prior to its closure in April 2015. First TransPennine Express used to run the services from Manchester Airport to Blackpool North, Windermere & Barrow, Salford Crescent is served by Stagecoach Manchesters service 50, a cross-city bus service between East Didsbury and MediaCityUK. Services 8,31,36,37,67 and 100 also stop outside the station and run to Manchester, services also head towards Bolton, Eccles, Swinton, Trafford Centre, Warrington and Farnworth. In 2007, Network Rail recognised that Salford Crescent could not cope with existing passenger levels and it suggested expansion of the station with extra platforms, greater use of it as an interchange and use as a terminus for services from east of Manchester. It also raised the possibility of relocating the station, in 2012, improvement work started at the station, including platform extensions, a new rain canopy and the relocation of the ticket office to street level. The works were completed in October 2013 and officially opened by Mayor of Salford Ian Stewart, the stations ticket office is manned throughout the week and there is a self-service ticket machine in the booking hall. A waiting room, digital screens and automated announcements are provided at platform level. Step-free access is via a lift from the bridge and ticket hall. Train times and station information for Salford Crescent railway station from National Rail
31.
Bolton
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Bolton is a town in Greater Manchester in North West England. A former mill town, Bolton has been a centre for textiles since Flemish weavers settled in the area in the 14th century, introducing a wool. The urbanisation and development of the town coincided with the introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution. The British cotton industry declined sharply after the First World War, close to the West Pennine Moors, Bolton is 10 miles northwest of Manchester. It is surrounded by smaller towns and villages that together form the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton. The town of Bolton has a population of 139,403, historically part of Lancashire, Bolton originated as a small settlement in the moorland known as Bolton le Moors. In the English Civil War, the town was a Parliamentarian outpost in a staunchly Royalist region, in what became known as the Bolton Massacre,1,600 residents were killed and 700 were taken prisoner. Football club Bolton Wanderers play home games at the Macron Stadium, Cultural interests include the Octagon Theatre and the Bolton Museum and Art Gallery, as well as one of the earliest public libraries established after the Public Libraries Act 1850. Bolton is a common Northern English name derived from the Old English bothl-tun, the first recorded use of the name, in the form Boelton, dates from 1185 to describe Bolton le Moors, though this may not be in relation to a dwelling. It was recorded as Bothelton in 1212, Botelton in 1257, Boulton in 1288, later forms of Botheltun were Bodeltown, Botheltun-le-Moors, Bowelton, Boltune, Bolton-super-Moras, Bolton-in-ye-Moors, Bolton-le-Moors. The towns motto of Supera Moras means overcome difficulties, and is a pun on the Bolton-super-Moras version of the meaning literally. A Bronze Age mound was excavated in Victorian times outside Haulgh Hall, the Romans built roads from Manchester to Ribchester to the east and a road along what is now the A6 to the west. It is claimed that Agricola built a fort at Blackrod by clearing land above the forest, evidence of a Saxon settlement exists in the form of religious objects found when the Victorian parish church was built. In 1067 Great Bolton was the property of Roger de Poitou and after 1100 and it became the property of the Pilkingtons who forfeited it in the Civil War and after that the Stanleys who became Earls of Derby. Great Bolton and Little Bolton were part of the Marsey fee, in 1212 Little Bolton was held by Roger de Bolton as plough-land, a charter to hold a market in Churchgate was granted on 14 December 1251 by King Henry III of England. Bolton became a town and borough by a charter from the Earl of Derby, William de Ferrers, on 14 January 1253. Burgage plots were laid out on Churchgate and Deansgate in the centre of the town close to where Ye Olde Man & Scythe public house. In 1337 Flemish weavers settled and introduced the manufacture of woollen cloth, more Flemish weavers, fleeing the Huguenot persecutions, settled here in the 17th century
32.
Liverpool
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Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
33.
Salford Museum and Art Gallery
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Salford Museum and Art Gallery, in Peel Park, Salford, Greater Manchester, opened to the public in November 1850 as the Royal Museum and Public Library. The gallery and museum are devoted to the history of Salford and Victorian art and this wing was constructed over three storeys and “was built of brick with stone dressing with a glass and Welch-slate roof, with a pediment gable”, today it serves as the public entrance. The new wing, which was designed in the style as the Langworthy Wing. “ The building development was a gradual evolution which was commenced by different architects evolving their ideas at different times, throughout its development the building has achieved “a degree of architectural consistency as a result of nearly a century of evolution. The number of visitors steadily increased year by year, and in five years had reached 1.6 million, the Grade II listed Salford Museum and Art Gallery has masonry pillars and detailed masonry elements on the exterior and within the interior. The aesthetic design of the building has evolved over a 200-year life cycle to produce a unified structure, important architectural examples are the top-lit galleries in the north and south wings, which are one of the earliest examples of their type. The building is located in the heart of the University of Salford, surrounded by civic and it plays a significant role for its relationship with the Peel building to the west and Peel Park to the north. The building is the earliest civic building in the Crescent area and has influenced the location of the civic buildings. The art gallery used to house the work of L. S. Lowry, but his paintings are now at The Lowry in Salford Quays
34.
MediaCityUK
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MediaCityUK is a 200-acre mixed-use property development site on the banks of the Manchester Ship Canal in Salford and Trafford, Greater Manchester, England. The project is being developed by Peel Media, and its tenants are media organisations. The land occupied by the development was part of the Port of Manchester and Manchester Docks, the BBC signalled its intention to move jobs to Manchester in 2004, and the Salford Quays site was chosen in 2006. The Peel Group was granted planning permission to develop the site in 2007, based in Quay House, the principal tenant is the BBC, whose move marks a large-scale decentralisation from London. The Studios on Broadway houses seven high-definition studios, claimed to be the largest such facility in Europe, MediaCityUK is to be developed in two phases. The 36-acre first phase was completed in 2011, and the second is dependent on its success, Metrolink, Greater Manchesters light-rail system, was extended to MediaCityUK with the opening of the MediaCityUK tram stop on 20 September 2010 and further extensions are planned. Road access was improved by the construction of Broadway Link Road, the Quays development includes The Lowry Arts Centre and the Imperial War Museum North. A total of 200 acres of land was earmarked for the development of MediaCityUK, the first phase of its development was primarily focused on a 36-acre site at Pier 9 on Salford Quays. In 2010 it was announced that the ITV production centre would be built on Trafford Wharf in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford. In 2003 reports emerged that, as part of the plans for the renewal of its Royal Charter, early discussions involved a plan where the BBC would move to a new media village proposed by Granada Television at its Bonded Warehouse site at Granada Studios in the city. Proposals to relocate 1,800 jobs to Manchester were unveiled by BBC Director General, Mark Thompson, the BBC justified the move as its spending per head was low in northern England where it had low approval ratings and its facilities at New Broadcasting House in Manchester needed replacing. The site at Salford Quays was chosen in June 2006 and the north was conditional on a satisfactory licence fee settlement from the government. In the same month the BBC Trust approved moving five London-based departments to the development, the departments to be moved were Sport, Childrens, Learning, Future Media and Technology and Radio Five Live. Construction started in 2007 with the owner, Peel Group as developer. The media facilities opened in stages from 2007, the first facility being the Pie Factory, which was located in a refurbished bakery. It featured three sound stages suitable for drama productions and commercials. In January 2011 Peel Media received planning permission to convert on-site offices used by Bovis Lend Lease during the construction of the first phase into the Greenhouse, the first trial show took place in November 2010 in Studio HQ2. The half-hour test show featured a power failure and a fire drill, the first programme filmed at MediaCityUK was Dont Scare the Hare in February 2011, and the first to transfer was A Question of Sport, the same month
35.
James Prescott Joule
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James Prescott Joule FRS HFRSE DCL LLD (/dʒuːl/, was an English physicist and brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire. Joule studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical work and this led to the law of conservation of energy, which led to the development of the first law of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the joule, is named after James Joule and he worked with Lord Kelvin to develop the absolute scale of temperature, which came to be called the Kelvin scale. Joule also made observations of magnetostriction, and he found the relationship between the current through a resistor and the heat dissipated, which is now called Joules first law. The son of Benjamin Joule, a brewer, and his wife. Joule was tutored as a man by the famous scientist John Dalton and was strongly influenced by chemist William Henry and Manchester engineers Peter Ewart. He was fascinated by electricity, and he and his brother experimented by giving electric shocks to each other, as an adult, Joule managed the brewery. Science was merely a serious hobby, sometime around 1840, he started to investigate the feasibility of replacing the brewerys steam engines with the newly invented electric motor. His first scientific papers on the subject were contributed to William Sturgeons Annals of Electricity, Joule was a member of the London Electrical Society, established by Sturgeon and others. Motivated in part by a desire to quantify the economics of the choice. He went on to realize that burning a pound of coal in an engine was more economical than a costly pound of zinc consumed in an electric battery. Joule captured the output of the methods in terms of a common standard, the ability to raise one pound, a height of one foot. However, Joules interest diverted from the financial question to that of how much work could be extracted from a given source. This was a challenge to the caloric theory which held that heat could neither be created or destroyed. Caloric theory had dominated thinking in the science of heat since introduced by Antoine Lavoisier in 1783, supporters of the caloric theory readily pointed to the symmetry of the Peltier-Seebeck effect to claim that heat and current were convertible in an, at least approximately, reversible process. He announced his results at a meeting of the section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Cork in August 1843 and was met by silence. Joule was undaunted and started to seek a purely mechanical demonstration of the conversion of work into heat, by forcing water through a perforated cylinder, he could measure the slight viscous heating of the fluid. He obtained a mechanical equivalent of 770 ft·lbf/Btu, Joule now tried a third route
36.
3XN
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3XN is a Danish architectural practice with head office in Copenhagen. The company was founded in Århus in 1986 as Nielsen, Nielsen & Nielsen by Kim Herforth Nielsen, Lars Frank Nielsen, the latter left the company, which is today led by a partner group of three with Kim Herforth Nielsen as the Principal Architect. The practice had its breakthrough in the late 90s with the Danish Embassy in Berlin. In 2005 3XN won the competition for the new Museum of Liverpool which opened in 2011, recently 3XN has won the competition to design the new headquarters for Swedbank in Stockholm and another Swedish residential project in Vällingby. 3XN is also present in Norway with projects such as the Theatre and Jazz House in Molde, in 2007 3XN established the research and development department GXN working on implementing new materials and technologies in the studio’s projects. The R&D department also develops new projects and designs of lamps for instance, GXN is also behind the green Louisiana Pavilion displayed at the Danish art museum Louisiana during COP15. The pavilion is built with an especially developed for the purpose. GXN works with Cradle to Cradle Denmark at developing the first Danish building manual based on the Cradle to Cradle principles, in 2010 3XN created the exhibition Mind Your Behaviour, which was shown at Danish Architecture Centre and at Aedes Gallery in Berlin. The architecture of 3XN is created in the nexus between science and art, iconic design and context and that combination results in an expression of humanity. Dialogue is extremely important and the stories told by the people, behavior is another keyword in the 3XN philosophy. In 2007, 3XNs Ørestad College set new standards for educational buildings, the open design changed the traditional ideas of the layout and look of a school building. This mindset, that architecture shapes behavior has become a principle in all 3XN’s architectural solutions. Out of the synthesis of design, function and context new buildings take shape that are larger than the sum of their parts, “For me, architecture is more about creating spaces and environments that accommodate the people working and living in them. All through the process it is important for us as well as the client to have an environment that is inspiring and designed with the human being in full focus. Biennal Internacional de Arquitetura, São Paulo, BR1999 Denmark meets Australia II 1998-99 Copenhagen – Concepts of Continuity 1996 Scandinavian Architecture, Chicago Athenaeum, Chicago, biennale Architettura, Arsenale, Venice, IT Official website 3XN buildings in arkitekturbilleder. dk
37.
Salford Quays
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Salford Quays is an area of Salford, Greater Manchester, England, near the end of the Manchester Ship Canal. Previously the site of Manchester Docks, it one of the first and largest urban regeneration projects in the United Kingdom following the closure of the dockyards in 1982. Built by the Manchester Ship Canal Company, Salford Docks was the larger of two sections made up Manchester Docks, the other being Pomona Docks to the east. They were opened in 1894 by Queen Victoria and spanned 120 acres of water and 1,000 acres of land and they closed in 1982, resulting in the loss of 3000 jobs. In 1983 Salford City Council acquired parts of the docks covering 220 acres from the Manchester Ship Canal Company with the aid of a land grant. The area was rebranded as Salford Quays and redevelopment by Urban Waterside began in 1985 under the Salford Quays Development Plan, within two years the quality was sufficient to introduce 12,000 coarse fish, which have thrived in the environment. Between 1986 and 1990 the infrastructure of the docks was modified to create a waterway network. Roads and bridges were built and a promenade along the waterfront constructed and landscaped, moorings and watersports facilities were provided and a railway swing bridge moved to cross Dock 9. A hotel, cinema, housing, offices were built on Piers 5 and 6 followed by developments on Pier 7. Public funding and private investment totalled around £280 million by the early 1990s and it had secured £64 million in funding by 22 February 1996. The Lowry stands at the end of Pier 8, largely surrounded by the waters of the Manchester Ship Canal. Designed by James Stirling and Michael Wilford, it opened on 28 April 2000 and houses the 1,730 seat Lyric theatre, there are cafes, bars and a restaurant at the south-western end of the building. The centre is associated with L. S. Lowry, the Imperial War Museum North, on Trafford Wharf Road in Trafford Park, overlooks the Manchester Ship Canal on the opposite bank to the Lowry and MediaCityUK. The area was bombed during the Manchester Blitz in December 1940. The museum, designed by architect Daniel Libeskind, opened in July 2002 and its structure was designed to be a metaphor for a world shattered by war with sloping walls and ceilings. Three areas, the Air, Earth and Water Shards house exhibition and gallery space, public areas, at the moment, the exhibition is dedicated to Medicine Through Time. The museum also currently has an artifact from the New York 9/11 Twin Tower disaster. MediaCityUK is a 200-acre mixed-use property development on Pier 9 of the Quays with a focus on creative industries and it was developed by the Peel Group
38.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
39.
Solution
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In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the characteristics of the solvent when the solvent is the fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is the mass of that solute expressed as a percentage of the mass of the whole solution, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye, a solution does not allow beams of light to scatter. The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration and it is composed of only one phase. Homogeneous means that the components of the form a single phase. Heterogeneous means that the components of the mixture are of different phase, the properties of the mixture can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena or after their completion. Usually, the present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids or solids, one or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the physical state as the solvent. If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a set of conditions. An example of a solution is air. Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions, in part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids, here are some examples, Gas in liquid, Oxygen in water Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction. Liquid in liquid, The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant, alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid, Sucrose in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water, solutions in water are especially common. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous, colloids, body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes
40.
Brick
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A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term referred to a unit composed of clay. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks, block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks are made from expanded clay aggregate, fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 5000 BC. Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have an older than fired bricks. Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, the earliest bricks were dried brick, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried until they were strong enough for use. The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region, ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities. In pre-modern China, bricks were being used from the 2nd millennium BCE at a site near Xian, the carpenters manual Yingzao Fashi, published in 1103 at the time of the Song dynasty described the brick making process and glazing techniques then in use. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as to produce the surface glaze, Early civilisations around the Mediterranean adopted the use of fired bricks, including the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, during the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northern-Western Italy. An independent style of architecture, known as brick Gothic flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland. A clear distinction between the two styles developed at the transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone and it was at this time in London, that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents. The transition from the method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century. His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone, the Bradley & Craven Ltd ‘Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine’ was patented in 1853, apparently predating Clayton
41.
Terracotta
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Terracotta, terra cotta or terra-cotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, where the fired body is porous. The term is used to refer to the natural, brownish orange color, of most terracotta. This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines, asian and European sculpture in porcelain is not covered. Glazed architectural terracotta and its version as exterior surfaces for buildings were used in Asia for some centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. In archaeology and art history, terracotta is used to describe objects such as figurines not made on a potters wheel. An appropriate refined clay is formed to the desired shape, after drying it is placed in a kiln or atop combustible material in a pit, and then fired. The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C, though it may be as low as 600 °C in historic and archaeological examples. In some contexts, such as Roman figurines, white-colored terracotta is known as pipeclay, as such clays were later preferred for tobacco pipes, fired terracotta is not watertight, but surface-burnishing the body before firing can decrease its porousness and a layer of glaze can make it watertight. It is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water, for garden pots or building decoration in many environments, most other uses, such as for tableware, sanitary piping, or building decoration in freezing environments, require the material to be glazed. Terracotta, if uncracked, will ring if lightly struck, painted terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat of gesso, then painted. It has been widely used but the paint is only suitable for indoor positions and is much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculpture was rarely left in its raw fired state in the West until the 18th century. Terracotta/earthenware was the known type of ceramic produced by Western and pre-Columbian people until the 14th century. Terracotta has been used throughout history for sculpture and pottery as well as for bricks, in ancient times, the first clay sculptures were dried in the sun after being formed. They were later placed in the ashes of open hearths to harden, however, only after firing to high temperature would it be classed as a ceramic material. Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations of Mohenjo-daro, along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult and a belief in a mother goddess. The Burney Relief is a terracotta plaque from Ancient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BC. In Mesoamerica, the majority of Olmec figurines were in terracotta
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