1.
Seal (emblem)
–
A seal is a device for making an impression in wax, clay, paper, or some other medium, including an embossment on paper, and is also the impression thus made. The original purpose was to authenticate a document, a wrapper for one such as a modern envelope, the seal-making device is also referred to as the seal matrix or die, the imprint it creates as the seal impression. In most traditional forms of dry seal the design on the matrix is in intaglio. The design on the impression will reverse that of the matrix and this will not be the case if paper is embossed from behind, where the matrix and impression read the same way, and both matrix and impression are in relief. However engraved gems were carved in relief, called cameo in this context. The process is essentially that of a mould and these pendent seal impressions dangled below the documents they authenticated, to which the attachment tag was sewn or otherwise attached. Some jurisdictions consider rubber stamps or specified signature-accompanying words such as seal or L. S. to be the equivalent of, i. e. an equally effective substitute for. In Europe, although coats of arms and heraldic badges may well feature in such contexts as well as on seals, the study of seals is known as sigillography or sphragistics. Seals were used in the earliest civilizations and are of importance in archaeology. In ancient Mesopotamia carved or engraved cylinder seals in stone or other materials were used and these could be rolled along to create an impression on clay, and used as labels on consignments of trade goods, or for other purposes. They are normally hollow and it is presumed that they were worn on a string or chain round the neck, many have only images, often very finely carved, with no writing, while others have both. From Ancient Egypt seals in the form of signet-rings, including some with the names of kings, have been found, recently, seals have come to light in South Arabia datable to the Himyarite age. One example shows a name written in Aramaic engraved in reverse so as to read correctly in the impression, from the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC until the Middle Ages, seals of various kinds were in production in the Aegean islands and mainland Greece. In the Early Minoan age these were formed of stone and ivory. By the Middle Minoan age a new set for seal forms, motifs, hard stone requires new rotary carving techniques. The Late Bronze Age is the par excellence of the lens-shaped seal and the seal ring. These were a luxury art form and became keenly collected. His collection fell as booty to Pompey the Great, who deposited it in a temple in Rome, engraved gems continued to be produced and collected until the 19th century
Seal (emblem)
–
Present-day impression of a Late Bronze Age seal
Seal (emblem)
–
Town seal (matrix) of
Náchod from 1570
Seal (emblem)
–
Mesopotamian limestone
cylinder seal and impression—worship of
Shamash
Seal (emblem)
–
A Baiwen name seal, read up-down-right-left: Ye Hao Min Yin (lit. "Seal of Ye Haomin")
2.
Public university
–
A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
Public university
–
Cairo University, the prime indigenous model for Egyptian state universities
Public university
–
Old Merensky Library at
University of Pretoria, South Africa
Public university
–
Sebelas Maret University, one of Indonesia's prominent public universities.
Public university
–
Chulalongkorn University main auditorium in Thailand
3.
Seville
–
Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
Seville
–
Clockwise from top:
St. Mary of the See Cathedral and
Giralda,
Plaza de España in the
Maria Luisa Park,
Metropol Parasol, the Isabel II ("
Triana ") bridge and the
Torre del Oro.
Seville
–
Flag
Seville
–
View of the
Giralda from the Patio de Banderas (Courtyard of Flags), historic square with remains of Roman, Moorish and Castilian periods.
Seville
–
Cathedral of Saint Mary from Constitución Avenue
4.
Andalucia
–
Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the city of Seville. Andalusia is the only European region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, the small British overseas territory of Gibraltar shares a three-quarter-mile land border with the Andalusian province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, in the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spains Meseta Central. To the south the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia lies mostly within the Baetic System, the name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus. Including an intense relationship with Naples, Italy, Andalusia has been a traditionally agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. However, the growth of the community especially in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain, the region has, however, a rich culture and a strong cultural identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin and these include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles. Andalusias hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with cities like Córdoba, Late evening temperatures can sometimes stay around 35 °C until close to midnight, with daytime highs of over 40 °C common. Seville also has the highest average temperature in mainland Spain and mainland Europe. Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia. However, the etymology of the name Al-Andalus is disputed, the Spanish place name Andalucía was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the form of the Arabic language al-Andalus. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated, but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this came under Muslim rule. Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the territory designated by these terms today. To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms of Granada, in a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himself Rey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía
Andalucia
–
Map of the
Iberian peninsula dated 1770. The Kingdoms of
Jaén,
Córdoba and
Seville are collectively referred to under the name Andalucía, while the
Kingdom of Granada appears under its individual name.
Andalucia
–
Flag
Andalucia
–
Portrait of
Blas Infante, executed in
azulejos, located on the avenue in
Jerez de la Frontera named in his honor.
Andalucia
–
Andalusian firs,
Sierra de las Nieves
5.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
6.
Papal bull
–
A Papal bull is a specific kind of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by a pope of the Roman Catholic Church. It is named after the seal that was traditionally appended to the end in order to authenticate it. Papal bulls have been in use at least since the 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the register of bulls, by the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of the bulls now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries. In an epoch when there was much fabrication of such documents, a Papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where the original deed had been lost or destroyed. Since the 12th century, Papal bulls have carried a seal with the heads of the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side. Papal bulls were issued by the Pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature. Papyrus seems to have used almost uniformly as the material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century. Popularly, the name is used for any Papal document that contains a metal seal, today, the bull is the only written communication in which the Pope will refer to himself as Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei. For example, when Pope Benedict XVI issued a decree in bull form, while Papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A Papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the Pope, the body of the text had no specific conventions for its formatting, it was often very simple in layout. For the most solemn bulls, the Pope signed the document himself, following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the Pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the seal, which was usually made of lead. On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome, the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus. Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti, and the rim of the seal was surrounded by a ring of such beads. On the reverse was the name of the issuing Pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters PP, for Pastor Pastorum
Papal bull
–
Papal bull of
Pope Urban VIII, 1637, sealed with a lead
bulla.
Papal bull
–
The Apostolic constitution Magni aestimamus issued as a Papal bull by
Pope Benedict XVI in 2011 which instituted the
Military Ordinariate of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Papal bull
–
Printed text of
Pope Leo X 's Bull against the errors of
Martin Luther, also known as
Exsurge Domine, issued in June 1520
Papal bull
–
Lead
bulla (
obverse and reverse) of
Urban V, Pope 1362 to 1370
7.
Pope Julius II
–
Pope Julius II, nicknamed The Fearsome Pope and The Warrior Pope, born Giuliano della Rovere, was Pope from 1 November 1503 to his death in 1513. In addition to a military policy, he personally led troops into battle on at least two occasions. There is disagreement about Juliuss year of birth, for some sources put it as late as 1453, Giuliano della Rovere was the son of Rafaello della Rovere. Francesco della Rovere was his uncle and he was educated among the Franciscans by his uncle, who took him under his special charge and later sent him to a Franciscan friary in Perugia with the purpose of obtaining knowledge of the sciences. After his uncle was elected Pope Sixtus IV, della Rovere was promoted to be cardinal, taking the title as that formerly held by his uncle. With his uncle he obtained great influence, and in addition to the archbishopric of Avignon he held no fewer than eight bishoprics, including Lausanne from 1472. In June 1474, della Rovere led an army to Todi and Spoleto, around this time, in 1483, an illegitimate daughter was born, Felice della Rovere. Della Rovere, jealous and angry, accused Borgia of being elected over him, in 1494 he joined Charles VIII of France who was undertaking a military expedition into Italy. This was, in Andrew Greeleys view, almost certainly by means of bribery with money, but also, per Ott, Ullman, and Hughes, with promises. Giuliano Della Rovere thenceforth took the name of his fourth century predecessor, Julius I, indeed, on the day of his election, he declared I will not live in the same rooms as the Borgias lived. He desecrated the Holy Church as none before and he usurped the papal power by the devils aid, and I forbid under the pain of excommunication anyone to speak or think of Borgia again. His name and memory must be forgotten and it must be crossed out of every document and memorial. All paintings made of the Borgias or for them must be covered over with black crepe, all the tombs of the Borgias must be opened and their bodies sent back to where they belong—to Spain. The Borgias apartments remained sealed until the 19th Century, the combination was, however, at first little more than nominal, and was not immediately effective in compelling the Venetians to deliver up more than a few unimportant places in the Romagna. With a campaign in 1506, he led an army to Perugia and Bologna. The refusal of Pope Clement VII to grant the annulment led to the English Reformation, the same year, he founded the Swiss Guard to provide a constant corps of soldiers to protect the Pope. On Palm Sunday,1507, Julius II entered Rome, both as a second Julius Caesar, heir to the majesty of Romes imperial glory, and in the likeness of Christ, whose vicar the pope was, and who in that capacity governed the universal Roman Church. Julius, who modelled himself after his namesake Caesar, would lead his army across the Italian peninsula under the imperial war-cry
Pope Julius II
–
Portrait of Pope Julius II by
Raphael
Pope Julius II
–
Giuliano della Rovere (left, future Julius II), and Julius II's future
cardinal-nephew,
Clemente della Rovere (right), who safeguarded Giuliano's affairs while he fled to France following a dispute with Alexander VI.
Pope Julius II
–
Giulliano della Rovere, as cardinal (left), with uncle and patron Francesco della Rovere, Pope Sixtus IV (right).
Pope Julius II
–
Leonardo Grosso della Rovere, the fourth
cardinal-nephew of Julius II accompanied him on his military campaigns in
Bologna and
Perugia, and served as his ambassador to France
8.
Dominican Order
–
Members of the order, who are referred to as Dominicans, generally carry the letters O. P. after their names, standing for Ordinis Praedicatorum, meaning of the Order of Preachers. Membership in the order includes friars, nuns, active sisters, the order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. The Dominican Order is headed by the Master of the Order, in the year 2000, there were 5,171 Dominican friars in solemn vows,917 student brothers, and 237 novices. By the year 2013 there were 6,058 Dominican friars, a number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. In England and other countries the Dominican friars are referred to as Black Friars because of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits, Dominicans were Blackfriars, as opposed to Whitefriars or Greyfriars. They are also distinct from the Augustinian Friars who wear a similar habit and their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the Domini canes, or Hounds of the Lord. The Dominican Order came into being in the Middle Ages at a time when religion began to be contemplated in a new way, men of God were no longer expected to stay behind the walls of a cloister. Instead, they travelled among the people, taking as their examples the apostles of the primitive Church. Out of this emerged two orders of mendicant friars, one, the Friars Minor, was led by Francis of Assisi, the other. Dominics new order was to be an order, trained to preach in the vernacular languages. Rather than earning their living on vast farms as the monasteries had done, at the same time, Dominic inspired the members of his order to develop a mixed spirituality. They were both active in preaching, and contemplative in study, prayer and meditation, the brethren of the Dominican Order were urban and learned, as well as contemplative and mystical in their spirituality. While these traits affected the women of the order, the nuns especially absorbed the latter characteristics, in England, the Dominican nuns blended these elements with the defining characteristics of English Dominican spirituality and created a spirituality and collective personality that set them apart. The orders origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its development and reputation. Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate, indeed, many years after St. Dominic reacted to the Cathars, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain, Tomás de Torquemada, would be drawn from the Dominican Order. As an adolescent, he had a love of theology. During his studies in Palencia, Spain, he experienced a famine, prompting Dominic to sell all of his beloved books. At the age of twenty-four or twenty-five, he was ordained to the priesthood, at that time the south of France was the stronghold of the Cathar or Albigensian heresy, named after the Duke of Albi, a Cathar sympathiser and opponent to the subsequent Albigensian Crusade
Dominican Order
Dominican Order
–
Order of Preachers
Dominican Order
–
Saint Dominic on the front cover of
Doctrina Christiana catechism with an eight-pointed star (a symbol of the
Blessed Virgin Mary) over his head. Woodcut cover, circa 1590.
Dominican Order
–
Saint Dominic (1170–1221), portrait by
El Greco, about 1600.
9.
Moors
–
Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that The term Moors has no real ethnological value. Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, Berber North Africans and Muslim Europeans. The term has also used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent. During the colonial era, the Portuguese introduced the names Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors in Sri Lanka, in 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, in 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily, developing it as a port. They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy, in 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300. The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, the Berber tribes of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English and in related variations in other European languages. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, in medieval Romance languages, variations of the Latin word for the Moors developed different applications and connotations. During the context of the Crusades and the Reconquista, the term Moors included the suggestion of infidels. Apart from these associations and context, Moor and Moorish designate a specific ethnic group speaking Hassaniya Arabic. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, in Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Some authors have pointed out that in modern colloquial Spanish use of the term moro is derogatory for Moroccans in particular, however, this designation has gained more acceptance in the south. In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many modern Filipinos call the large, local Muslim minority concentrated in Mindanao, the word is a catch-all term, as Moro may come from several distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as the Maranao people. The term was introduced by Spanish colonisers, and has since been appropriated by Filipino Muslims as an endonym, moreno can mean dark-skinned in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and the Philippines. Also in Spanish, morapio is a name for wine, especially that which has not been baptized or mixed with water. Among Spanish speakers, moro came to have a broader meaning, Moro refers to all things dark, as in Moor, moreno, etc. It was also used as a nickname, for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion, in Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where moor implies alien and non-Christian
Moors
–
Depiction of Moors in
Iberia. Taken from the
Tale of Bayad and Riyad
Moors
–
Depiction of three Moorish knights found on
Alhambra 's Ladies Tower
Moors
–
Castillian ambassadors attempting to convince Moorish Almohad king
Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada to join their alliance (contemporary depiction from The Cantigas de Santa María)
Moors
–
Reconstruction of costumes of Moorish
nobility from a German book published in 1880
10.
Jews
–
The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
Jews
–
Baruch Spinoza
Jews
–
Map of
Canaan
Jews
–
David Ben-Gurion
Jews
–
George Gershwin
11.
Alfonso the Wise
–
Alfonso X, called the Wise, was the King of Castile, León and Galicia from 30 May 1252 until his death. During the Imperial election of 1257, a dissident faction chose him to be King of the Romans on 1 April and he renounced his imperial claim in 1275, and in creating an alliance with England in 1254, his claim on Gascony as well. Alfonso X fostered the development of a court that encouraged learning. Jews, Muslims, and Christians had prominent roles in his court, Alfonso was a prolific author of Galician poetry, such as the Cantigas de Santa Maria, which are equally notable for their musical notation as for their literary merit. Alfonsos scientific interests—he is sometimes nicknamed the Astrologer —led him to sponsor the creation of the Alfonsine tables, as a legislator he introduced the first vernacular law code in Spain, the Siete Partidas. He created the Mesta, an association of farmers in the central plain. He fought a war with Portugal, but a less successful one with Granada. The end of his reign was marred by a war with his eldest surviving son, the future Sancho IV. Born in Toledo, Kingdom of Castile, Alfonso was the eldest son of Ferdinand III of Castile and his mother was the paternal cousin of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, to whom Alfonso is often compared. His maternal grandparents were Philip of Swabia and Irene Angelina, little is known about his upbringing, but he was most likely raised in Toledo. For the first nine years of his life Alfonso was only heir to Castile until his paternal grandfather king Alfonso IX of Leon died and his father united the kingdoms of Castile and Leon. He began his career as a soldier, under the command of his father, after the election of Theobald I as king of Navarre, his father tried to arrange a marriage for Alfonso with Theobalds daughter, Blanche of Navarre, but the move was unsuccessful. At the same time, he had a relationship with Mayor Guillén de Guzmán. In 1240, he married Mayor Guillén de Guzmán, but the marriage was later annulled, in the same period he conquered several Muslim strongholds in Al-Andalus alongside his father, such as Murcia, Alicante and Cadiz. In 1249, Alfonso married Violante of Aragon, the daughter of King James I of Aragon and Yolande of Hungary, Alfonso succeeded his father as King of Castile and León in 1252. The following year he invaded Portugal, capturing the region of the Algarve, King Afonso III of Portugal had to surrender, but he gained an agreement by which, after he consented to marry Alfonso Xs daughter Beatrice of Castile, the land would be returned to their heirs. In 1263 he returned Algarve to the King of Portugal and signed the Treaty of Badajoz, in 1254 Alfonso X signed a treaty of alliance with the King of England and Duke of Aquitaine, Henry III, supporting him in the war against Louis IX of France. In 1256, at the death of William II of Holland, Alfonsos descent from the Hohenstaufen through his mother, Alfonsos election as King of the Romans by the imperial prince-electors misled him into complicated schemes that involved excessive expense but never succeeded
Alfonso the Wise
–
Comtemporary portrait of Alfonso X.
Alfonso the Wise
–
Alfonso X as a judge, from his Libro de los Dados, completed ca. 1280.
Alfonso the Wise
–
Statue of Alfonso X in
Madrid by
José Alcoverro (1892).
Alfonso the Wise
–
Alfonso X of Castile
12.
Catholic Monarchs
–
The Catholic Monarchs is the joint title used in history for Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. They married on October 19,1469, in the city of Valladolid, Isabella was eighteen years old and it is generally accepted by most scholars that the unification of Spain can essentially be traced back to the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was constantly on the move, the title of Catholic King and Queen was bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella by Pope Alexander VI in 1494, in recognition of their defence of the Catholic faith within their realms. Catholic monarchs or kings can also be used in a generic sense, Isabella was named heir to the throne of Castile by her half brother Henry IV of Castile in the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando. She became Queen of Castile in 1474 and her niece, Joanna of Castile, attempted to gain the throne by bringing in the foreign help of Afonso V of Portugal, leading to the War of Castilian Succession. More recently, some speculate that Joanna was the legitimate successor, Isabellas supporters came out ahead in good part due to Aragons support through Ferdinand, and she officially won in 1479 via the Treaty of Alcáçovas. Ferdinand became the King of Aragon in 1479, the Catholic Monarchs set out to restore royal authority in Spain. To accomplish their goal, they first created a group named the Holy Brotherhood and these men were used as a judicial police force for Castile, as well as to attempt to keep Castilian nobles in check. To establish a more uniform system, the Catholic Monarchs created the Royal Council. This establishment of authority is known as the Pacification of Castile. Even after his death and the union of the crowns under one monarch, the Aragonese, Catalan, further, the monarchs continued ruling through a form of medieval contractualism, which made their rule pre-modern in a few ways. One of those is that they traveled from town to town throughout the kingdom in order to promote loyalty, another is that each community and region was connected to them via loyalty to the crown, rather than bureaucratic ties. Ferdinand and Isabella were noted for being the monarchs of the newly united Spain at the dawn of the modern era and they had a goal of conquering the Muslim kingdom of Granada and completing the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The beginnings of a series of known as the Granada War began with the attack on Alhama de Granada. The attack was led by two Andalusian nobles, Rodrigo Ponce de León and Diego de Merlo, the city fell to Andalusian forces in 1482. The Granada War was aided by Pope Sixtus IV by granting a tithe, after 10 years of fighting the Granada War ended in 1492 when Emir Boabdil surrendered the keys of the Alhambra Palace in Granada to the Castilian soldiers. After a number of revolts, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion from Spain of all Jews, the Inquisition had been created in the twelfth century by Pope Lucius III to fight heresy in the south of what is now France and was constituted in a number of European kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs decided to introduce the Inquisition to Castile, the bull gave the monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors
Catholic Monarchs
–
Ferdinand on the left with Isabella on the right. The inscription above identifies them as "Lord Ferdinand and Lady Isabella, King and Queen of Castille and of Aragon".
Catholic Monarchs
–
Isabella and Ferdinand, the Catholic Monarchs
Catholic Monarchs
–
Ferdinand and Isabella with their subjects
Catholic Monarchs
–
Christopher Columbus at the Court of the Catholic Monarchs by
Juan Cordero, 1850.
13.
Juan de Mal Lara
–
Juan de Mal Lara was a Spanish humanist, poet, playwright and paremiologue at the University of Seville during the period of the Spanish Renaissance in the reign of Philip II of Spain. Mal Lara studied Latin and Greek grammar at the College of San Miguel in Sevilla and his teacher was Pedro Fernandez de Castilleja and later Mal Lara taught humanities to Mateo Alemán. In 1548 he returned to Seville to study Arts, by 1550 he taught at humanities and literature in a grammar school in Sevilla. Mal Lara was investigated by the Spanish Inquisition in 1561, but was cleared of all charges in 1566 and he married to Maria de Ojeda with whom he had two daughters, Gila and Silvestra. He also worked with scholars and historians as important as Gonzalo Argote de Molina, an unpublished biography of Mal Lara is preserved in the Municipal Archives of Seville. Mal Lara also described the lavish decoration of the walls of Seville with figures, the book was published after the victory of the monarch against the Moorish rebellion of Alpujarras. Psyche, a poem in Hendecasyllable style was not well received at the time. It was inspired Psyche and Cupid included in The Golden Ass a novel of Apuleius and his fifth book was published by Mario Gasparini at the Trilingual University College of Salamanca in 1947. A probable work entitled Tragedy of San Hermenegildo is lost, Juan de la Cueva, in his Poetic Exemplar places Mal Lara him among the classical playwrights in the Aristotelian tradition, although with some reservations. The Spirited Hercules is a poetic work formerly believed lost. It was highly praised by his contemporaries and contains details about the Seville group and it is written in stanzas and divided into twelve books, each with four songs. Thus, the Nemean lion symbolizes the Revolt of the Comuneros, the poem ends with the vision of king Philip II as Theseus, essentially a new Hercules to relieve Atlas. Mal Lara started this work in 1549, but he died suddenly, F. Sánchez y Escribano, Juan de Mal Lara, su vida y sus obras, New York, Hispanic Institute in the United States,1941. Juan de Mal Lara, Obras completas, edited by and prologue of Manuel Bernal Rodríguez, Madrid, Turner,1996, notionally in three volumes of which only two are available. Explication et argumentation dans la Philosophia vulgar de Juan de Mal Lara, les proverbes dans lEurope des XVIe et XVIIe siècles, Réalités et Représentations, ed. by Mary-Nelly Fouligny and Marie Roig Miranda, pp. 223-238. Juan de Mal Lara at the Charles III University of Madrid
Juan de Mal Lara
–
Juan de Mal Lara.
14.
Fernando de Herrera
–
Fernando de Herrera, called El Divino, was a 16th-century Spanish poet and man of letters. Much of what is known about him comes from Libro de descripción de verdaderos retratos de illustres y memorables varones by Francisco Pacheco, although Herreras family was only moderately wealthy, they were highly esteemed in Seville. During Herreras lifetime, Seville was a port city from which many transatlantic voyages would embark. This active atmosphere, however, was somewhat contradictory to Herreras character and he therefore sought solace from the busy city life through his poetry. However, whereas spending much of his time in seclusion allowed him to concentrate on his work and artistic interests, the academic community, especially Rodrigo Caro and Juan Gutiérrez Rufo, mocked him for his unorthodox ways. Although well-learned and knowledgeable — Herrera was an admirer of Italian poetry, the classics. He admired one Spanish poet in particular, Garcilaso de la Vega, Herrera did not just have an antiquarian interest in knowledge, however, he was interested in current events, especially those related to the military. Evidence of this is seen in his patriotic canciones in which he expresses feelings toward contemporary military leaders, to accommodate his need for refuge, Herrera took minor orders in the Catholic Church and received a benefice in San Andrés, a parish of Seville. However, though Herrera displayed a love for solitude, he was no hermit, around 1559, he struck up a friendship with Don Álvaro Colón y Portugal, Count of Gelves, and his wife, Doña Leonor de Milán de Córdoba y Aragón. Herrera was frequently invited by the count to attend his tertulia, a meeting of a literary circle where he would form many friendships with local poets, men of letters, painters. It was his relationship with Doña Leonor that provided Herrera with his muse, Herreras love for Doña Leonor inspired his love poems. However, they were never enough to provoke the feelings in her. After the death of Leonor in 1581, Herrera lost his desire to write love poetry. In addition, the death of the count in 1582 ended his attendance at the disbanded literary tertulia at the palace, henceforth, Herrera devoted himself to two major projects, a history of the world up to the death of Charles V and a biography of Thomas More. The writer continued to work up to his death in 1597 at the age of 63, Herreras meticulous study and eventual mastery of poetic discourse earned him the name el Divino, a name given him by Miguel Cervantes, author of Don Quixote. In addition, his knowledge of poetic topics helped him to one of the leaders of the school of poets to which Herrera belonged in Seville. The works of Herrera cover a range of subjects, representing his large span of knowledge. Herreras love poetry inspired by his muse, the Countess of Gelves, the first, Rimas Juventiles, is defined by Herreras description of love as a blissful state, in which there is neither pain nor suffering, in this state, even the impossible can happen
Fernando de Herrera
–
Portrait of Fernando de Herrera (1599) by
Francisco Pacheco.
15.
Francisco Pacheco
–
He was a student of Luis Fernandez, and did much of his learning by copying works of the Italian masters. He visited Madrid and Toledo in 1611, studying the work of El Greco, then returned to Seville and he married a daughter of de Miranda and had one daughter, Juana Pacheco. Pachecos school emphasized the correct representation of religious subjects, not least because he was the official censor of Sevilles Inquisition. His own work reflects those constraints, paintings such as the Last Judgment and Martyrs of Granada are monumental in scale, in addition to material on iconography, materials and technique, Pachecos Arte de la pintura includes valuable biographical information on Spanish painters of the time. Priscilla E. Muller, Francisco Pacheco, His development as a painter Libro de descripción de verdaderos retratos de ilustres y memorables varones, ducal House of Medinaceli Foundation Velázquez, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Pacheco
Francisco Pacheco
–
Portrait of Francisco Pacheco (1622) by
Diego Velázquez.
Francisco Pacheco
–
Francisco Pacheco, Lo Judici Final ("The Last Judgment"), Musée Goya,
Castres,
France.
16.
Alexander von Humboldt
–
Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was a Prussian geographer, naturalist, explorer, and influential proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher. Humboldts quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography, Humboldts advocacy of long-term systematic geophysical measurement laid the foundation for modern geomagnetic and meteorological monitoring. Between 1799 and 1804, Humboldt travelled extensively in Latin America and his description of the journey was written up and published in an enormous set of volumes over 21 years. Humboldt was one of the first people to propose that the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean were once joined and this important work also motivated a holistic perception of the universe as one interacting entity. Alexander von Humboldt was born in Berlin in Prussia on 14 September 1769 and he was baptized as a baby in the Lutheran faith, with the Duke of Brunswick serving as godfather. At age 42, Alexander Georg was rewarded for his services in the Seven Years War with the post of Royal Chamberlain and he profited from the contract to lease state lotteries and tobacco sales. He first married the daughter of Prussian General Adjutant Schweder, in 1766, Alexander Georg married Maria Elisabeth Colomb, a well-educated woman and widow of Baron Hollwede, with whom she had a son. Alexander Georg and Maria Elisabeth had three children, a daughter, who died young, and then two sons, Wilhelm and Alexander and her first-born son, Wilhelms and Alexanders half-brother, was something of a neer do well, not often mentioned in the family history. Alexander Georg died in 1779, leaving the brothers Humboldt in the care of their emotionally distant mother, Humboldts mother expected them to become civil servants of the Prussian state. The money Baron Holwede left to Alexanders mother became, after her death, instrumental in funding Alexanders explorations, due to his youthful penchant for collecting and labeling plants, shells and insects, Alexander received the playful title of the little apothecary. On April 25,1789, he matriculated at Göttingen, then known for the lectures of C. G. Heyne and his brother Wilhelm was already a student at Göttingen, but they did not interact much since their intellectual interests were quite different. His vast and varied interests were by this time fully developed, at Göttingen he met Georg Forster, a naturalist who had been with Captain James Cook on his second voyage. Humboldt traveled with Forster in Europe, the two traveled to England, Humboldts first sea voyage, The Netherlands, and France. In England, he met Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society, the scientific friendship between Banks and Humboldt lasted until Bankss death in 1820, and the two shared botanical specimens for study. Banks also mobilized his scientific contacts in later years to aid Humboldts work, Humboldts scientific excursion up the Rhine resulted in his 1790 treatise Mineralogische Beobachtungen über einige Basalte am Rhein. Humboldts passion for travel was of long standing, Humboldts talents were devoted to the purpose of preparing himself as a scientific explorer. During this period, his brother Wilhelm married, but Alexander did not attend the nuptials, Humboldt graduated from the Freiberg School of Mines in 1792 and was appointed to a Prussian government position in the Department of Mines as an inspector in Bayreuth and the Fichtel mountains
Alexander von Humboldt
–
Alexander von Humboldt (by
Joseph Stieler, 1843)
Alexander von Humboldt
–
The Tegel Palace (or Humboldt Palace), where Alexander von Humboldt and
Wilhelm von Humboldt lived for several years.
Alexander von Humboldt
–
Portrait of Alexander von Humboldt by Friedrich Georg Weitsch, 1806
Alexander von Humboldt
–
Geography of Plants, 1805.
17.
Campus
–
A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centers or dining halls, a modern campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. Examples include the Googleplex and the Apple Campus, the word derives from a Latin word for field and was first used to describe the large field adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey in 1774. The field separated Princeton from the nearby town. Some other American colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, a school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students, the notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system. The campus evolved from the model in Europe to a diverse set of independent styles in the United States. The meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the 20th century, sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington is a good example, hospitals, and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their facilities
Campus
–
Joseph Jacques Ramée 's original plan for
Union College in
Schenectady,
New York, the first comprehensively planned campus in the
United States
18.
SUNY New Paltz
–
The State University of New York at New Paltz, known as SUNY New Paltz or New Paltz for short, is a public college in New Paltz, in the U. S. state of New York. It traces its origins to the New Paltz Classical School, an institution founded in 1828. The college is one of four SUNY institutions in the New York metropolitan area, following a decimating fire in 1884, the New Paltz Classical School offered their land to the state government of New York contingent upon the establishment of a normal school. In 1885, the New Paltz Normal and Training School was established to prepare teachers to practice their professions in the schools of New York. It was granted the ability to award degrees in 1938, when it was renamed the State Teachers College at New Paltz. In 1947, a program in education was established. When the State University of New York was established by legislative act in 1948, an art education program was added in 1951. In 1960, the college was authorized to confer liberal arts degrees, there were several student-led demonstrations in the late 1960s and early 1970s, primarily against the Vietnam War. In the spring of 1967, a protesting military recruitment on campus blocked the entrance to the Student Union for two days. While there were scores of demonstrators the first day, all but 13 dispersed before New York State Troopers arrived, College President John J. Neumaier posted bail. Pastor was released and charges were dropped, following the Cambodian Campaign and concomitant Kent State shootings in May 1970, there was a protest leading to a five-day student occupation of the Administration Building. Amid this tumult, the general education program was eliminated in 1971. A program in African American studies was established in 1968, instructors in the program were hired by students and compensated through student activity fees. Under Chandlers leadership, the college began to offer degree programs in nursing, engineering, journalism. The Legislative Gazette, a journalism and political science internship in which live and work in Albany. On December 29,1991, the campus was the scene of a widely reported PCB incident that contaminated four dormitories, as well as the Coykendall Science Building, under the direction of the county and state health departments, the university began a massive, thorough clean-up effort. As an additional precaution,29 other buildings were thoroughly tested and, if necessary, the clean-up process lasted until May 1995. Since 1994, PCBs have not been used on the SUNY New Paltz campus, concerns about this incident have been covered in New York Times articles by Michael Winerip, as well as investigative reporting in the Woodstock Times and Sierra magazine by Eric Francis
SUNY New Paltz
SUNY New Paltz
–
State University of New York at New Paltz
SUNY New Paltz
–
Old Main, the oldest building on campus.
SUNY New Paltz
–
van den Berg Hall is the second oldest building on campus. Today it is the home to the business program.
19.
Wells College
–
Wells College is a private coeducational liberal arts college located in Aurora, Cayuga County, New York, on the eastern shore of Cayuga Lake. The college has cross-enrollment with Cornell University and Ithaca College, and is considered Cornell Universitys sister school and it is strengthening its off-campus study programs and has created centers in sustainability, business and entrepreneurship, and book arts. Undergraduate students are required to participate in at least two off-campus internships during their time at Wells, Wells College is located in the Finger Lakes region of New York. It is about an hour from Syracuse and Rochester and a drive from both Ithaca and Auburn. It is part of the Aurora Village-Wells College Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the college has five residence halls, seven academic buildings, and an average student body of 550. The student to faculty ratio is 9,1, the Wells motto is Habere et Dispertire - To Have and To Share. Wells was established as a college in 1868 by Henry Wells, founder of Wells Fargo. Wells had the building for Wells Seminary constructed on property he donated, on August 9,1888, the Colleges main building burned to the ground. The building was replaced in 1890 by the current Main Building, Henry Wells 1852 mansion, Glen Park, was purchased by the Alumnae Association in 1906 and given to the College for its use. It is now part of the campus as a hall for upper class women. In 1965, Walter Netsch designed the Louis Jefferson Long Library, the design of this award-winning building inspired two other buildings on campus, Barler Music Hall and Campbell Art Building. In 1886, Frances Folsom Cleveland Preston, Wells Class of 1885 and she was the first First Lady to be a college graduate and the only First Lady to be wed in the White House. She served on the Colleges Board of Trustees for 50 years, after 136 years as a womens college, Wells announced on October 2,2004 that it would become a co-educational institution in 2005. This drew student protests on campus, some parents of students also became involved in the protests. Some of the said that their protests were patterned after ones at Mills College in the early 1990s. A website called Wells for Women was established After the colleges decision to adopt coeducation was approved by its board, students filed a lawsuit, the college adopted coeducation in 2005. Classes at Wells are taught seminar-style by professors — not teaching assistants —, the Washington Monthlys College Rankings ranks Wells College as #30 among all liberal arts colleges in the United States—as well as the top such college in New York state—in the September 2006 issue. In 2006, Wells was ranked 12th in the nation by the Princeton Review for being best at encouraging class discussion
Wells College
–
Wells College tower
Wells College
–
Wells College
20.
Real Colegio Complutense
–
The Real Colegio Complutense at Harvard University, The RCC at Harvard is an academic institution aimed at providing intellectual exchange between Harvard and the Spanish Academia. It is located at 26, Trowbridge Street, Cambridge and it follows the tradition of the Royal Spanish College, founded in 1364 to host Spanish Visiting Scholars at the University of Bologna. In November 1990, the Dean of the Universidad Complutense de Madrid at the time, the King of Spain inaugurated the building in 1993 and the agreement was extended in 2009. RCC is currently celebrating its 25th anniversary, the RCC accord is the only one of its sort ever to have been approved by Harvard. The institution is directed jointly by the President of Harvard and the Rector of Complutense University, the RCC academic and advisory councils include outstanding members from both universities. The current director is Prof. José Manuel Martínez Sierra, Jean Monnet ad personam Professor for the Study of European Union Law and he is Faculty Affiliated of the Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies at Harvard and Faculty Associate of the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies. He is also a Member of the IGLP Advisory Council at Harvard Law School, every year, the RCC offers Research Grants to a select number of Spanish scholars who conduct their research at Harvard as Visiting Scholars. It also offers a number of Graduate Fellowships to Spanish students who attend the different Graduate Schools at Harvard, as part of this framework, the institution hosts academic lectures and scientific events for an open audience, including Harvard professors and students. The RCC has signed agreements with Spanish and International Institutions to organize summer seminars. These institutions include the ISDI, the Fundación Rafael del Pino, the International Academic Program of the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, RCC Website Harvard University Universidad Complutense de Madrid Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Universidad Rey Juan Carlos Universidad de Alcalá Universidad de Sevilla
Real Colegio Complutense
–
RCC Building
Real Colegio Complutense
–
Logo RCC
Real Colegio Complutense
–
History
21.
Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
Harvard University
–
Engraving of
Harvard College by
Paul Revere, 1767
Harvard University
–
Harvard University
Harvard University
–
John Harvard statue,
Harvard Yard
Harvard University
–
Richard Rummell's 1906 watercolor landscape view, facing northeast.
22.
Carmen
–
Carmen is an opera in four acts by French composer Georges Bizet. The libretto was written by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy, based on a novella of the title by Prosper Mérimée. The opera was first performed at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 3 March 1875, Bizet died suddenly after the 33rd performance, unaware that the work would achieve international acclaim within the following ten years. The opera is written in the genre of opéra comique with musical numbers separated by dialogue and it is set in southern Spain and tells the story of the downfall of Don José, a naïve soldier who is seduced by the wiles of the fiery gypsy Carmen. José abandons his sweetheart and deserts from his military duties, yet loses Carmens love to the glamorous toreador Escamillo. The depictions of life, immorality, and lawlessness. After the premiere, most reviews were critical, and the French public was generally indifferent, Carmen initially gained its reputation through a series of productions outside France, and was not revived in Paris until 1883, thereafter it rapidly acquired popularity at home and abroad. Later commentators have asserted that Carmen forms the bridge between the tradition of opéra comique and the realism or verismo that characterised late 19th-century Italian opera. The opera has been recorded many times since the first acoustical recording in 1908, in the Paris of the 1860s, despite being a Prix de Rome laureate, Bizet struggled to get his stage works performed. The capitals two main state-funded opera houses—the Opéra and the Opéra-Comique—followed conservative repertoires that restricted opportunities for young native talent, Bizet was delighted with the Opéra-Comique commission, and expressed to his friend Edmund Galabert his satisfaction in the absolute certainty of having found my path. It was Bizet who first proposed an adaptation of Prosper Mérimées novella Carmen, Bizet may first have encountered the story during his Rome sojourn of 1858–60, since his journals record Mérimée as one of the writers whose works he absorbed in those years. Cast details are as provided by Mina Curtiss from the original piano, the stage designs are credited to Charles Ponchard. Place, Seville, Spain, and surrounding hills Time, Around 1820 Act 1 A square, on the right, a door to the tobacco factory. A group of soldiers relax in the square, waiting for the changing of the guard, moralès tells her that José is not yet on duty and invites her to wait with them. She declines, saying she will return later, José arrives with the new guard, which is greeted and imitated by a crowd of urchins. As the factory bell rings, the cigarette girls emerge and exchange banter with young men in the crowd, Carmen enters and sings her provocative habanera on the untameable nature of love. The men plead with her to choose a lover, and after some teasing she throws a flower to Don José, as the women go back to the factory, Micaëla returns and gives José a letter and a kiss from his mother. He reads that his mother wants him to home and marry Micaëla
Carmen
–
Cartoon from
Journal amusant, 1911
Carmen
–
Galli-Marié as Carmen
Carmen
–
A lithograph of act 1 in the premiere performance, by Pierre-Auguste Lamy, 1875
Carmen
–
Magdalena Kožená and
Jonas Kaufmann at the
Salzburg Festival 2012
23.
Georges Bizet
–
Georges Bizet, registered at birth as Alexandre César Léopold Bizet, was a French composer of the romantic era. During a brilliant student career at the Conservatoire de Paris, Bizet won many prizes and he was recognised as an outstanding pianist, though he chose not to capitalise on this skill and rarely performed in public. Returning to Paris after almost three years in Italy, he found that the main Parisian opera theatres preferred the established classical repertoire to the works of newcomers. His keyboard and orchestral compositions were largely ignored, as a result, his career stalled. Restless for success, he began many theatrical projects during the 1860s, neither of his two operas that reached the stage in this time—Les pêcheurs de perles and La jolie fille de Perth—were immediately successful. The production of Bizets final opera, Carmen, was delayed because of fears that its themes of betrayal and murder would offend audiences. After its premiere on 3 March 1875, Bizet was convinced that the work was a failure, Bizets marriage to Geneviève Halévy was intermittently happy and produced one son. After his death, his work, apart from Carmen, was generally neglected, manuscripts were given away or lost, and published versions of his works were frequently revised and adapted by other hands. He founded no school and had no obvious disciples or successors, after years of neglect, his works began to be performed more frequently in the 20th century. Later commentators have acclaimed him as a composer of brilliance and originality whose premature death was a significant loss to French musical theatre, Georges Bizet was born in Paris on 25 October 1838. He was registered as Alexandre César Léopold, but baptised as Georges on 16 March 1840 and his father, Adolphe Bizet, had been a hairdresser and wigmaker before becoming a singing teacher despite his lack of formal training. He also composed a few works, including at least one published song, in 1837 Adolphe married Aimée Delsarte, against the wishes of her family who considered him a poor prospect, the Delsartes, though impoverished, were a cultured and highly musical family. Aimée was an accomplished pianist, while her brother François Delsarte was a singer and teacher who performed at the courts of both Louis Philippe and Napoleon III. François Delsartes wife Rosine, a prodigy, had been an assistant professor of solfège at the Conservatoire de Paris at the age of 13. Georges, a child, showed early aptitude for music and quickly picked up the basics of musical notation from his mother. This precocity convinced his ambitious parents that he was ready to begin studying at the Conservatoire even though he was only nine years old. Georges was interviewed by Joseph Meifred, the horn virtuoso who was a member of the Conservatoires Committee of Studies, Meifred was so struck by the boys demonstration of his skills that he waived the age rule and offered to take him as soon as a place became available. Bizet was admitted to the Conservatoire on 9 October 1848, two weeks before his 10th birthday and he made an early impression, within six months he had won first prize in solfège, a feat that impressed Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann, the Conservatoires former professor of piano
Georges Bizet
–
Georges Bizet in 1875
Georges Bizet
–
Part of the
Paris Conservatoire, where Bizet studied from 1848 to 1857 (photographed in 2009)
Georges Bizet
–
Charles Gounod, depicted here in later life, was a mentor and inspiration to Bizet in the latter's Conservatoire years.
Georges Bizet
–
The Villa Medici, the official home of the French Académie in Rome since 1803
24.
Barrio Macarena
–
La Macarena is the traditional and historical name of the area of Seville located north of the city center. Nowadays, La Macarena is the name of the placed on both sides of the north city wall, but also a much bigger administrative district of Seville. The origin of the toponym Macarena is disputed, whereas some authors think that it is derived from Arabic, others maintain that it is from Latin. Regarding Latin, Macarena would be derived from the male name Macarius and it is supposed that a patrician named Macarius would have been an important Roman landowner in this area. On the other hand, it is known that during Muslim rule, the still existing city-wall gate was named Bab-al-Makrin, the neighbourhood of La Macarena lends its name to the sculpture of Virgin of Hope of Macarena, sometimes known simply as La Macarena. Many Sevillian women are named after this statue and it should be noted that this is, in origin, the reason for the name of Los del Ríos Spanish-language song Macarena. The neighborhood is known for housing the Basilica of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza Macarena, the procession in the early morning of Good Friday is one of the largest, most popular, and fervent in the whole of Spain. The wooden statue of Our Lady of Hope Macarena dates from the 17th century, the Neobaroque Basilica was built by Aurelio Gómez Millán in the 20th century. The largest remaining portion of the Almohad city walls persists in La Macarena neighbourhood. It spans between two of the old city gates, from the monumental Puerta de la Macarena at west, next to the Basilica, to the Puerta de Cordoba at east, the Parliament of Andalusia is housed in the old building of the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas. Dated from 16th century, it is one of the best examples of Andalusian Mannerism, the Torre de los Perdigones, placed in Los Perdigones gardens next to the Guadalquivir river, is the last remain of a foundry building from the late 19th century. Since 2007 it contains a panoramic room-sized camera obscura, in the nearby Feria street is located the oldest marketplace of Seville, the Mercado de la Feria. The building dates from 18th century and the greengrocers, butchers and fishmongers stalls constitute a traditional, one can get to and from La Macarena by bus. The TUSSAM C3/C4 lines are circular, running clockwise and counter clockwise all along the periphery of the historical center, lines C1/C2 are also circular, and connect La Macarena with outer neighbourhoods, such as Nervión, La Cartuja and Los Remedios
Barrio Macarena
–
Fray Diego street
Barrio Macarena
–
The famed
Virgin of Hope of Macarena in close-up detail
Barrio Macarena
–
Macarena gate
Barrio Macarena
–
Hotel Macarena
25.
La Cartuja
–
Isla de la Cartuja was an island in the Guadalquivir River at Seville, Spain. The islands name derives from the monastery located on the site, the Monasterio de Santa María de las Cuevas. The worlds fair to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the first Columbian expeditions, before 1992, the island was completely isolated between two Guadalquivir river branches. After the rearrangement of the channel system on the occasion of Expo 92. The former island is connected by bridges, such as the Calatrava designed Puente del Alamillo. Among other infrastructures and buildings located on the Isla de la Cartuja, the most important is Cartuja 93 park, museums in the area include The Centro Andaluz de Arte Contemporáneo ) in the former Monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas also known as the Monastery of the Cartuja. The neighbourhood and city district has been the focus of plans for at least a decade. New residential areas and commercial zones have been developed in the neighborhood, and major plans, such as the skyscraper Cajasol Tower, now known as the Sevilla Tower and recently completed
La Cartuja
–
Bioclimatic sphere of the
Expo '92.
La Cartuja
–
Barqueta Bridge and
Calatrava 's
Alamillo Bridge in the background.
26.
Alfonso Guerra
–
Alfonso Guerra González is a Spanish politician. A leading member of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party, he served as president of the government of Spain from 1982 to 1991. He currently represents Seville province in Congress, being the deputy that has served since 1977 without interruptions. In 1988 Guerra received a degree from the Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal in Lima, Peru. Guerra was a controversial politician, noted for his acid discourse against his opponents - which was criticised as demagogy by his political adversaries. He was forced to quit his position as vice-president after a scandal involving his brother Juan Guerra. On 5 November 2014, Guerra announced that he would be resigning from congress at the end of the session in December 2014. At the time of his announcement, he was the longest serving member of congress
Alfonso Guerra
–
Alfonso Guerra
27.
Mark D. Levine
–
Mark D. Levine is the Council member for the 7th District of the New York City Council. The district includes Morningside Heights, West Harlem, part of the Upper West Side, born in Chicago, Illinois, Levine grew up in Columbia, Maryland. He majored in physics at Haverford College and the University of Seville and he received a Masters in Public Policy from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1995. Levine taught bilingual math and science at Junior High School 149 in the South Bronx from 1991 to 1993 and he was a Teach For America corps member in the program’s early years. In 1994 he founded Neighborhood Trust Federal Credit Union, a financial institution serving low-income families in the Washington Heights section of Northern Manhattan. Levine ran for the New York City Council in 2001, finishing second in a ten-way Democratic field, in 2007 Levine was elected Democratic District Leader in the 71st Assembly District, Part A, representing parts of Hamilton Heights/West Harlem and Washington Heights. He was a supporter of Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential primary. In 2009 Levine founded the Barack Obama Democratic Club of Upper Manhattan, in 2010 he ran for New York State Senate in the 31st District, finishing second in a four-way race with 39% of the vote. Levine took office in January,2014 and he chairs the City Councils Parks Committee, and is a member of the following committees, finance, education, housing and buildings, government operations, and rules. He is chair of the New York City Council Jewish Caucus, is a member of the Progressive Caucus, Mark Levine’s official website Mark Levines Twitter feed
Mark D. Levine
–
Manhattan
28.
Luis Cernuda
–
Luis Cernuda was a Spanish poet, a member of the Generation of 27. During the Spanish Civil War, in early 1938, he went to the UK to deliver some lectures and he taught in the universities of Glasgow and Cambridge before moving in 1947 to the US. In the 1950s he moved to Mexico, while he continued to write poetry, he also published wide-ranging books of critical essays, covering French, English and German as well as Spanish literature. He was frank about his homosexuality at a time when this was problematic and his collected poems were published under the title La realidad y el deseo. Cernuda was born in the Barrio Santa Cruz, Calle Conde de Tójar 6, in Seville in 1902, the son of a colonel in the Regiment of Engineers. His first encounter with poetry came at the age of 9 when he glanced through a copy of Bécquers Rimas that had lent to his sisters by their cousins Luisa. In 1914, the moved into the Engineers Barracks in the Prado. In 1918, they moved to Calle del Aire, where he would write the poems of Perfil del aire. In 1919 he began to study Law at the University of Seville and his extreme shyness prevented him from mentioning his literary activities until Salinas notice was caught by a prose poem published in a student magazine. He gave Cernuda encouragement and urged him to both classical Spanish poetry and modern French literature. It was at Salinas suggestion that Cernuda sent his first collection of poetry, Perfil del aire, to Altolaguirre and Prados, as was the practice in those days, many such magazines published collections of poetry as supplements. His father died in 1920 and he continued to live at home with his mother, in 1923 he did military service in the Regiment of Cavalry. In 1924, as he was reaching the end of his undergraduate course and these stimulated his poetic vocation and helped to guide his readings of French literature. He became a Bachelor of Law in September 1925 but was undecided about what to do next and he thought about joining the diplomatic service but decided not to on discovering that it would entail a move to Madrid. In October, Salinas arranged for him to make the acquaintance of Juan Ramón Jiménez in the gardens of the Alcázar of Seville. Although he later described himself at that time as inexperto, aislado en Sevilla and his indecision about a choice of career continued through 1926-27. Although he took no part in the proceedings, he did get the chance to read some of his poems. His mother died in July 1928 and, at the start of September and he spent a few days in Málaga with Altolaguirre, Prados and José María Hinojosa before moving to Madrid
Luis Cernuda
–
Luis Cernuda
Luis Cernuda
–
Birthplace of Luis Cernuda in Seville
Luis Cernuda
–
The Central Library - University of Mexico.
Luis Cernuda
–
Emmanuel College, Cambridge
29.
Pedro Salinas
–
Pedro Salinas y Serrano was a Spanish poet, a member of the Generation of 27, as well as a university teacher, scholar and literary critic. In 1937, he delivered the Turnbull lectures at Johns Hopkins University and these were later published under the title Reality and the Poet in Spanish Poetry. He was born in Madrid in the Calle de Toledo,1891, Salinas lived his early years in the heart of the city and went to school first in the Colegio Hispano-Francés and then in the Instituto Nacional de Segunda Enseñanza, both close by the church. His father, a cloth-merchant, died in 1899 and he began to study Law at the Universidad central in 1908 and in 1910 started to study History concurrently. He graduated successfully in both courses in 1913, during his undergraduate years, he began to write and publish poems in small circulation journals such as Prometeo. In 1914 he became the Spanish lector at the Collège de Sorbonne in the University of Paris until 1917 and he had married Margarita Bonmarti, a Spanish girl of Algerian descent whom he had met on his summer holidays in Santa Pola, Alicante, in December 1915. She had been born in 1884 and they had two children, Soledad born in 1920 and Jaime born in 1925. His academic life seemed to act as a model for his younger contemporary Jorge Guillén with whom he struck up a friendship in 1920. In 1918 he was appointed Professor of Spanish Language and Literature at the University of Seville and he held the post until 1928, one of his students in Seville was Luis Cernuda in the academic year 1919-20, to whom he gave special encouragement. He urged him to read modern French literature, in particular André Gide and he continued to publish poems in magazines such as España and La Pluma. In vacations, he spent time as a lecturer at the Residencia de Estudiantes, in April 1926, he was present at the gathering in Madrid where the first plans to celebrate the tercentenary of Góngoras death were laid. Salinas was to edit the volume devoted to the sonnets, a project never came to fruition. While at Cambridge, his translation of the first two volumes and part of the third of Marcel Prousts In Search of Lost Time into Spanish was published, and in 1925, his modernised version of El Poema de Mío Cid was published by Revista de Occidente. In 1928 he became a researcher at the Centro de Estudios Históricos in Madrid before becoming director of studies for foreigners at the University of Madrid. In 1930, he became a professor of Spanish literature at Madrid and doubled up as originator, organiser and this school was set up to accommodate 200 Spanish students and an international teaching staff. On 8 March 1933, he was present at the premiere in Madrid of García Lorcas play Bodas de sangre, in August 1933, he was able to host performances at the Magdalena Palace in Santander by the travelling theatre company La Barraca that Lorca led. It was there that Lorca read his new play La casa de Bernarda Alba for the last time, in the spring of 1937, he delivered a series of lectures as the Turnbull Professor at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, on Poet and Reality in Spanish Literature. In the summer of year, he taught in the Spanish faculty of Middlebury College
Pedro Salinas
–
Pedro Salinas
30.
List of early modern universities in Europe
–
The list of early modern universities in Europe comprises all universities that existed in the early modern age in Europe. It also includes short-lived foundations and educational institutions whose university status is a matter of debate, the operation of the degree-awarding university with its corporate organization and relative autonomy, which had emerged in the Christian medieval world, was continued into the new era. The number of universities which had been in existence at one time during the period rose from around eighty medieval universities to nearly two hundred, there are various reasons for this assertion. No other European institution has spread over the world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelors degree, the licentiate, the degree. The list is sorted by the date of recognition, at places where more than one university was established, the name of the institution is given in brackets. Frijhoff, Willem, Patterns, in, Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, vol. II, Universities in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press,1996, ISBN 0-521-36106-0, pp. 43–113 Pécsi Tudományegyetem, University of Pécs,1367, Eds. Fényes, Miklós, Középkori egyetemek Magyarországon, A Pécsi Egyetem története, in, Bibliographie internationale lhistoire des Universités, II, Genève, herbst, Jürgen, Exporting Models, in, Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, A History of the University in Europe. Vol. II, Universities in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press,1996, ISBN 0-521-36106-0, pp. 256–284 Rüegg, Walter, the University as a European Institution, in, Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I, Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press,1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. XIX–XX Rüegg, Walter, A History of the University in Europe. Vol. III, Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, Cambridge University Press,2004, ISBN 978-0-521-36107-1 Rüegg, Walter, A History of the University in Europe. Vol. IV, Universities Since 1945, Cambridge University Press,2011, ISBN 978-0-521-36108-8 List of universities and colleges in Europe History of European research universities
List of early modern universities in Europe
–
The
University of Altdorf, Germany, in 1714
List of early modern universities in Europe
–
16th century building of the
University of Évora, Portugal.
List of early modern universities in Europe
–
Europe
_001.jpg)
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "University of Seville". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
