1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
2.
Universities in the United Kingdom
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Universities in the United Kingdom have generally been instituted by Royal Charter, Papal Bull, Act of Parliament or an instrument of government under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. For new public universities, approval is required from the Privy Council, the exact criteria for University title vary between the four countries of the United Kingdom. These include a number of institutions that feature regularly in the tables of the worlds top universities, such as UCL. The central co-ordinating bodies for universities in the United Kingdom is Universities UK, Universities in Britain date back to the dawn of mediaeval studium generale, with Oxford and Cambridge taking their place among the worlds oldest universities. No other universities were founded in England during this period, opposition from Oxford and Cambridge blocked attempts to establish universities in Northampton. Medical schools in London, though not a university in its own right, were among the first to provide medical teachings in England, in Scotland, St Andrews, Glasgow and Kings College, Aberdeen were founded by Papal Bull. Post-Reformation, these were joined by Edinburgh, Marischal College, Aberdeen, gresham College was, however, established in London in the late 16th century, despite concerns expressed by Cambridge. In Ireland, Trinity College Dublin was founded as the mother of a University by a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth, the 18th century saw the establishment of medical schools at Edinburgh and Glasgow universities and at hospitals in London. A number of dissenting academies were also established, but the next attempt to found a university did not come until the Andersonian Institute was established in Glasgow in 1798. The French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic wars led to over 40% of universities in Europe closing, from 153 universities in 1789, numbers fell to only 83 in 1815. The next quarter century saw a rebound, with 15 new universities founded, by then, the higher education revolution was well under way. This would, however, have required government support, the opinion of Robert Peel – cabinet minister and MP for Oxford University – was sought, and he advised against proceeding. This period also saw the establishment of Mechanics Institutes in a number of cities, many others would eventually become polytechnics and then, in 1992, universities. Very soon after news of the York scheme broke, Thomas Campbell wrote to The Times proposing a university be founded in London and this would become UCL, founded in 1826 as a joint stock company under the name of London University. This became Kings College London, granted a charter in 1829 –. Neither of the Colleges was residential – a break from the two ancient English universities, although non-residential universities were the norm in Scotland, Cambridge voted to petition the King not to allow the awarding of degrees with the same name as theirs or Oxfords. Then, later in 1831, a plan was announced to found a university in Durham, greys government supported the bill to establish the university, despite it limiting its degrees to Anglicans. Thus the University of Durham was established by Act of Parliament in 1832, in 1836 it pioneered the system of external examiners for its final degree examinations, bringing in Oxford academics to ensure the same standards
3.
Steve Cram
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Stephen Steve Cram CBE is a British retired track and field athlete. Along with fellow Britons Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett, he was one of the dominant middle distance runners during the 1980s. Nicknamed The Jarrow Arrow, after his hometown, Cram set world records in the 1500 m,2000 m and he was the first man to run 1500 m under 3 minutes and 30 seconds. He won the 1500 m gold medal at the 1983 World Championships, in 2008 Cram was appointed Chancellor of the University of Sunderland, replacing Lord Puttnam, and in 2009 elected as President of Jarrow & Hebburn Athletics Club. Cram now works as a presenter and athletics commentator, motivational speaker. In 1980, Cram won his place in the British Olympic team after finishing in 2nd place to Steve Ovett in the mile at Crystal Palace, the race had been marked as a run-off between Cram and Scottish miler Graham Williamson for the final place. Cram, aged 19, reached the final of the 1500 m at the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games, in which Ovett, capitalising on his Olympic experience, Cram made his major breakthrough in 1982, a year in which Coe and Ovett were largely absent with injuries. Injury had disrupted Cram in the part of the 1983 season. In a slow final, he beat a large field following Saïd Aouitas break with 500 metres to go. Ovett became trapped in the pack, ultimately finishing fourth, while Cram outkicked Steve Scott and Aouita in the last 200 metres. At Crystal Palace later that summer, Cram won a mile race, in which he led Ovett by little more than a metre with 300 metres to go. In a 2006 interview, Cram described the race, It was a cat-and-mouse affair - we both started off running at the back of the field, I beat him by little more than the thickness of a vest. In 1984, Crams season was hampered by injury, although he recovered sufficiently to win silver in the 1500 m at the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles. He came back stronger in 1985, a year in which he was beaten three times, by Coe at 800 m, McKean at 800 m and Ovett in a road Mile. In the 800 m, not his best event, he beat the reigning 800 m Olympic Champion, Joaquim Cruz, in 1,42.88, the fastest time he was ever to run, off even splits of 51.2 &51.7. He broke three world records within a 19-day span, and recorded a British All Comers Record over the 1000 m and he was the first man to run under 3,30.00 for the 1500 m, just beating Saïd Aouita in Nice. His mile time of 3,46.32, recorded at the Bislett Stadium in Oslo, stood for eight years and, as of 2013, is still the European record.2. However, during the 1985 season he said that he could win from any position and happily ran near the back of class fields before unleashing his kick
4.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
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Sunderland
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Sunderland is a city at the centre of the City of Sunderland metropolitan borough, in Tyne and Wear, North East England. It is a city at the mouth of the River Wear with adjoining beaches of Roker. The etymology of Sunderland is derived from Sundered-land with the river travelling through the city as opposed to sitting upon the river, historically in County Durham, there were three original settlements on the site of modern-day Sunderland. On the north side of the river, Monkwearmouth was settled in 674 when Benedict Biscop founded the Monkwearmouth–Jarrow Abbey, opposite the monastery on the south bank, Bishopwearmouth was founded in 930. A small fishing village called Sunderland, located toward the mouth of the river was granted a charter in 1179, over the centuries, Sunderland grew as a port, trading coal and salt. Ships began to be built on the river in the 14th century, by the 19th century, the port of Sunderland had grown to absorb Bishopwearmouth and Monkwearmouth. More recently, Sunderland has seen growth as a centre for the automotive industry, science & technology. A person who is born or lives around the Sunderland area is colloquially known as a Mackem. Sunderland was created a borough of County Durham in 1835. Under the Local Government Act 1888, it was given the status of a County Borough, independence from county council control. In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the county borough was abolished and its combined with that of other districts to form the Metropolitan Borough of Sunderland in Tyne. The metropolitan borough was granted city status after winning a competition in 1992 to celebrate the Queens 40th year on the throne, the population of this city taken at the 2011 Census was 275,506. Sunderland has the motto of Nil Desperandum Auspice Deo or Under Gods guidance we may neve despair Much of the city is located on a low range of running parallel to the coast. On average, it is around 80 metres above sea level, Sunderland is divided by the River Wear which passes through the middle of the city in a deeply incised valley, part of which is known as the Hylton gorge. The two road bridges connecting the north and south portions of the city are the Queen Alexandra Bridge at Pallion, to the west of the city, the Hylton Viaduct carries the A19 dual-carriageway over the Wear. Most of the suburbs of Sunderland are situated towards the west of the city centre with 70% of its living on the south side of the river. The city extends to the seafront at Hendon and Ryhope in the south, in Millfield, the streets are all associated with plants, e. g. Chester, Fern, Rose, Hyacinth etc. At 3,874 hectares, Sunderland is the 45th largest urban area in England by measure of area, according to statistics based on the 2001 census, 60% of homes in the Sunderland metropolitan area are owner occupied, with an average household size of 2.4 people
6.
Tyne and Wear
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Tyne and Wear is a metropolitan county in the North East region of England around the mouths of the rivers Tyne and Wear. It came into existence in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972 and it consists of the five metropolitan boroughs of South Tyneside, North Tyneside, City of Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead and City of Sunderland. It is bounded on the east by the North Sea, and has borders with Northumberland to the north, Tyne and Wear County Council was abolished in 1986, and so its districts are now unitary authorities. However, the county continues to exist in law and as a geographic frame of reference. The Local Government Act 1888 constituted Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead, between the county boroughs, various other settlements also formed part of the administrative counties of Durham and of Northumberland. The need to reform local government on Tyneside was recognised by the government as early as 1935, the second-tier units would form by amalgamating the various existing boroughs and districts. The county boroughs in the area would lose their status, within this area, a single municipality would be formed covering the four county boroughs of Newcastle, Gateshead, Tynemouth, South Shields and other urban districts and boroughs. A minority report proposed amalgamation of Newcastle, Gateshead, Wallsend, Jarrow, Felling, Gosforth, the 1937 proposals never came into operation, local authorities could not agree on a scheme and the legislation of the time did not allow central government to compel one. Tyneside was a Special Review Area under the Local Government Act 1958, the Local Government Commission for England came back with a recommendation to create a new county of Tyneside based on the review area, divided into four separate boroughs. The Redcliffe-Maud Report proposed a Tyneside unitary authority, again excluding Sunderland, the Bill as presented in November 1971 pruned back the southern edge of the area, and gave it the name Tyneside. The name Tyneside proved controversial on Wearside, and a government amendment changed the name to Tyne, although the metropolitan county council was abolished in 1986, several joint bodies exist to run certain services on a county-wide basis. Most notable is the Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Authority, which co-ordinates transport policy, also through Nexus, the authority subsidises socially necessary transport services and operates a concessionary fares scheme for the elderly and disabled. The Passenger Transport Authority is an authority, raising funds by imposing a levy on the Council Tax of the five constituent authorities of Tyne. In April 2014 Nexus became a body of the new North East Combined Authority. These joint bodies are administered by representatives of all five of the constituent councils, in addition the Northumbria Police force, which covers the whole of Northumberland and Tyne and Wear, is one of several joint forces in England spanning two or more counties. The force was created in 1974, and so is not a by-product of the abolition of the county council, Tyne and Wear either has or closely borders two official Met Office stations, neither located in one of the major urban centres. The locations for those are in marine Tynemouth where Tyne meets the North Sea east of Newcastle, there are some clear differences between the stations temperature and precipitation patterns even though both have a cool-summer and mild-winter oceanic climate. Tyne and Wear is divided into 13 Parliamentary constituencies, at the level of local government, three of the regions five unitary authorities were controlled by Labour in 2005, the exceptions being Newcastle City Council and North Tyneside Council
7.
Tropaeolum
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Tropaeolum /trəˈpiːələm, troʊ-/, commonly known as nasturtium, is a genus of roughly 80 species of annual and perennial herbaceous flowering plants. It was named by Carl Linnaeus in his book Species Plantarum, the nasturtiums received their common name because they produce an oil similar to that of watercress. The genus Tropaeolum, native to South and Central America, includes several very popular garden plants, one of the hardiest species is T. polyphyllum from Chile, the perennial roots of which can survive the winter underground at altitudes of 3,300 metres. Plants in this genus have showy, often intensely bright flowers, the flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic, with five petals, a superior three-carpelled ovary, and a funnel-shaped nectar spur at the back, formed by modification of one of the five sepals. The first Tropaeolum species was imported into Spain by the Spanish botanist Nicolás Monardes and he published an account in 1569 entitled Joyful News out of the Newe Founde Worlde in which he described, among other things, the plants and animals discovered in South America. The English herbalist John Gerard reports having received seeds of the plant from Europe in his 1597 book Herball, the plants round leaves reminded Linnaeus of shields, and its flowers of blood-stained helmets. Nasturtiums were once known as Indian cresses because they were introduced from the Americas, known popularly then as the Indies. In his herbal, John Gerard compared the flowers of the Indian Cress to those of the forking larkspur of the buttercup family and he wrote, Unto the backe part doth hange a taile or spurre, such as hath the Larkes heele, called in Latine Consolida regalis. J R R Tolkien commented that an alternative anglicization of nasturtium was nasturtian, Tropaeolum is a genus of dicotyledonous annual or perennial plants, often with somewhat succulent stems and sometimes tuberous roots. The alternate leaves are hairless, peltate and entire or palmately lobed, the petioles or leaf stalks are long and in many species are able to twine round other stems to provide support. The flowers are bisexual and showy, set singly on long stalks in the axils of the leaves and they have five sepals, the uppermost of which is elongated into a nectar spur. The five petals are clawed, with the lower three unlike the upper two, the eight stamens are in two whorls of unequal length and the superior ovary has three segments and three stigmas on a single style. The fruit is naked and nut-like, with three single seed segments, the most common flower in cultivation is a hybrid of T. majus, T. minus and T. peltophorum, and is commonly known as the nasturtium. It is mostly grown from seed as an annual and both single and double varieties are available. It comes in a range of forms and colours including cream, yellow, orange and red, solid in colour or striped and it is vigorous and easily grown and does well in sun. It thrives in soil and dry conditions, whereas in rich soil it tends to produce much leafy growth. Some varieties adopt a bush form while others scramble over and through other plants and are useful for planting in awkward spots or for covering fences and trellises, Tropaeolum brachyceras has 2.5 cm yellow flowers with purplish markings on wiry, climbing stems. It is a hardy perennial from Chile and may remain dormant for several years before being sparked into growth by some unknown trigger factor
8.
Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
9.
Million+
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Million+ is funded by subscriptions from its members, currently 19 UK universities. While all of the institutions are new universities, many have long histories as colleges. Formed in 1997 as the Coalition of Modern Universities, the name was changed in 2004 to the Campaign for Mainstream Universities, in November 2007, the organisation was rebranded with the present name. This name was chosen to reflect the fact that the member institutions educate over a million students, million+ is involved in the political debate about the role and contribution of universities to the economy and society, where it is seen as representing the post-1992 new universities. The group is chaired by Professor David Phoenix, Vice-Chancellor of London South Bank University, the Chief Executive is Pam Tatlow
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North East England
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North East England is one of the nine regions of England that are classified at the first level of NUTS for statistical purposes. It covers Northumberland, County Durham, Tyne and Wear, the region is home to three large conurbations, Teesside, Wearside, and Tyneside, the latter of which is the largest of the three and the eighth most populous conurbation in the United Kingdom. The city of Durham is the county town of County Durham, other large settlements in the region include Darlington, Gateshead, Hartlepool, Middlesbrough, South Shields, Stockton-on-Tees and Washington. The region is hilly and sparsely populated in the North and West. The highest point in the region is The Cheviot, in the Cheviot Hills, Peters Church in Monkwearmouth, Sunderland and St. Pauls in Jarrow also hold significant historical value and have a joint bid to become a World Heritage Site. The area has a strong religious past, as can be seen in such as the Lindisfarne Gospels. The work of the 7th-century Cuthbert, Bede and Hilda of Whitby being hugely influential in the church and are still venerated today. Bede is regarded as the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar and his best known work is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People. This body of work is thought to have been done in honour of Cuthbert, British history changed forever that day and three hundred years of Viking raids, battles and settlement were to persist until William the Conqueror defeated King Harold at Hastings in 1066. The last independent Northumbrian king from 947–8 was Eric Bloodaxe who died in battle at the Battle of Stainmore, Westmorland, after Eric Bloodaxes death, all England was ruled by Eadred the grandson of Alfred the Great and so began the machinery of national government. Today the Viking legacy can still be found in the language and place names of Northeast England, the name Newcastle comes from the new castle built shortly after their conquest in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. North East England has a climate with narrower temperature ranges than further south in England. Met Office operates several stations in the region. The stations nearest significant urban areas are Durham, Stockton-on-Tees and Tynemouth, the warmest summers in the region are found in Stockton-on-Tees and the Middlesbrough area with a 1981-2010 July average high of 20.4 °C. The summers on the coastlines are clearly cooler than in the southern and central inland areas. Moving further inland, frosts during winter gets more common due to the higher elevation and these companies are members of the Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster. The early chemical industry in this region was however primarily Tyneside based and associated with the manufacture of soap and glass. The most important chemical activity in the 18th and 19th centuries was the manufacture of alkali to make soap, what came out of the industrial revolution was a period when the Northeast of Englands economy was dominated by iron and steel, coal mining and shipbuilding
11.
Benedict Biscop
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Benedict Biscop, also known as Biscop Baducing, was an Anglo-Saxon abbot and founder of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Priory and was considered a saint after his death. Benedict was born of a noble Northumbrian family and was for a time a thegn of King Oswiu, at the age of 25 Benedict made the first of five trips to Rome, accompanying his friend Saint Wilfrid the Elder. However Wilfrid was detained in Lyon en route, Benedict completed the journey on his own and, when he returned to England, he was full of fervour and enthusiasm. For the good of the English Church, Benedict made a second journey to Rome twelve years later, this time accompanied by Alchfrith of Deira, a son of King Oswiu. On this trip he met Acca and Wilfrid, on his return journey to England Benedict stopped at Lérins, a monastic island off the Mediterranean coast of Provence. During his two-year stay there, from 665 to 667, he underwent a course of instruction, taking monastic vows, following the two years in Lérins Benedict made his third trip to Rome. At this time he was commissioned by the pope to accompany Archbishop Theodore of Tarsus back to Canterbury in 669, on their return Benedict was appointed abbot of SS. Peter and Pauls, Canterbury, by Archbishop Theodore, a role he held for two years, Benedict Biscop, the Bibliophile, assembled a library from his travels. His second trip to Rome had been a book buying trip, overall, the collection had an estimated 250 titles of mostly service books. The library included scripture, classical, and secular works, ecgfrith of Northumbria granted Benedict land in 674 for the purpose of building a monastery. He went to the Continent to bring back masons who could build a monastery in the Pre-Romanesque style. Benedict made his fifth and final trip to Rome in 679 to bring back books for a library, saintly relics, stonemasons, glaziers, Benedict made five overseas voyages in all to stock the library. In 682 Benedict appointed Eosterwine as his coadjutor and the King was so delighted at the success of St Peters, he gave him land in Jarrow. Benedict erected a sister foundation at Jarrow and he appointed Ceolfrid as the superior, who left Wearmouth with 20 monks to start the foundation in Jarrow. Bede, one of Benedicts pupils, tells us that he brought builders and glass-workers from Francia to erect the buildings in stone, Benedicts idea was to build a model monastery for England, sharing his knowledge of the experience of the Church in Europe. It was the first ecclesiastical building in Britain to be built in stone, and it eventually possessed what was a large library for the time – several hundred volumes – and it was here that Benedicts student Bede wrote his famous works. For the last three years of his life Benedict was bed-ridden and he suffered his affliction with great patience and faith. He died on 12 January 690 and he is recognised as a saint by the Christian Church, which holds his feast day on 12 January
12.
St Peter's Church, Monkwearmouth
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St Peters Church is the parish church of Monkwearmouth in Sunderland, Tyne and Wear, England. It is one of three churches that make up the Parish of Monkwearmouth, the others being All Saints Church and St Andrews Church, the first church on the site was built on instructions from Benedict Biscop in 674-750, of which only the west wall and porch survive. The tower was added before 1000 on top of the porch, along with the monastery in Jarrow, St Peters is the United Kingdoms nomination for a World Heritage Site in 2010
13.
Scriptorium
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Scriptorium, literally a place for writing, is commonly used to refer to a room in medieval European monasteries devoted to the writing, copying and illuminating of manuscripts by monastic scribes. References in modern scholarly writings to scriptoria more usually refer to the collective output of a monastery. A scriptorium was an adjunct to a library, wherever there was a library it can ordinarily be assumed that there was a scriptorium. By the time movable type printing presses were invented in the 15th century, at this church whose patron was Galla Placidia, paired rectangular chambers flanking the apse, accessible only from each aisle, have been interpreted as paired libraries and perhaps scriptoria. Their copious illumination, niches.5 meter deep, provisions for hypocausts beneath the floors to keep the dry, have prototypes in the architecture of Roman libraries. When monastic libraries and scriptoria arose in the early 6th century, they defined European literary culture, monks copied Jeromes Latin Vulgate Bible and the commentaries and letters of early Church Fathers for missionary purposes as well as for use within the monastery. The products of the scriptorium provided a medium of exchange. Sometimes a single monk would engage in all of these stages to prepare a manuscript, by the start of the 13th century, monastic manuscript production declined because secular copyshops had developed to write for the laity. The illuminators of manuscripts worked in collaboration with scribes in intricate variety of interaction that preclude any simple pattern of monastic manuscript production, records show that one such monastic community was that of Mount Athos, which released all manner of illumination. Cassiodorus description of his contained a purpose-built scriptorium, with self-feeding oil lamps, a sundial. The scriptorium would also have contained desks where the monks could sit and copy texts, as well as the necessary ink wells, penknives, and quills. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus collected as many manuscripts as he could, in the end, however, the library at the Vivarium was dispersed and lost, though it was still active around 630. Cassiodorus contemporary, Benedict of Nursia, also allowed his monks to read the works of the pagans in the monastery he founded at Monte Cassino in 529. In the earliest Benedictine monasteries, the room was actually a corridor open to the central quadrangle of the cloister. The space could accommodate about twelve monks, who were protected from the only by the wall behind them. Monasteries built later in the Middle Ages placed the scriptorium inside, the warmth of the later scriptoria served as an incentive for unwilling monks to work on the transcription of texts. Although the purpose of the plan is unknown, it shows the desirability of scriptoria within a wider body of monastic structures at the beginning of the 9th century. The scriptoria of the Cistercian order seem to have similar to those of the Benedictines
14.
Pharmacy
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Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs. It is a profession that links health sciences with chemical sciences and aims to ensure the safe. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the health professionals who optimize use of medication for the benefit of the patients. An establishment in which pharmacy is practiced is called a pharmacy or a chemists, often, collaborative teams from various disciplines work together toward the introduction of new therapeutics and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its typical form, medicinal chemistry is also a distinct branch of synthetic chemistry combining pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology. Pharmacology is sometimes considered as the 4th discipline of pharmacy, although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Both disciplines are distinct. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy and pharmacology receive separate training and degrees unique to either discipline, pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety. The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists, pharmacists are healthcare professionals with specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the quality use of medicines. Pharmacists may also be small-business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice, pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation. In some cases, the body is also the registering body. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice, the American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology. A Pharmacy Technician in the UK has recently referred to by some as a professional. Legislation requires the supervision of certain pharmacy technicians activities by a pharmacist, the majority of pharmacy technicians work in community pharmacies. In hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians may be managed by other senior pharmacy technicians, Pharmacy technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council. The GPhC is the regulator of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacy premises, in the US, pharmacy technicians perform their duties under supervision of pharmacists. The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, however, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Many Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine, Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. In Ancient Greece, Diocles of Carystus was one of several men studying the properties of plants
15.
Naval architecture
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Naval architecture also known as naval engineering, is an engineering discipline dealing with the engineering design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation, preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are required for ships being modified. Naval architecture also involves formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules, the word vessel includes every description of watercraft, including non-displacement craft, WIG craft and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on water. The principal elements of architecture are, Hydrostatics concerns the conditions to which the vessel is subjected to while at rest in water. This involves computing buoyancy, and other properties, such as trim. Hydrodynamics concerns the flow of water around the hull, bow, and stern. Resistance – resistance towards motion in water primarily caused due to flow of water around the hull, powering calculation is done based on this. Propulsion – to move the vessel through water using propellers, thrusters, water jets, engine types are mainly internal combustion. Some vessels are powered using nuclear or solar energy. Ship motions – involves motions of the vessel in seaway and its responses in waves, controllability – involves controlling and maintaining position and direction of the vessel. Arrangements involves concept design, layout and access, fire protection, allocation of spaces, ergonomics, construction depends on the material used. Other joining techniques are used for materials like fibre reinforced plastic. Traditionally, naval architecture has been more craft than science, the suitability of a vessels shape was judged by looking at a half-model of a vessel or a prototype. Ungainly shapes or abrupt transitions were frowned on as being flawed and this included rigging, deck arrangements, and even fixtures. Subjective descriptors such as ungainly, full, and fine were used as a substitute for the precise terms used today. A vessel was, and still is described as having a ‘fair’ shape and these tools are used for static stability, dynamic stability, resistance, powering, hull development, structural analysis, green water modelling, and slamming analysis. Data is regularly shared in international conferences sponsored by RINA, Society of Naval Architects, computational Fluid Dynamics is being applied to predict the response of a floating body in a random sea
16.
Durham University
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Durham University is a collegiate public research university in Durham, North East England, with a second campus in nearby Stockton-on-Tees. It was founded by an Act of Parliament in 1832 and granted a Royal Charter in 1837 and it was one of the first universities to commence tuition in England for more than 600 years and claims to be the third oldest university in England, although this is disputed. The Durham University estate includes 63 listed buildings, ranging from the 11th-century Durham Castle to a 1930s Art Deco Chapel, the university also owns and manages the Durham World Heritage Site in partnership with Durham Cathedral. The universitys ownership of the World Heritage Site includes Durham Castle, Palace Green, the chancellor of the University is Sir Thomas Allen, who succeeded Bill Bryson in January 2012. As a collegiate university, its functions are divided between the academic departments of the university and 16 colleges. The university is a member of the Russell Group of leading UK universities after previously being a member of the 1994 Group, Durham is also affiliated with several university groups including the N8 Research Partnership, the Matariki Network of Universities and the Coimbra Group. The university is currently ranked 4th to 6th by recent national league tables of the British universities, in terms of average UCAS points of new entrants in 2014, Durham ranked 4th with the average entrant amassing 524 UCAS points. Long established as the rival to Oxford and Cambridge, the university attracts a largely middle class student body according to The Timess Good University Guide. In 2014, Durham had the fifth highest proportion of educated students at 36. 6%. The university was Sunday Times University of the Year for 2005, also making the shortlist for the 2004 and 2016 awards, Durham graduates have long used the Latin post-nominal letters Dunelm after their degree, from Dunelmensis. However, there was concern expressed by Oxford and Cambridge that the awarding of degree powers could hinder their position. The act received Royal Assent from King William IV on 4 July 1832, the University opened on 28 October 1833. In 1834 all but two of the bishops of the Church of England confirmed that they would accept holders of Durham degrees for ordination, accommodation was provided in the Archdeacons Inn from 1833 to 1837. On the accession of Queen Victoria an order of the Queen-in-Council was issued granting the use of Durham Castle to the university, in 1846, Bishop Hatfields Hall was founded, providing for the opportunity for students to obtain affordable lodgings with fully catered communal eating. Those attending University College were expected to bring a servant with them to deal with cooking, cleaning, elsewhere, the university expanded from Durham into Newcastle in 1852 when the medical school there became a college of the university. This was joined in 1871 by the College of Physical Sciences and these merged to form a mixed college in 1975. From 1896 these were associated with the university and graduates of St Hilds were the first female graduates from Durham in 1898, during the expansion phase the University also became the first English university to establish relationship with overseas institutions. Firstly in 1875 with Codrington College, Barbados, and secondly in early 1876 with Fourah Bay College, under the arrangements the two colleges became affiliated colleges of the university with their students sitting examinations for and receiving Durham degrees
17.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
18.
Ministry of Labour (United Kingdom)
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The Ministry of Labour was a British government department established by the New Ministries and Secretaries Act 1916. It later morphed into the Department of Employment, most of its functions are now performed by the Department for Work and Pensions. Following the First World War it supervised the demobilisation and resettlement of ex-servicemen, in the 1920s it took over all Board of Education work relating to youth employment and responsibility for training and employment of the disabled from the Ministry of Pensions. It also supervised trade union regulations, under the Trade Boards Act 1918 the Ministry enforced the minimum wage, helped establish joint industrial councils, and set up the Industrial Court in 1919 for arbitration of industrial disputes. From 1939, the department was renamed the Ministry of Labour and National Service and it allocated people to work between the armed forces, civil defence and industry, and to administer the Schedule of Reserved Occupations. The National Joint Advisory Council, comprising employers and workers representatives, was consulted, in June 1945, the Board of Trade was handed responsibility for industrial policy, except that concerning labour power. At the end of the War, the National Service Department wing was wound up, in 1959 the department became the Ministry of Labour once more. It was renamed the Department of Employment and Productivity in 1968, and became the Department for Employment in 1970
19.
PDP-8
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The 12-bit PDP-8, produced by Digital Equipment Corporation, was the first successful commercial minicomputer. DEC introduced it on March 22,1965 priced at $18,500 and eventually more than 50,000 systems. The PDP-8 was the first computer to be sold for under $20,000 and it was the first widely sold computer in the DEC PDP series of computers. The chief engineer who designed the initial version of the PDP-8 was Edson de Castro, the earliest PDP-8 model uses diode–transistor logic, packaged on flip chip cards, and is about the size of a small household refrigerator. This was followed in 1966 by the PDP-8/S, available in desktop, using a one-bit serial arithmetic logic unit implementation, allowed the PDP-8/S to be smaller, less expensive and slower than the original PDP-8. The PDP-8/S was about 20% of the cost and about 10% of the performance of the PDP-8, the only mass storage peripheral available for the PDP-8/S was the DF32 disk. Later systems returned to a faster, fully parallel implementation but use less costly transistor-transistor logic MSI logic. Most surviving PDP-8s are from this era, the PDP-8/E is common, and well-regarded because so many types of I/O devices were available for it. It was often configured as a general-purpose computer, the last commercial PDP-8 models introduced in 1979 were called CMOS-8s. They use custom complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor microprocessors and they were not priced competitively, and the offering failed. The IBM PC in 1981 cemented the doom of the CMOS-8s by making a legitimate, Intersil sold the integrated circuits commercially through to 1982 as the Intersil 6100 family. By virtue of their CMOS technology they had low power requirements and were used in some embedded military systems, the PDP-8 combined low cost, simplicity, expandability, and careful engineering for value. The greatest historical significance was that the PDP-8s low cost and high volume made a computer available to new people for many new uses. Its continuing significance is as a example of value-engineered computer design. The low complexity brought other costs and it made programming cumbersome, as is seen in the examples in this article and from the discussion of pages and fields. Some ambitious programming projects failed to fit in memory or developed design defects that could not be solved, as design advances reduced the costs of logic and memory, the programmers time became relatively more important. Subsequent computer designs emphasized ease of programming, typically using a larger, eventually, most machine-language programming came to be generated by compilers and report generators. The PDP-8 used ideas from several 12-bit predecessors, most notably the LINC designed by W. A. Clark, the architecture has a simple programmed I/O bus, plus a DMA channel
20.
Students' union
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In higher education, the students union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, organizational activities, representation, and academic support of the membership. Outside the US, student union and students refer to a representative body. Depending on the country, the purpose, assembly, method, universally, the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students in some fashion. In some cases, students unions are run by students, independent of the educational facility, the purpose of these organizations is to represent students both within the institution and externally, including on local and national issues. Students unions are responsible for providing a variety of services to students. Depending on the makeup, students can get involved in the union by becoming active in a committee, by attending councils and general meetings. Some students unions are politicized bodies, and often serve as a ground for aspiring politicians. Students unions generally have similar aims irrespective of the extent of politicization, usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, some students unions often officially recognize and allocate an annual budget to other organizations on campus. In some institutions, postgraduate students are within the students unions. In some cases, graduate students lack formal representation in student government, as mentioned before universally the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students. Many times students unions usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, simple variations on just the name include the name differences between the United States and other countries. Depending on the country there are different methods of representation compulsory education to Higher education or tertiary, in Australia, all universities have one or more student organizations. Most also operate specialized support services for female, LGBT, international, many expressed concerns over the introduction of voluntary student unionism in 2006. The legislation passed after the Greens took the balance of power in the senate, Azerbaijan Students Union was established by students from Baku on 15 September 2008. ASU is an organization which was established on basis of experience and it was the first student organization which united students irrespective of gender, race, creed. ASU considered international relations very important, for the first time ASUs delegates were participants of the First Asia IAESTE Forum in Shanghai during 12–15 November 2009. After that forum ASU established close relations with IAESTE which is one of the biggest student exchange organizations, as a result of relations on 21 January 2010 ASU was accepted a member of IAESTE. Our union gained right to represent Azerbaijan students in IAESTE and that membership was the unions first success on international level
21.
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Philip was born into the Greek and he was born in Greece, but his family was exiled from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, he joined the Royal Navy in 1939, from July 1939, he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets, after the war, Philip was granted permission by King George VI to marry Elizabeth. After an engagement of five months, he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947, just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Philip left active service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952. He was formally made a Prince of the United Kingdom in 1957, Philip has four children with Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward. He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren, a keen sports enthusiast, Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving. He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburghs Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 and he is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family. Philips four elder sisters were Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, and he was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church. His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece and the Mayor of Corfu, shortly after Philips birth, his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg, then known as Louis Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, died in London. Louis was a naturalised British citizen, who, after a career in the Royal Navy, had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War. After visiting London for the memorial, Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War, the war went badly for Greece and the Turks made large gains. On 22 September 1922, Philips uncle, King Constantine I, was forced to abdicate, the commander of the army, General Georgios Hatzianestis, and five senior politicians were executed. Prince Andrews life was believed to be in danger, and Alice was under surveillance, in December, a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life. The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrews family, with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box. Philips family went to France, where settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt, Princess George of Greece. Because Philip left Greece as a baby, he not have a strong grasp of Greek
22.
Institute of technology
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An institute of technology is a type of university which specializes in engineering, technology, Applied Science, and possibly natural sciences. How the terms are used varies from country to country, the English term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century, from the French École Polytechnique, an engineering school founded in 1794 in Paris. The French term comes from the Greek πολύ meaning many and τεχνικός meaning arts, the oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology. Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794, in some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, in countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities, Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelors, masters and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees, the UKs first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as technical education schools. This is mostly the case in countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe argue that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in education in general. The aspects of this debate can follow the lines, To what degree is technology defined as a concept. What is the scope of technology discourse, what is the place and relation of science with technology. How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa, can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions. Who ultimately is responsible for training and What is the role of technology in this. The Buenos Aires Institute of Technology is other important recognized institute of technology with renowned, 1970s–1990s During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system, in the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes, AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later. 1990s–today Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical, a recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE
23.
David Puttnam
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David Terence Puttnam, Baron Puttnam, CBE, HonFRSA, HonFRPS, MRIA is a British film producer and educator. His productions include Chariots of Fire, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture and he sits on the Labour benches in the House of Lords, although he is not principally a politician. Puttnam was born in Southgate, London, England, the son of Marie Beatrix, a homemaker of Jewish origin, and Leonard Arthur Puttnam, in 1978 he also produced Alan Parkers Midnight Express, but for the US company Casablanca Filmworks. Many of the Enigma films made in the 1980s were done in association with the financial backer Goldcrest Films, Puttnam was chairman and CEO of Columbia Pictures from June 1986 until September 1987. In 1998, he retired from production to focus on his work in education. In 1983, Puttnam was appointed as a Commander of The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, in 1995 Puttnam was appointed as a Knight Bachelor. In 1997, Puttnam was created as a peer and was granted Letters Patent to become Baron Puttnam, of Queensgate in the Royal Borough of Kensington. In 1998, Puttnam was named in a list of donors to the British Labour Party. This was widely interpreted as being aimed at stopping Rupert Murdochs News Corporation from buying channel Five, when the government opposed the amendment, Puttnam brokered a compromise – the introduction of a public interest test to be applied by the new regulator Ofcom, but without explicit restrictions. In 2007, he chaired the Joint Parliamentary Committee on the Draft Climate Change Bill, since November 2012, he has been the Prime Ministerial Trade Envoy to Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar. In December 2012, Puttnam, who lives in Skibbereen, County Cork, was named Ireland’s Digital Champion by Communications Minister Pat Rabbitte, TD. In August 2014, Puttnam was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to Septembers referendum on that issue. Puttnam was for 10 years chairman of the National Film and Television School and he founded Skillset, which trains young people to become members of the film and television industries. From 2002-2009 he was UK president of UNICEF and remains an ambassador, Puttnam was the first chancellor of the University of Sunderland from 1997 until 13 July 2007. In 1998, he founded the National Teaching Awards and became its first chairman and he was the founding chairman of the General Teaching Council 2000–2002. He was appointed as chancellor of the Open University in 2007 and he was also the Chairman of NESTA from 1998 until 2003. He was also on the board of directors of learning technologies company Promethean, lord Puttnam is the patron of SCHOOLS NorthEast, an organisation set up in 2007 to represent all schools in the North East of England. He is also a patron of the Shakespeare Schools Festival, a charity that enables school children across the UK to perform Shakespeare in professional theatres
24.
Sunderland Empire Theatre
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The Sunderland Empire Theatre is a large theatre venue located in High Street West in Sunderland, North East England. The theatre, which opened in 1907, is owned by City of Sunderland Council and operated by Ambassador Theatre Group Ltd, on behalf of Sunderland Empire Theatre Trust. The theatre is one of the largest venues in the North East, with 1,860 seats, the auditorium is also one of the few remaining in the UK to have four tiers, namely the Orchestra Stalls, the Dress Circle, the Upper Circle and the Gallery. There are four boxes on the Dress Circle level, as well as two proscenium boxes on the Upper Circle balcony. The Empire Palace, as it was called, was established independently by Richard Thornton after his partnership with theatre magnate Edward Moss was dissolved. It was opened on 1 July 1907 by variety and vaudeville star Vesta Tilley, the dome on the 90 ft tower featured a revolving sphere bearing the statue of Terpsichore, the Greek Muse of dance and choral song. These were removed during World War II for safety reasons, after a bomb which had fallen nearby rocked the building, the original statue is now located at the top of the main staircase, with a replica on the dome itself. The dome and tower have recently been refitted with a state-of-the-art LED, until the mid-twenties, the Empire enjoyed much extended success from its variety performances. With the decline of touring theatre, a box was added in 1930 and for the first time. On 5 November 1956 Tommy Steele made his stage debut heading the bill in a variety show, Steele, Britains first rock n roll singer, went on to become one of the worlds leading song and dance men appearing at the Empire many times. Although audience figures were high during the 1940s and early 1950s and it reopened in 1960, however, after Sunderland Council bought the theatre. The Beatles performed there during their first UK national tour, the actor Sid James suffered a heart attack during a performance of The Mating Season on 26 April 1976 and died on the way to hospital. Later it was rumoured that his ghost was in the room he occupied on the night of his death, after one experience during a gig there. Whilst the ghost of James is said to haunt backstage, the spirits of Vesta Tilley, Molly Moselle was a stage manager for Ivor Novellos The Dancing Years in 1949. Leaving the theatre to post a letter, she disappeared down an alley and was never seen again. The Empire was known as a comic graveyard - rather unfortunately given the above points - because of the reception of the audiences of the time. Nowadays, the theatre plays host to large-scale musicals, opera, ballet, dance showcases, amateur productions. Oscar-winning actress Helen Mirren made her debut at the Sunderland Empire
25.
Stadium of Light
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The Stadium of Light is an all-seater football stadium in Sunderland, England and home to Sunderland A. F. C. With space for 49,000 spectators, the Stadium of Light has the eighth-largest capacity of any English football stadium and is the sixth-largest capacity Premier League stadium, the stadium primarily hosts Sunderland A. F. C. home matches. According to Sir Bob Murray then chairman of Sunderland F. C, a Davy lamp monument stands at the entrance to reflect the coal mining industry that brought prosperity to the town. As well as hosting Sunderland games, the stadium has hosted three matches for the England national football team, as well as one England under-20 football team match. With an original capacity of 42,000, it was expanded in 2002 to seat 48,707 and its simple design is apparently to allow for redevelopments up to a capacity of 66,000 though this is unlikely to ever be required. The attendance record at the Stadium of Light is 48,353 set on 13 April 2002, along with hosting football matches, the stadium has played host to performers such as Beyoncé, Rihanna, Oasis, Take That, Kings of Leon and Coldplay. The ground also holds conference and banqueting suites, the Black Cats Bar, following the release of the Taylor Report in January 1990, Sunderland was obliged to make plans to turn their Roker Park home into an all-seater stadium. Roker Park was a ground that mainly consisted of standing terraces, enclosed by residential streets on all sides, expansion was practically impossible. So, by 1991, Sunderland chairman Bob Murray began investigating the possibility of relocation to a new stadium, the front-runner that emerged was a proposed stadium located on an area of land adjacent to the Nissan car plant. The 49,000 all-seater ground was labelled the Wembley of the North by Sunderland fans, the plans did not come to fruition. Shortly after the plans were announced in 1992, Nissan launched an official objection, in 1995, Sunderland put forward a plan to build a stadium on the former site of Wearmouth Colliery, which had closed in December 1993. The area, on the bank of the River Wear in the Sheepfolds district of Sunderland, was only a few hundred yards from Roker Park. In 1993, Sunderlands planned new stadium was on the shortlist for Euro 96 venues, however, it soon become clear that a new stadium in Sunderland would not be ready in time for the tournament. On 13 November 1995, the Sunderland chairman Bob Murray announced that the Tyne and Wear Development Corporation had approved plans for Sunderland to build a 34, 000-seater stadium on the site. Ballast Wiltshier plc, a company that had built the Amsterdam Arena, was contracted to build the stadium at an initial cost of £15 million. In June 1996, as the capacity rose to more than 40,000. The capacity was revised again in early 1997, and the stadium was completed on time, during construction, the stadium had not adopted an official name, and had been known colloquially as the Wearside Stadium and New Roker Park. The name was revealed as the Stadium of Light, a reference to a miners lamp
26.
Open University
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The Open University is a public distance learning and research university, and one of the biggest universities in the UK for undergraduate education. The majority of the OUs undergraduate students are based throughout the United Kingdom and principally study off-campus, the OU was established in 1969 and the first students enrolled in January 1971. The University administration is based at Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, in Buckinghamshire and it also has offices and regional examination centres in many other European countries. The university awards undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, as well as qualifications such as diplomas. Since it was founded, more than 1.5 million students have studied its courses and it was rated top university in England and Wales for student satisfaction in the 2005,2006 and 2012 United Kingdom government national student satisfaction survey, and second in the 2007 survey. The Open University was founded by the Labour government under Prime Minister Harold Wilson, Wilson was a strong advocate, using the vision of Michael Young. Wilson envisioned The Open University as a marker in the Labour Partys commitment to modernising British society. He believed that it would build a more competitive economy while also promoting greater equality of opportunity. By the time the actual, much higher costs became apparent, the majority of staff are part-time Associate Lecturers and, as of the 2009–10 academic year, almost 8,000 work for the OU. Salaries are the OUs main cost - over £275 million for the 2009–2010 academic year, in 2010 the OU became one of the Sunday Times′ Best Places to Work in the Public Sector. Open University Employees Credit Union Limited is a savings and loans co-operative established by the University for staff in 1994, a member of the Association of British Credit Unions Limited, it is authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority and the PRA. Ultimately, like the banks and building societies, members’ savings are protected against business failure by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme, in 1982 the OU announced the establishment of a business school supported by the Foundation for Management Education and the British Institute of Management. In 1983 the Open University Business School was founded with 1,600 students enrolled onto the first two courses – The Effective Manager and Personnel Selection and Interviewing, the Open University Business school is accredited by the international accrediting bodies AACSB, AMBA, amd EQUIS. It is the only triple-accredited business school that specialises in flexible learning, the OU uses a variety of methods for teaching, including written and audio materials, the Internet, disc-based software and television programmes on DVD. Course-based television broadcasts by the BBC, which started on 3 January 1971, materials comprise originally authored work by in-house and external academic contributors, and from third-party materials licensed for use by OU students. For most modules, students are supported by tutors who provide feedback on their work and are available to them at face-to-face tutorials, by telephone. Some modules have mandatory day schools and these are day-long sessions which a student must attend in order to pass the module. Nevertheless, it is possible to be excused on the basis of ill-health, over the past ten years the university has adopted a policy of separating residential modules from distance-full-time taught modules
27.
St Peter's, Sunderland
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St Peters is a campus of the University of Sunderland on the north bank of the River Wear. It is named after the adjacent St Peters Church, Monkwearmouth and it is also the name of the Tyne and Wear Metro Station nearest to the campus, which is next to Wearmouth Bridge. The campus is adjacent to some of the pieces of the St Peters Riverside Sculpture Project, pathways of Knowledge, a pile of books located outside of the Universitys library, was unveiled by Queen Elizabeth II in 1993. They are a reference to Bede and the Great Library of St Peters
28.
River Wear
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The River Wear in North East England rises in the Pennines and flows eastwards, mostly through County Durham to the North Sea in the City of Sunderland. At 60 mi long, it is one of the regions longest rivers, wends in a valley through the cathedral city of Durham and gives its name to Weardale in its upper reach. The Wear rises in the east Pennines, an upland area raised up during the Caledonian orogeny, specifically, the Weardale Granite underlies the headwaters of the Wear. Devonian Old Red Sandstone in age, this Weardale Granite does not outcrop but was surmised by early geologists and it is thought that the course of the River Wear, prior to the last Ice Age, was much as it is now as far as Chester-le-Street. This can be established as a result of boreholes, of which there have been many in the Wear valley due to coal mining, however, northwards from Chester-le-Street, the Wear may have originally followed the current route of the lower River Team. At about 14,000 years ago, retreat of the ice paused for maybe 500 years at the city of Durham and this can be established by the types of glacial deposits in the vicinity of Durham City. The confluence of the River Browney was pushed from Gilesgate, several miles south to Sunderland Bridge, the gorge cut by the river through the Permian Magnesian Limestone can be seen most clearly at Ford Quarry. In the 17th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, reference is made to a pre-Ice Age course of the River Wear outfalling at Hartlepool and this may, in part, be due to the Pennine areas of Upper Weardale and Upper Teesdale being the site of the shrinking ice cap. The glaciation left behind many indications of its presence, including lateral moraines and material from the Lake District and Northumberland, after the Ice Age, the Wear valley became thickly forested, however during the Neolithic period and increasingly in the Bronze Age, were largely deforested for agriculture. Much of the River Wear is associated with the history of the Industrial Revolution and its upper end runs through lead mining country, until this gives way to coal seams of the Durham coalfield for the rest of its length. As a result of quarrying, lead mining and coal mining. The Weardale Railway continues to run services between Stanhope and Wolsingham. Mining of lead ore has been known in the area of the headwaters of the Wear since the Roman occupation, however, abandoned mines and their spoil heaps continue to contribute to heavy metal mineral pollution of the river and its tributaries. This has significance to fishing in times of low flow and infrastructure costs as the River Wear is an important source of drinking water for many of the inhabitants along its course. Fluorspar is another mineral sporadically co-present with Weardale Granite and became important in the manufacture of steel from the late 19th century into the 20th century, in many cases the steel industries were able to take fluorspar from old excavation heaps. Fluorspar explains why iron and steel manufacture flourished in the Wear valley, Consett, overlying are three Carboniferous minerals, limestone, Coal Measures as raw materials for iron and steel manufacture, and sandstone, useful as a refractory material. The last remaining flourspar mine closed in 1999 following legislation re water quality, a mine at Rogerley Quarry, Frosterley, is operated by an American consortium who occasionally work it for specimen minerals. Minco are currently exploring the North Pennines and the upper Wear catchment for potential reserves of zinc at lower levels and these sources were in due course depleted or became uneconomic
29.
St. Peter's Church, Monkwearmouth
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St Peters Church is the parish church of Monkwearmouth in Sunderland, Tyne and Wear, England. It is one of three churches that make up the Parish of Monkwearmouth, the others being All Saints Church and St Andrews Church, the first church on the site was built on instructions from Benedict Biscop in 674-750, of which only the west wall and porch survive. The tower was added before 1000 on top of the porch, along with the monastery in Jarrow, St Peters is the United Kingdoms nomination for a World Heritage Site in 2010
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National Glass Centre
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The National Glass Centre is a cultural venue and visitor attraction located in Sunderland, North East England. It is part of the University of Sunderland, the National Glass Centre is located in Sunderland, on the north banks of the River Wear, on the former site of J. L. Thompson and Sons shipyard. The centre is close to the site of St. Peters Church and it was here that Benedict Biscop introduced glass making into Britain, by hiring French glaziers to make the windows for the priory. The glass-making industry exploded in the century, driven by an abundance of cheap coal. Sunderland glass became known throughout the country, in later years, the Pyrex brand of glassware was manufactured in Sunderland. In 2007, the last two remaining glass firms in Sunderland - Corning Glass Works and Arc International - announced they would close, despite the decline in the industry, in 1998 the centre was opened for £17 million. It was funded by the Arts Council in conjunction with the University of Sunderland, Tyne and Wear Development Corporation, the centre, located alongside the universitys St. Peters campus, continued the regeneration of the banks of the Wear. The National Glass Centre is constructed from glass and steel, visitors can walk on its glass roof and look down into the centre below. There is a total of 3,250 square metres of glass on the roof, each glass panel on the roof is 6 cm thick. The centre contains a dedicated to the history of glass-making. Hot glass demonstrations provide a context for the museums collection, the NGC also houses the University of Sunderlands Glass and Ceramics Department and Institute for International Research in Glass. A number of artists are located on site, and their work can be purchased by visitors in the glass shop, since August 2006, National Glass Centre dropped its admission fee and is currently free to visit. Since the removal of a fee, the centre has seen a rapid increase in visitors. It has also played host to many events including the 2007 North East Tourism Awards. The National Glass Centre hosts a variety of changing exhibitions in its Contemporary Gallery
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Institute for International Research in Glass
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The Institute for International Research in Glass promotes and facilitates research in Glass at a national and international level. It is part of the University of Sunderland, located in the National Glass Centre on the bank of the river Wear, planning of IIRG began in 1996, spurred on by the international rating achieved in the last Research Assessment Exercise, where glass research received a special mention. Research funding was won from various sources, and two full-time professorial posts in Glass were created, which were taken up by Dan Klein and Zora Palova. IIRG was launched in June 1998 to compliment the National Glass Centre, IIRG was the first research centre of the Art and Design faculty of the University of Sunderland. Professor Sylva Petrova, formerly curator of 20th Century Glass at the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague and Deputy Director of the museum, when Petrova retired in 2012, she was succeeded by Dr. Kevin Petrie. To offer a forum for debate and inquiry on contemporary and historical issues in glass, to foster the development of postgraduate research degrees in glass. IIRG researches, publishes, and provides lectures about a range of glass topics. It facilitates research of new methods and technologies and encourages academic work on contemporary. IIRG regularly organises conferences and seminars about a variety of glass-related topics, including a research conference for ceramics and glass titled Parallels. It is also involved in such as workshops, master classes, publications, exhibitions, residencies, consultancy, project management. IIRG has curated exhibitions in the UK, Czech Republic, Japan, Slovak Republic, Croatia. Art Editions North, Sunderland http, //www. grs. sund. ac. uk/researchareas. cfm Areas of Research at the University of Sunderland, retrieved 8 April 2013
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Spark Sunderland
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Spark, known formerly as 107 Spark FM and Spark FM, is a community radio station serving 15- to 25-year-olds in the Sunderland area. Spark carries a variety of content catering for both mainstream and niche audiences, specialising in chart hits and new music throughout the day. The radio station broadcasts on 107. 00FM and online via the stations website, the official launch of 107 Spark FM took place at the new £12 million CitySpace building in the centre of the city of Sunderland. The station began broadcasting in November 1997 as Radio Utopia a two-week short term broadcast under the Radio Authoritys Restricted Service Licence scheme. Radio broadcasting predated this by several years, with student programming on the community radio station Wear FM, the station was low powered but still proved valuable as a training ground for new broadcasters. Programmes were broadcast from studios in the Forster Building, formerly used by Wear FM, Utopia returned in September 1999 for the first ever freshers broadcast and again proved its value for students and volunteers. During the following years Utopia broadcast more frequently, getting up to twice a year. In 2002 Utopia began broadcasting on the 102. 4FM frequency, in 2003 the station began to use new studios in the £11m Media Centre at the St. Peters Campus, when media teaching moved there that year. The old studios have now been demolished and the building is now used to teach courses run by the Universitys School of Education, the move also facilitated the recording of sessions in The Media Centres new radio and television studios. The station applied for a Community Radio Licence from OFCOM in the 2nd licensing round and was awarded a licence in 2007, the station took on the new name of Spark when it launched in 2009. The name is a reflected of the University logo, which they call a spark in homage to the shipyards that were central to the growth of Sunderland. Volunteers from the station have not only succeeded in gaining recognition in the student radio awards in the UK. Station alumni are now working for BBC and Commercial stations across the UK. When the UK media regulator Ofcom announced a plan to issue Community Radio licences and this application was made in early in 2007. In September 2007, Ofcom awarded Utopia FM a full-time 5 year Community Radio licence and it was announced in June 2009 that Utopia FM would be changing its name to 107 Spark FM to signal the change in licence and the broadening of the audience. In 2012, Spark was awarded Best North East Radio Station in the Nations & Regional Awards, in late 2013, the 107 branding was removed for the station and the station was simply known as Spark or Spark FM
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Made in Tyne & Wear
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Made in Tyne & Wear is a local television station serving Tyne & Wear and parts of Northumberland and County Durham. The station is owned and operated by Made Television Ltd and forms part of a group of six city-based TV stations and it broadcasts from studios and offices at the David Puttnam Media Centre in the St. Peters campus at the University of Sunderland. There were three bids for the licence - Neon TV, Metro8 Newcastle and YourTV Newcastle. After three months on air, Made in Tyne & Wear claimed an audience of around 197,000 viewers. Since August 2015, the station has also been streaming online via its website. On 5 April 2016, Made in Tyne and Wear moved from Freeview channel 8 to Freeview channel 7, the stations manager since launch is Tony Hazell. Currently, Made TV are planning to launch a second North East station for the Teesside area, Made in Tyne & Wear is required to broadcast 37 hours a week of first-run programming. Its flagship programme is the local news magazine, Tyne. The main feature programme is the magazine show, The Lowdown. The Tyne and Wear station also produces a weekly networked programme aimed at the LGBT community, Made with Pride
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Estelle Morris
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Morris was born in Manchester into a political family. Her uncle, Alf Morris, was Labour MP for Manchester Wythenshawe and her father, Charles, was Labour MP for Manchester Openshaw and she attended Rack House primary school in Wythenshawe and Whalley Range High School in Whalley Range where she failed her English and French A-levels. She is a graduate of the Coventry College of Education, where she gained a BEd in 1974, Morris remembered the long-serving Principal, Joan Dillon Browne, as a pioneer in showing what women could achieve, long before it was fashionable to do so. Morris was elected to Parliament in 1992 for Birmingham Yardley, gaining the seat from the Conservatives with only a majority of 162. She became a minister in the Department for Education and Employment in 1997 and was promoted to Secretary of State for Education and she was the first former comprehensive school teacher to have the position. She suddenly resigned her post in October 2002, explaining that she did not feel up to the job and she had made a commitment to the then Conservative Shadow Education Secretary, David Willetts to resign if the literacy and numeracy targets were not met. In interviews following her resignation she stated that she had felt happier and she stepped down from the government and as a Member of Parliament at the 2005 general election. On 13 May 2005 it was announced that she would be created a life peer, between 2005 and 2009 she was Pro Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sunderland. In May 2005, she was appointed chair of the Children’s Workforce Development Council, in September 2005, it was announced that she would succeed Lady Kennedy of The Shaws as President of the National Childrens Bureau. Also, since September 2005 she has been a member of the council of Goldsmiths College, since 2007 she has been chair of the Executive Group of the Institute for Effective Education at the University of York. Morris is the Chair of the charity, the Hughes Syndrome Foundation. In 2004, Morris was awarded Honorary Doctorates in Arts from Leeds Metropolitan University, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Estelle Morris TheyWorkForYou. com – Estelle Morris profile, theyworkforyou. com, accessed 21 March 2014. NCB President webpage, ncb. org. uk, accessed 21 March 2014, Manchester Metropolitan Universitys Honorands, accessed 21 March 2014. BBC Estelle Morris profile, news. bbc. co. uk, independent article, June 2001, accessed 21 March 2014
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Canary Wharf
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Canary Wharf is a major business district located in Tower Hamlets, East London. Canary Wharf contains around 16,000,000 square feet of office and retail space, Morgan, KPMG, MetLife, Moodys, Morgan Stanley, RBC, S&P Global, Skadden, State Street, and Thomson Reuters. Canary Wharf is located on the West India Docks on the Isle of Dogs, from 1802 to 1939, the area was one of the busiest docks in the world. After the 1960s, the industry began to decline, leading to all the docks being closed by 1980. Canary Wharf itself takes its name from No.32 berth of the West Wood Quay of the Import Dock and this was built in 1936 for Fruit Lines Ltd, a subsidiary of Fred Olsen Lines for the Mediterranean and Canary Islands fruit trade. The Canary islands were so named after the dogs found there by the Spanish and as it is located on the Isle of Dogs. The Canary Wharf of today began when Michael von Clemm, former chairman of Credit Suisse First Boston, further discussions with G Ware Travelstead led to proposals for a new business district. The first buildings were completed in 1991, including One Canada Square, which became the UKs tallest building at the time, by the time it opened, the London commercial property market had collapsed, and Olympia and York Canary Wharf Limited filed for bankruptcy in May 1992. Initially, the City of London saw Canary Wharf as an existential threat and it modified its planning laws to expand the provision of new offices in the City of London, for example, creating offices above railway stations and roads. The resulting oversupply of office space contributed to the failure of the No 1 Canada Square project, in 1997, some residents living on the Isle of Dogs launched a lawsuit against Canary Wharf Ltd for private nuisance because the tower interfered with television signals. In December 1995 an international consortium, backed by the owners of Olympia & York and other investors. The new company was called Canary Wharf Limited, and later became Canary Wharf Group, recovery in the property market generally, coupled with continuing demand for large floorplate Grade A office space, slowly improved the level of interest. A critical event in the recovery was the start of work on the Jubilee Line Extension. At the peak of property prices in 2007, the HSBC building sold for a record £1.1 billion, in March 2014 planning permission was granted for the second residential building on the Canary Wharf estate, a 58-storey tower including 566 apartments plus shops and a health club. In July 2014 Canary Wharf Group was granted planning permission for a major expansion of the Canary Wharf estate. The plans include the construction of 30 buildings comprising a total of 4.9 million square feet, construction is planned to commence in autumn 2014 with the first buildings to be occupied at the end of 2018. In 2014, Singapore listed Oxley Holdings, together with developer Ballymore UK, have a joint venture to set up a new waterfront township of Royal Wharf with 3385 new homes housing over 10,000 people. This table lists completed buildings in Canary Wharf that are over 60 metres tall, the Canary Wharf developers played a pro-active role in improving transport links, which they recognised as essential to the success of the project
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Ship building
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Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history, Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as naval engineering. The construction of boats is an activity called boat building. The dismantling of ships is called ship breaking, the ancestors of Australian Aborigines and New Guineans also went across the Lombok Strait to Sahul by boat over 50,000 years ago. Evidence from Ancient Egypt shows that the early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC, the Archaeological Institute of America reports that some of the oldest ships yet unearthed are known as the Abydos boats. These are a group of 14 ships discovered in Abydos that were constructed of wooden planks which were sewn together, the ship dating to 3000 BC was about 25 m,75 feet long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor OConnor, the 5, 000-year-old ship may have belonged to Pharaoh Aha. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints. The oldest known tidal dock in the world was built around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast in India, other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade, ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia. Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India, native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by Alexander the Great to navigate across the Hydaspes and even the Indus, under Nearchos. The Indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient Persia, other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of Ibn Jubayr. The ships of Ancient Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters in length and they mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled, the ocean and sea going ships of Ancient Egypt were constructed with cedar wood, most likely hailing from Lebanon. The ships of Phoenicia seem to have been of a similar design, the naval history of China stems back to the Spring and Autumn period of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as ships, which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts. There is considerable knowledge regarding shipbuilding and seafaring in the ancient Mediterranean and this was dually met with the introduction of the Han Dynasty junk ship design in the same century
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College and university rankings
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College and university rankings are rankings of institutions in higher education ordered by various combinations of various factors. Rankings have most often conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, governments. In addition to ranking entire institutions, organizations perform rankings of specific programs, departments, various rankings mostly evaluating on institutional output by research. Some rankings evaluate institutions within a country, while others assess institutions worldwide. The subject has produced much debate about rankings usefulness and accuracy, the expanding diversity in rating methodologies and accompanying criticisms of each indicate the lack of consensus in the field. The variety of academic rankings provide an overview and insightful overlook of different academic institutions on composite capabilities in academia. For rankings of United States universities in particular, see Rankings of universities in the United States, several organizations produce worldwide university rankings, including the following. The ranking is funded by the Chinese government and its purpose was to measure the gap between Chinese and world class universities. In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities there are no Chinese universities in the first 100 of 500 places, ARWU rankings have been cited by The Economist magazine. It has been lauded for being consistent and transparent based on an article, the education ministers of France, Norway and Denmark traveled to China to discuss and find ways to improve their rankings. ARWU does not rely on surveys and school submissions, among other criteria, ARWU includes the number of articles published by Nature or Science and the number of Nobel Prize winners and Fields Medalists. Harvard has topped the ranking for years, one of the primary criticisms of ARWUs methodology is that it is biased towards the natural sciences and English language science journals over other subjects. This Saudi Arabia-based consulting organization has published rankings of world universities since 2012. This university ranking is owned by the French consulting company and rating agency SMBG and it ranks masters and MBA in its 9 geographical regions. G-factor ranks university and college web presence by counting the number of only from other university websites. G-factor is an indicator of the popularity or importance of each universitys website from the perspectives of other institutions. The annual U. S. News Best Global Universities rankings were produced to provide insight into how universities compare globally. The Best Global Universities rankings also provide insight into how U. S. universities – which U. S. News has been ranking separately for more than 30 years – stand globally
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The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
