1.
ZDF
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Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen, usually shortened to ZDF, is a German public-service television broadcaster based in Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate. It is run as an independent nonprofit institution, which was founded by all states of Germany. ZDF is financed by licence fees and advertising revenues. The broadcaster is well known for its famous programmes heute, a newscast established in 1963, and Wetten, dass. an entertainment show premiered in 1981, thomas Bellut, ZDFs director general, was elected by the ZDF Television Council in 2011. ZDF was founded in 1961 by interstate agreement, after the West German federal governments plan to set up a TV channel controlled by the government caused uproar. West Germanys constitution stipulated that regulation of culture and media was a compentency of the federal states, the station began broadcasting from Eschborn near Frankfurt am Main on 1 April 1963, with a speech by the first director general, Dr. Karl Holzamer. The channel broadcast its first programme in colour in 1967, in 1974, ZDF moved its base of operations to Mainz-Lerchenberg, after briefly being located in Wiesbaden. From 5 October 1996 ZDF broadcasts 24 hours a day, in 1960, the German postal service began constructing a transmitter chain for a second television network. This new network was to be broadcast on the UHF spectrum which required new reception equipment, for older receivers, a converter was sold for about 80 DM. As with the earlier ARD television network, the location of the transmitters was carefully planned to ensure the country would be able to receive the programming. m. ARD2 began broadcasting on 1 May 1961 in the area of Hessischer Rundfunk. Under the government of Konrad Adenauer, the Interior Ministry was to establish a federal TV network, Deutschland-Fernsehen, in March 1961, the states decided to establish, independently of existing institutions, a central nonprofit public television network. On 6 June 1961, the state premiers signed at a conference in Stuttgart the interstate agreement on the establishment of the public institution Second German Television. On 1 December 1961, though not all states had ratified the agreement, the last state, Bavaria, filed the instrument of ratification on 9 July 1962. ZDF is financed by a fee of €17.98 per month. ZDF shares the income with ARD and Deutschlandradio, the fees are not collected directly by ZDF, but by the Beitragsservice, a common organization of the ARD member broadcasters, ZDF, and Deutschlandradio. ZDF also has income from sponsorships and programming and advertising sales, as ZDF is a channel, not a network, the channel is broadcast throughout Germany, with no regional variations or affiliates, using a number of signal repeaters. ZDF transmitters broadcast a digital signal, analog signals were gradually phased out, a process which lasted from 2002 to 2008
2.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
3.
Erich Honecker
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From 1976 onward he was also the countrys official head of state as chairman of the State Council following Willi Stophs relinquishment of the post. Honeckers political career began in the 1930s when he became an official of the Communist Party of Germany, a position for which he was imprisoned during the Nazi era. Following World War II, he was freed and soon relaunched his political activities, founding the organisation the Free German Youth in 1946. Honeckers eighteen years at the helm of the soon-to-collapse German Democratic Republic came to an end. However, the proceedings were abandoned due to illness and he was freed from custody to travel to join his family in exile in Chile, where he died in May 1994 from liver cancer. Honecker was born in Neunkirchen, in what is now Saarland, as the son of Wilhelm Honecker, a miner and political activist. The couple had six children together, Katharina, Wilhelm, Frieda, Erich, Gertrud, after World War I, the Territory of the Saar Basin was occupied by France. After his tenth birthday in 1922, Erich Honecker became a member of the Spartacus Leagues childrens group in Wiebelskirchen, aged 14 he entered the KJVD, the Young Communist League of Germany, for whom he later served the organisations leader of Saarland from 1931. Honecker did not find an apprenticeship immediately after leaving school, there, sharing a room with Anton Ackermann, he studied under the cover name Fritz Malter. In 1930, aged 18, Honecker entered the KPD, the Communist Party of Germany and his political mentor was Otto Niebergall, who later represented the KPD in the Reichstag. After returning from Moscow in 1931 following his studies at the International Lenin School, Honecker was arrested in Essen, Germany but soon released. Following this he fled to the Netherlands and from there oversaw KJVDs activities in Pfalz, Hesse and he returned to the Saar in 1934 and worked alongside Johannes Hoffmann on the campaign against the region’s re-incorporation into Germany. A referendum on the future in January 1935 however saw 90. 73% vote in favour of reunifying with Germany. Like 4,000 to 8,000 others, Honecker then fled the region, on 28 August 1935 he illegally travelled to Berlin under the alias Marten Tjaden, with a printing press in his luggage. From there he worked together with the KPD official Herbert Wehner – later to become an SPD member - in opposition/resistance to the Nazi state. On 4 December 1935 Honecker was detained by the Gestapo and until 1937 remanded in Berlin’s Moabit detention centre, on 3 July 1937 he was sentenced to ten years imprisonment for the preparation of high treason alongside the severe falsification of documents. Honecker spent the majority of his incarceration in the Brandenburg-Görden Prison, in early 1945 he was moved to the Barnimstraße Women’s Prison in Berlin due to good behaviour and, as a trained roofer, in order to be put to work repairing the bomb-damaged building. During an Allied bombing raid on 6 March 1945 he managed to escape and hid himself at the apartment of Lotte Grund, after several days she persuaded him to hand himself back in and the escape was then covered up by the guard
4.
History of Germany
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Following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charlemagnes heirs in 843, in 962, Otto I became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state. In the High Middle Ages, the dukes, princes. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517, as the states became Protestant. The two parts of the Holy Roman Empire clashed in the Thirty Years War, which was ruinous to the twenty million civilians living in both states. The Thirty Years War brought tremendous destruction to Germany, more than 1/4 of the population,1648 marked the effective end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. After the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, feudalism fell away, the Industrial Revolution modernized the German economy, led to the rapid growth of cities and to the emergence of the Socialist movement in Germany. Prussia, with its capital Berlin, grew in power, German universities became world-class centers for science and the humanities, while music and the arts flourished. The new Reichstag, a parliament, had only a limited role in the imperial government. Germany joined the other powers in colonial expansion in Africa and the Pacific, Germany was the dominant power on the continent. By 1900, its rapidly expanding industrial economy passed Britains, allowing a naval race, Germany led the Central Powers in World War I against France, Great Britain, Russia and the United States. Defeated and partly occupied, Germany was forced to pay war reparations by the Treaty of Versailles and was stripped of its colonies as well as Polish areas and Alsace-Lorraine. The German Revolution of 1918–19 deposed the emperor and the kings and princes, leading to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. In the early 1930s, the worldwide Great Depression hit Germany hard, as unemployment soared, in 1933, the Nazi party under Adolf Hitler came to power and quickly established a totalitarian regime. Political opponents were killed or imprisoned, after forming a pact with the Soviet Union in 1939, Hitler and Stalin divided Eastern Europe. After a Phoney War in spring 1940 the German blitzkrieg swept Scandinavia, only the British Commonwealth and Empire stood opposed, along with Greece. Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, in 1942, the German invasion of the Soviet Union faltered, and after the United States had entered the war, Britain became the base for massive Anglo-American bombings of German cities. Germany fought the war on multiple fronts through 1942–1944, however following the Allied invasion of Normandy, millions of ethnic Germans fled from Communist areas into West Germany, which experienced rapid economic expansion, and became the dominant economy in Western Europe
5.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, while visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame, during his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons and he composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote, posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl and this was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy and his elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed Nannerl. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Ruperts Cathedral in Salzburg, the baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself Wolfgang Amadè Mozart as an adult, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg, Leopold became the orchestras deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his sons birth, Leopold published a textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule. When Nannerl was 7, she began lessons with her father. Years later, after her brothers death, she reminisced, He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and he could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. At the age of five, he was composing little pieces
6.
Romy Schneider
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Romy Schneider was a film actress born in Vienna who held German and French citizenship. She started her career in the German Heimatfilm genre in the early 1950s when she was 15, from 1955 to 1957, she played the central character of Empress Elisabeth of Austria in the Austrian Sissi trilogy. Schneider moved to France where she made successful and critically acclaimed films with some of the most notable directors of that era. After her parents divorce in 1945, Magda took charge of Romy and her brother Wolfi, eventually supervising the young girls career and her career was also overseen by her stepfather, Hans Herbert Blatzheim, a noted restaurateur who Schneider indicated had an unhealthy interest in her. Romy Schneiders first film, made when she was 15, was Wenn der weiße Flieder wieder blüht in 1953, in 1954, Schneider for the first time portrayed a royal, playing a young Queen Victoria in the Austrian film Mädchenjahre einer Königin. Less stereotypical films during this period include The Girl and the Legend, working with a young Horst Buchholz. Schneider soon starred in Christine, a remake of Max Ophülss 1933 film Liebelei and it was during the filming of Christine that Schneider fell in love with French actor Alain Delon, who co-starred in the movie. She left Germany to join him in Paris and they announced their engagement in 1959, under Viscontis direction, she gave performances in the Théâtre Moderne as Annabella in John Fords stage play Tis Pity Shes a Whore and in the film Boccaccio 70. In 1962 Schneider played Anna in Sacha Pitoëffs production of Chekhovs play The Seagull, a brief stint in Hollywood included a starring role in Good Neighbor Sam a comedy with Jack Lemmon, while Whats New Pussycat. Although American financed, was shot in and around Paris, Schneider co-starred with Peter OToole, Peter Sellers and Woody Allen, the film was made from his first screenplay. Schneider and Delon decided to split up in 1963 although they remained lifelong friends. They continued to work together in films as La Piscine, which revitalized her career. Schneider continued to work in France during the 1970s, most notably with director Claude Sautet on five films and their first collaboration, The Things of Life with Michel Piccoli, was a great success and made Schneider an icon in France. The three colleagues teamed up again for the noir thriller Max et les ferrailleurs, and she appeared with Yves Montand in Sautets César et Rosalie, Schneider portrayed Elisabeth of Austria again in Ludwig, Viscontis film about the life of King Ludwig II of Bavaria. This time she played the Empress as a more complex, mature. Sissi sticks to me just like oatmeal, Schneider once said, other successes from this period included Le Train, where she played a German-Jewish refugee in World War 2, Claude Chabrols thriller Innocents with Dirty Hands with Rod Steiger, and Le vieux fusil. The gritty That Most Important Thing, Love garnered her first César Award, on 30 October 1974, Schneider created one of the most memorable moments on German television. She also acted in Le Trio infernal with Michel Piccoli, and in Garde à vue with Michel Serrault, an unpleasant incident occurred during this period with leading German film director Rainer Werner Fassbinder who wanted her to play the lead in his film The Marriage of Maria Braun
7.
Albert Schweitzer
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Albert Schweitzer, OM was a French-German theologian, organist, philosopher, and physician. Schweitzer, a Lutheran, challenged both the view of Jesus as depicted by historical-critical methodology current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Pauls mysticism of “being in Christ” as primary, as a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement. Schweitzer was born in Kaysersberg, the son of Ludwig Schweitzer and he spent his childhood in the Alsatian village of Gunsbach, where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor of the EPCAAL, taught him how to play music. The tiny village is home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer, the medieval parish church of Gunsbach was shared by the Protestant and Catholic congregations, which held their prayers in different areas at different times on Sundays. This compromise arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years War, Schweitzer, the pastors son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of Faith and Purpose. Schweitzers first language was the Alsatian dialect of German, at the Mulhouse Gymnasium he received his Abitur in 1893. In 1893 he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor, for whom Johann Sebastian Bachs organ-music contained a mystic sense of the eternal, Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began. From 1893 Schweitzer studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm University in Strasbourg. S, Schweitzer served his one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth to see Wagners Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal which deeply impressed him. In 1898 he went back to Paris to write a PhD dissertation on The Religious Philosophy of Kant at the Sorbonne, here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll and he completed his theology degree in 1899 and published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899. Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bachs religious music and they were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns. The exposition of ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzers last task. There was great demand for a German edition, but, instead of translating it, the result was two volumes, which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911. Schweitzers interpretative approach greatly influenced the understanding of Bachs music
8.
Nicolaus Copernicus
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Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, a region that had been part of the Kingdom of Poland since 1466. A polyglot and polymath, he obtained a doctorate in law and was also a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics scholar, translator, governor, diplomat. In 1517 he derived a quantity theory of money – a key concept in economics –, Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the city of Toruń, in the province of Royal Prussia, in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. His father was a merchant from Kraków and his mother was the daughter of a wealthy Toruń merchant, Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas became an Augustinian canon at Frombork and his sister Barbara, named after her mother, became a Benedictine nun and, in her final years, prioress of a convent in Chełmno, she died after 1517. His sister Katharina married the businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children, Copernicus fathers family can be traced to a village in Silesia near Nysa. The villages name has been variously spelled Kopernik, Copernik, Copernic, Kopernic, Coprirnik, in the 14th century, members of the family began moving to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków, and to Toruń. The father, Mikołaj the Elder, likely the son of Jan, Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first time as a well-to-do merchant who dealt in copper, selling it mostly in Danzig. He moved from Kraków to Toruń around 1458, Nicolaus father was actively engaged in the politics of the day and supported Poland and the cities against the Teutonic Order. In 1454 he mediated negotiations between Polands Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities for repayment of war loans, Copernicuss father married Barbara Watzenrode, the astronomers mother, between 1461 and 1464. The Modlibógs were a prominent Polish family who had been known in Polands history since 1271. The Watzenrode family, like the Kopernik family, had come from Silesia from near Świdnica and they soon became one of the wealthiest and most influential patrician families. Lucas Watzenrode the Elder, a merchant and in 1439–62 president of the judicial bench, was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights. In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz conference that planned the uprising against them, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomers maternal uncle and patron, was educated at the University of Kraków and at the universities of Cologne and Bologna. He was an opponent of the Teutonic Order, and its Grand Master once referred to him as the devil incarnate. In 1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia against the preference of King Casimir IV, as a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king until Casimir IVs death three years later. Watzenrode was then able to close relations with three successive Polish monarchs, John I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. He was a friend and key advisor to each ruler, Watzenrode came to be considered the most powerful man in Warmia, and his wealth, connections and influence allowed him to secure Copernicus education and career as a canon at Frombork Cathedral
9.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
10.
Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
11.
Guido Knopp
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Guido Knopp is a German journalist and author. After gaining his degree in history and political science, Knopp worked as a newspaper editor at the Welt am Sonntag. In 1978 he took up employment at the German TV station ZDF and he also hosts a weekly show on German television, usually broadcast on Sundays, called History. Knopp has been criticized for rewriting history by leaving out the role of the Wehrmacht in the cruelties of World War II, in 2004 a group of international historians warned that documentaries like the ones produced by Knopp could reduce important historic facts to mere infotainment. In 2003 Guido Knopp pleaded for Konrad Adenauer to be featured in the Unsere Besten list of greatest Germans, in 2004 he received the Goldene Kamera and the Bavarian and European TV award for his work. Today he teaches Journalism at the Gustav-Siewerth-Akademie in Weilheim-Bierbronnen and is living in Mainz and his publishing house is the German Random House group. In 2008 Knopp worked on a movie about the failed Hitler assassin Stauffenberg, ISBN 0-415-94730-8 Die Wehrmacht, Eine Bilanz. List of Adolf Hitler books Guido Knopp in the German National Library catalogue ZDF-History Guido Knopp at the Internet Movie Database
12.
Konrad Adenauer
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Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer was a German statesman who served as the first post-war Chancellor of Germany from 1949 to 1963. He led his country from the ruins of World War II to a productive and prosperous nation that forged close relations with France, the United Kingdom, during his years in power West Germany achieved democracy, stability, international respect and economic prosperity. He was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union, a Christian Democratic party that under his leadership became one of the most influential parties in the country, Adenauer, the Chancellor till age 87 was dubbed Der Alte. British historian Roy Jenkins says he was the oldest statesman ever to function in elected office and he belied his age by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct. He displayed a strong dedication to a vision of market-based liberal democracy. A shrewd politician, Adenauer was deeply committed to a Western-oriented foreign policy and he worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction of World War II to a central position in Europe, presiding over the German Economic Miracle. He reestablished the German military in 1955 and he came to terms with France, which made possible the economic unification of Western Europe. Adenauer opposed rival East Germany and made his nation a member of NATO, a devout Roman Catholic, he had been a leading Centre Party politician in the Weimar Republic, serving as Mayor of Cologne and as president of the Prussian State Council. Konrad Adenauer was born as the third of five children of Johann Konrad Adenauer and his wife Helene in Cologne, Rhenish Prussia and his siblings were August, Johannes, Lilli and Elisabeth, who died shortly after birth in c. In 1894, he completed his Abitur and began studying law and politics at the universities of Freiburg, Munich and Bonn. In 1896, at the age of 20, he was conscripted into the German army and he was a member of several Roman Catholic students associations under the K. St. V. He graduated in 1900 and afterwards worked as a lawyer at the court in Cologne and he was strongly interested in the use of medicinal herbs, according to famous French herbalist Maurice Messugue, whom he met and befriended. These were his favorite medicinal plants according to Messugue, though he had knowledge of a wide range of plants. He agreed with Messugue that plants had to be free of sprays and he told Messugue that he owed his good health to the plants, to nature. Adenauer found relaxation and great enjoyment in the Italian game of bocce, as a devout Catholic, he joined the Centre Party in 1906 and was elected to Colognes city council in the same year. In 1909, he became Vice-Mayor of Cologne, a metropolis with a population of 635,000 in 1914. From 1917 to 1933, he served as Mayor of Cologne, Adenauer headed Cologne during World War I, working closely with the army to maximize the citys role as a rear base of supply and transportation for the Western Front. He paid special attention to the food supply, enabling the residents to avoid the worst of the severe shortages that beset most German cities during 1918–19
13.
Martin Luther
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Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
14.
Gregor Gysi
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Gregor Gysi is a German attorney and key politician of the political party The Left, a party which emerged in part from the old East German Socialist Unity Party of Germany. He belonged to the SEDs reformist camp at the time of the pro-democracy transition inspired by former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and he has strongly denied allegations that he used to help the Stasi – the East German secret police. He was the last leader of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany and led the effort that transformed it into the post-Communist Party of Democratic Socialism, Gysi was born in East Berlin, Soviet Zone of Germany. His father, Klaus Gysi, was an official in East Germany. His mother, Irene, was the sister of political activist Gottfried Lessing, the surname Gysi is of Swiss-German origin. He is of partial Jewish ancestry, his grandmother was Jewish. One of his maternal great-grandmothers was Russian and his sister, Gabriele, is an actress, who escaped from East Germany in 1985. Today, she is chief dramaturge at the Volksbühne in Berlin, Gysis political career started in the then-ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany of East Germany, to which he was admitted in 1967. In 1971 he became an attorney, and during the 1970s and 1980s defended several prominent dissidents, including Rudolf Bahro, Robert Havemann, Ulrike Poppe. In addition to his work, Gysi emerged as one of East Germanys leading Gorbachev-inspired political reformists within the SED. In 1989, he and a group of lawyers presented a counter-draft to the governments Travel Bill and this led to a mass rally on East-Berlins Alexanderplatz on 4 November in which he spoke and called for various reforms, including free elections. In December 1989, he became a member of a special SED party session investigating official corruption, in December 1989, Egon Krenz, the last Communist leader of East Germany, resigned all of his posts. Gysi was elected as the partys chairman and he did not, however, become the leader of East Germany, the SED had abandoned its monopoly of power on 1 December. In his first speech, Gysi admitted that the SED had brought the country to ruin and he declared that the party needed to adopt a new form of socialism. To that end, he set about transforming the SED into a democratic socialist party. Before the year was out, the last hardliners in the SED leadership had either resigned or been pushed out, on 16 December, the SED was renamed the Socialist Unity Party – Party of Democratic Socialism, it later became simply the Party of Democratic Socialism. In the first post-reunification all-German elections, he was elected to the Bundestag from Berlins Hellersdorf–Marzahn constituency and he remained chairman of the PDS through 1998, and then from 1998 to 2000 served as chairman of the partys parliamentary group. In 1992 allegations were brought against him of having been a collaborator or informant of East Germanys Ministry for State Security
15.
Karl Marx
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Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
16.
Alice Schwarzer
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Alice Schwarzer is a German journalist, a prominent contemporary feminist and convicted white-collar criminal. She is founder and publisher of the German feminist journal EMMA, since the 1980s, Schwarzer hid around 4 million Euros in a Swiss bank account and was therefore convicted in July 2016 for tax fraud by the Amtsgericht Cologne. As the daughter of an uninvolved 22-year old single mother, she was raised by her grandparents in Wuppertal. During World War II she evacuated to Bavaria, only returning to the Ruhr in 1950, after studying in France, Schwarzer began a trainee journalism job in Düsseldorf in 1966. In 1969 she started working as a journalist, from 1970 to 1974 she worked as a freelancer for different media in Paris. At the same time she studied psychology and sociology, amongst others lectured by Michel Foucault, Schwarzer met Jean-Paul Sartre and Daniel Cohn-Bendit. She was one of the founders of the Feminist Movement in Paris, in June of 1971, Schwarzer did the same with 374 German women, including Romy Schneider, in a successful campaign to legalize abortion in Germany. She called her project Frauen gegen den §218, in autumn 1971 she released her first book of the same title. The West German legalization law was struck down by the German Constitutional Court abortion decision,1975, one of her best known books is Der kleine Unterschied und seine großen Folgen, which was released in 1975 and made her famous beyond the borders of Germany. It was translated into eleven languages, since its release, Schwarzer has become Germanys most high-profile, but also most controversial contemporary feminist. She is a second-wave feminist representing concepts of feminist equality, one of her goals was the realization of economic self-sufficiency for women. She argued against the law which required married women to obtain permission from their husbands before beginning paid work outside the home and this provision was removed in 1976. In January 1977 the first issue of her journal EMMA was published, the next years she concentrated on the work for her journal, serving as chief editor and publisher. The ongoing campaign has not met with much success, from 1992 to 1993 she was host of the TV show Zeil um Zehn on German TV channel Hessischer Rundfunk. With her frequent appearances in German TV talk shows she has become an institution on German television, in total, she has released 16 books as a writer, and 15 as publisher. She campaigned against the law of 2002 that fully legalized brothels and she views prostitution as violence against women and favors laws like those in Sweden, where the sale of sexual services is legal but their purchase is not. She warns of a creeping Islamicization of Europe, which in her opinion would lead to an erosion of human rights and she has written in favor of the continued legality of circumcision of male children. In the 1980s, Schwarzer set up an account at the Zürich-based private bank Lienhardt & Partner
17.
Sophie Scholl
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Sophia Magdalena Scholl was a German student and anti-Nazi political activist, active within the White Rose non-violent resistance group in Nazi Germany. She was convicted of treason after having been found distributing anti-war leaflets at the University of Munich with her brother Hans. As a result, they were executed by guillotine. Since the 1970s, Scholl has been commemorated for her anti-Nazi resistance work. She entered junior or grade school at the age of seven, learned easily, in 1930, the family moved to Ludwigsburg and then two years later to Ulm where her father had a business consulting office. In 1932, Scholl started attending a school for girls. At the age of twelve, she chose to join the Bund Deutscher Mädel and her initial enthusiasm gradually gave way to criticism. She was aware of the political views of her father, friends. Even her own brother Hans, who once participated in the Hitler Youth program. Political attitude had become an essential criterion in her choice of friends, the arrest of her brothers and friends in 1937 for participating in the German Youth Movement left a strong impression on her. She had a talent for drawing and painting and for the first time came into contact with a few so-called degenerate artists, an avid reader, she developed a growing interest in philosophy and theology. In spring 1940, she graduated from school, where the subject of her essay was The Hand that Moved the Cradle. Scholl nearly did not graduate, having lost any desire to participate in the classes which had largely become Nazi indoctrination, being fond of children, she became a kindergarten teacher at the Fröbel Institute in Ulm. She also had chosen this kindergarten job hoping that it would be recognized as a service to Reichsarbeitsdienst. This was not the case, though, and in spring 1941 she began a stint in the auxiliary war service as a nursery teacher in Blumberg. The military-like regimen of the Labor Service caused her to very hard about the political situation as well as to begin practicing passive resistance. After her six months in the National Labor Service, in May 1942, she enrolled at the University of Munich as a student of biology and her brother Hans, who was studying medicine there, introduced her to his friends. Although this group of friends eventually was known for their views, they initially were drawn together by a shared love of art, music, literature, philosophy
18.
Hans Scholl
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Hans Fritz Scholl was a founding member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany. Along with his sister Sophie, he was executed by the Nazis and his father, Robert, later became the mayor of Forchtenberg am Kocher. Hans was the second of six children, Inge Aicher-Scholl Hans Scholl Elisabeth Scholl Hartnagel, married Sophies long-term boyfriend, Sophie Scholl Werner Scholl missing in action and presumed dead in June 1944. Thilde Scholl In 1933 he joined the Hitler Youth, but quickly became disillusioned when he realised the true meaning behind the group and he was raised as a Lutheran, although he did at one point consider converting to Catholicism. After this, Hans Scholl studied in the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München Medizin, in the early summer of 1942, Scholl, his sister Sophie, Willi Graf, Kurt Huber, Christoph Probst, and Alexander Schmorell co-authored six anti-Nazi Third Reich political resistance leaflets. Calling themselves the White Rose, they instructed Germans to practice nonviolent resistance against the Nazis, the group had been horrified by the behavior of some German soldiers on the Eastern Front, where they had witnessed cruelty towards Jews in Poland and Russia. The leaflets were distributed around the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, where studied. They also mailed the leaflets to doctors, scholars, and pub owners throughout Germany, on 18 February 1943, Hans and Sophie were spotted by a custodian while throwing leaflets from the atrium at Ludwig Maximilians University. They were arrested by the Gestapo and, with Probst, tried for treason by Judge Roland Freisler, found guilty, Hans and Sophie Scholl and Christopher Probst were beheaded by Johann Reichhart in Munichs Stadelheim Prison, only a few hours later. The execution was supervised by Dr. Walter Roemer, the enforcement chief of the Munich district court, scholls last words were Es lebe die Freiheit. Shortly thereafter, most of the students involved were arrested and executed as well. Following the deaths, a copy of the leaflet was smuggled out of Germany through Scandinavia to the UK by German jurist Helmuth James Graf von Moltke. In mid-1943, they dropped over Germany millions of copies of the tract. Playwright Lillian Garrett-Groag stated in Newsday on 22 February 1993, that It is possibly the most spectacular moment of resistance that I can think of in the twentieth century. The fact that five little kids, in the mouth of the wolf, I know that the world is better for them having been there, but I do not know why. The White Rose really has a symbolic value, but thats a very important value. Hans was portrayed by Fabian Hinrichs in the film Sophie Scholl, Hans and Sophie Scholl Geschwister-Scholl-Preis Unsere Besten The White Rose, A Lesson in Dissent by Jacob G. Hornberger Text of leaflets in English Hans Scholl at Find a Grave
19.
Willy Brandt
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He was the first Social Democrat chancellor since 1930. Brandt was originally considered one of the leaders of the wing of the SPD. He served as Foreign Minister and as Vice Chancellor in Kurt Georg Kiesingers cabinet, Brandt was controversial on both the right wing, for his Ostpolitik, and on the left wing, for his support of American policies, including the Vietnam War, and right-wing authoritarian regimes. The Brandt Report became a measure for describing the general North-South divide in world economics and politics between an affluent North and a poor South. Brandt was also known for his fierce anti-communist policies at the domestic level, Brandt resigned as chancellor in 1974, after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service. Willy Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Carl Frahm in the Free City of Lübeck on 18 December 1913 and his mother was Martha Frahm, a single parent, who worked as a cashier for a department store. His father was an accountant from Hamburg named John Möller, whom Brandt never met, as his mother worked six days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mothers stepfather, Ludwig Frahm, and his second wife, Dora. After passing his Abitur in 1932 at Johanneum zu Lübeck, he became an apprentice at the shipbroker and he joined the Socialist Youth in 1929 and the Social Democratic Party in 1930. He left the SPD to join the left wing Socialist Workers Party, which was allied to the POUM in Spain. In 1933, using his connections with the port and its ships and it was at this time that he adopted the pseudonym Willy Brandt to avoid detection by Nazi agents. In 1934, he took part in the founding of the International Bureau of Revolutionary Youth Organizations, Brandt was in Germany from September to December 1936, disguised as a Norwegian student named Gunnar Gaasland. The real Gunnar Gaasland was married to Gertrud Meyer from Lübeck in a marriage of convenience to protect her from deportation, Meyer had joined Brandt in Norway in July 1933. In 1937, during the Civil War, Brandt worked in Spain as a journalist, in 1938, the German government revoked his citizenship, so he applied for Norwegian citizenship. In 1940, he was arrested in Norway by occupying German forces, on his release, he escaped to neutral Sweden. In August 1940, he became a Norwegian citizen, receiving his passport from the Norwegian legation in Stockholm, in exile in Norway and Sweden Brandt learned Norwegian and Swedish. Brandt spoke Norwegian fluently, and retained a relationship with Norway. In late 1946, Brandt returned to Berlin, working for the Norwegian government, in 1948, he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany and became a German citizen again, formally adopting the pseudonym Willy Brandt as his legal name. In 1950, Brandt, being a member of the federal parliament, being confronted with this during his life, Brandt always denied
20.
Johann Sebastian Bach
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Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
21.
Peter Sodann
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Peter Sodann is a German actor, director and politician. He was the Left Partys nominee for the 2009 presidential election, Sodann was born on June 1,1936 in Meissen to a working-class family. After training to be a toolmaker, he moved to Leipzig in order to study law, in 1959 he transferred to the Theaterhochschule Leipzig, where he led a cabaret group. The groups performance was deemed subversive by the East German authorities, Sodann was arrested by the Stasi and spent nine months in prison and was on probation for four years. In 1964 Sodann made his first performance with the Berliner Ensemble, in the following years, he acted and produced plays in Erfurt, Chemnitz and Magdeburg. In 1980, he moved to Halle and for years worked as a director there and he began acting in television shows during the late 1970s. In 1991 he first appeared in his most famous role, Police Commissioner Bruno Ehrlicher. He remained with the series until November 2007, since 2007 he has starred in a traveling act Ost-West-Vis-à-Vis with CDU politician and former Labor Minister Norbert Blüm. Sodann has been a supporter of the Party of Democratic Socialism. In July 2005 he announced his interest in running as a candidate of the PDS in Saxony for the 2005 federal election, however, he later withdrew himself from considering, citing restrictions on media employment for Bundestag politicians. On October 13,2008, the Left Partys Bundestag delegation nominated Sodann as their candidate for the 2009 presidential election, as an actor-turned-politician, the German media has compared him to Ronald Reagan and Arnold Schwarzenegger. Indeed, he finished third in the election, in which the incumbent Horst Köhler was re-elected, Sodann is currently married to his second wife, Cornelia. He is the father of four children through his first marriage, Tina, Susanne, Franz, official website Peter Sodann at the Internet Movie Database Peter Sodann would be a President for the People
22.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
23.
Wolf von Lojewski
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Wolf von Lojewski is a German journalist. Later he worked as a journalist for several German broadcasters, january 2003 he was the moderator of heute-journal on ZDF. Lojewski wrote several books about his life as a journalist,1991, Amerika, Ein Traum vom neuen Leben 2001, Live dabei. Erinnerungen eines Journalisten 2006, Der schöne Schein der Wahrheit
24.
Johannes Gutenberg
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Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. Gutenberg in 1439 was the first European to use the printing press and his truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenbergs method for making type is considered to have included a type metal alloy. The alloy was a mixture of lead, tin, and antimony that melted at a low temperature for faster and more economical casting, cast well. In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of communication which permanently altered the structure of society. Gutenbergs printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world and his major work, the Gutenberg Bible, has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. Gutenberg was born in the German city of Mainz, the youngest son of the upper-class merchant Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden, and his wife, Else Wyrich. It is assumed that he was baptized in the close to his birthplace of St. Christoph. According to some accounts, Friele was a goldsmith for the bishop at Mainz, Gutenbergs year of birth is not precisely known but was most likely around 1398. John Lienhard, technology historian, says Most of Gutenbergs early life is a mystery and his father worked with the ecclesiastic mint. Gutenberg grew up knowing the trade of goldsmithing and this is supported by historian Heinrich Wallau, who adds, In the 14th and 15th centuries his claimed a hereditary position as. Retainers of the household of the master of the archiepiscopal mint, in this capacity they doubtless acquired considerable knowledge and technical skill in metal working. They supplied the mint with the metal to be coined, changed the species of coins. Wallau adds, His surname was derived from the inhabited by his father and his paternal ancestors zu Laden. The house of Gänsfleisch was one of the families of the town. Patricians in Mainz were often named after houses they owned, around 1427, the name zu Gutenberg, after the family house in Mainz, is documented to have been used for the first time. In 1411, there was an uprising in Mainz against the patricians, as a result, the Gutenbergs are thought to have moved to Eltville am Rhein, where his mother had an inherited estate. According to historian Heinrich Wallau, All that is known of his youth is that he was not in Mainz in 1430 and it is presumed that he migrated for political reasons to Strasbourg, where the family probably had connections
25.
Helmut Markwort
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Helmut Markwort is a German journalist and from 1993 till 2010 Editor-in-Chief of the weekly newsmagazine Focus. He is a member of the liberal Free Democratic Party of Germany, from a former marriage Markwort has a son. Since 1996 he is in a relationship with Patricia Riekel and he has also contributed to the conservative newspaper Junge Freiheit
26.
Otto von Bismarck
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Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg, known as Otto von Bismarck, was a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s, he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germanys position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, in 1862, King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, a position he would hold until 1890. He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in its defeat of France, in 1871, he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the Iron Chancellor, German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy. He disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an empire when it was demanded by both elite and mass opinion. A master of politics at home, Bismarck created the first welfare state in the modern world. In the 1870s, he allied himself with the Liberals and fought the Catholic Church in what was called the Kulturkampf and he lost that battle as the Catholics responded by forming a powerful Centre party and using universal male suffrage to gain a bloc of seats. Bismarck then reversed himself, ended the Kulturkampf, broke with the Liberals, imposed protective tariffs, a devout Lutheran, he was loyal to his king, who argued with Bismarck but in the end supported him against the advice of his wife and his heir. Under Wilhelm I, Bismarck largely controlled domestic and foreign affairs, until he was removed by the young Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, bismarck—a Junker himself—was strong-willed, outspoken and sometimes judged overbearing, but he could also be polite, charming and witty. Occasionally he displayed a violent temper, and he kept his power by threatening resignation time and again. He possessed not only a national and international vision but also the short-term ability to juggle complex developments. As the leader of what historians call revolutionary conservatism, Bismarck became a hero to German nationalists, many historians praise him as a visionary who was instrumental in uniting Germany and, once that had been accomplished, kept the peace in Europe through adroit diplomacy. Bismarck was born in Schönhausen, a family estate situated west of Berlin in the Prussian province of Saxony. He had two siblings, Bernhard and Malwine, the world saw Bismarck as a typical Prussian Junker, an image that he encouraged by wearing military uniforms. Bismarck was well educated and cosmopolitan with a gift for conversation, in addition to his native German, he was fluent in English, French, Italian, Polish and Russian. Bismarck was educated at Johann Ernst Plamanns elementary school, and the Friedrich-Wilhelm, from 1832 to 1833, he studied law at the University of Göttingen, where he was a member of the Corps Hannovera, and then enrolled at the University of Berlin. In 1838, while stationed as an army reservist in Greifswald, at Göttingen, Bismarck befriended the American student John Lothrop Motley
27.
Nina Ruge
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Nina Ruge is a German journalist, TV presenter and author. Ruge is the daughter of a professor and visited the Ina-Seidel-Schule in Braunschweig. Her sister Annette is a doctor at the European Aviation Safety Agency in Cologne. After finishing high school at the age of 17 she studied biology and German language and she passed her final exams with distinction. While she was teaching at a Gymnasium in Wolfsburg from 1983 to 1987, in 1987 she moved to Berlin to work as script girl, assistant director of a number of TV and film productions and editorial assistant with the SFB family program. In 1988 she was one of the editors who was involved in setting up RIAS-TV where she presented the news program Abendschau. Her daily lifestyle magazine Leute heute became very successful after it was at first less popular than expected, Ruge finished nearly every edition of her show Leute heute with the quote Alles wird gut which became her trademark and which she also used for some of her book titles. In November 2006 Ruge announced to end her work for Leute heute on 3 February 2007 in order to have time for her private life. In the 1999 cinema film Wer liebt, dem wachsen Flügel Nina Ruge appeared in the role of Clarissa together with Maximilian Schell, Gudrun Landgrebe and Mathieu Carrière. In addition to her work Nina Ruge is involved in a number of charities like UNICEF, Felix Burda Stiftung - Darmkrebs Prävention and she is also the patron of the Netzwerk von und für Frauen und Mädchen mit Behinderungen in Bayern. In 2005 Nina Ruge was honored on the island Mainau by naming a bright orange-red rose after her, from 1995 to 1998 she was married to the TV producer Stefen Voss. In September 2001 she married Professor Dr. Wolfgang Reitzle, CEO of the international company Linde AG, erfolgsgeheimnisse prominenter Fernsehmoderatoren ISBN 3-430-17872-X Mira May und das Zauberhandy ISBN 3-8315-0226-9 Alles wird gut. Beflügelnde Worte ISBN 3-547-77884-0 Mein persönliches Alles wird gut Buch ISBN 3-431-03134-X Lucy im Zaubergarten ISBN 3-453-87127-8 Alles wird gut,52 Streicheleinheiten für die Seele ISBN 3-453-88002-1 Heilpflanzen
28.
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, Einsteins work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Briefly before, he aquired the Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for his whole life and he continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany and he settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project, Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, on 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein synonymous with genius, Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, the Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, the loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan, when the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the schools regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning, at the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctors note. During his time in Italy he wrote an essay with the title On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field
29.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
30.
White Rose
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The White Rose was a non-violent, intellectual resistance group in Nazi Germany led by a group of students and a professor at the University of Munich. The group conducted an anonymous leaflet and graffiti campaign which called for opposition against the Nazi regime. Their activities started in Munich on June 27th,1942, and they, as well as other members and supporters of the group who carried on distributing the pamphlets, faced show trials by the Nazi Peoples Court, and many were sentenced to death or imprisonment. The group wrote, printed and initially distributed their pamphlets in the greater Munich region, later on, secret carriers brought copies to other cities, mostly in the southern parts of Germany. In total, the White Rose authored six leaflets, which were multiplied and spread and they branded the Nazi regimes crimes and oppression, and called for resistance. In their second leaflet, they denounced the persecution and mass murder of the Jews. Today, the White Rose is well-known within Germany and worldwide, most were in their early twenties. Wilhelm Geyer taught Alexander Schmorell how to make the tin templates used in the graffiti campaign, Eugen Grimminger of Stuttgart funded their operations. Grimmingers secretary Tilly Hahn contributed her own funds to the cause, and acted as go-between for Grimminger and she frequently carried supplies such as envelopes, paper, and an additional duplicating machine from Stuttgart to Munich. In addition, a group of students in the city of Ulm distributed a number of the groups leaflets, among this group were Sophie Scholls childhood friend Susanne Hirzel and her teenage brother Hans Hirzel and Franz J. Müller. Political indoctrination started at an early age, and continued by means of the Hitler Youth with the ultimate goal of complete mind control. Children were exhorted in school to denounce even their own parents for derogatory remarks about Hitler or Nazi ideology, the activities of the White Rose started by the end of 1942. This was a time which was critical for the Nazi regime, After initial victories in World War II. In Summer 1942, the German Wehrmacht was preparing a new campaign in the southern part of the East front in order to regain the initiative after their earlier defeat close to Moscow. In February 1943, the advance of the German army had come to a halt at the Eastern front, during this time, the authors of the pamphlets could neither be discovered, nor could the campaign be stopped by the Nazi authorities. When Hans and Sophie Scholl were discovered and arrested whilst distributing leaflets at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, as the Volksgerichtshof was not bound to the law, but led by Nazi ideology, its actions were declared unlawful in post-war Germany. Thus, the execution of the White Rose group members, amongst many others, is considered as judicial murder, the members of the core group all shared an academic background, being students at Munich university. The Scholl siblings, Christoph Probst, Willi Graf and Alexander Schmorell were all raised by liberal, independently thinking, Alexander Schmorell was born in Russia, and his first language was Russian
31.
Ostpolitik
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Neue Ostpolitik, or Ostpolitik for short, was the normalization of relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and Eastern Europe, particularly the German Democratic Republic beginning in 1969. Ostpolitik was an effort to break with the policies of the Christian Democratic Union, the term Ostpolitik has since been applied to Pope Paul VIs efforts to engage Eastern European countries during the same period. The term Nordpolitik was also coined to describe similar rapprochement policies between North and South Korea beginning in the 1980s, following the end of World War II in 1945, Allied-occupied Germany was split into two states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. Initially, both claimed that they represented the entire German nation. However, the Federal Republic saw itself as the only German government with democratic legitimacy, later, at the end of the 1960s, the communist government of the GDR claimed that there was no longer a common German nation as the GDR had established a socialist nation. The Christian Democratic Union political party dominated West German governments from 1949 to 1969, the first application of the Hallstein Doctrine was in 1957, when the FRG withdrew recognition of Yugoslavia after it accepted a GDR ambassador. In the 1960s it became obvious that this policy would not work forever, when the Federal Republic established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1965, the Arab states countered by breaking off relations with the Federal Republic and establishing relations with the GDR. Nonetheless, he stressed that his new Ostpolitik did not neglect the close ties of the Federal Republic with Western Europe, at the same time, other West European countries entered a period of more daring policy directed to the East. When the Brandt government became Chancellor in 1969, the same politicians now feared a more independent German Ostpolitik, the easing of tensions with the East envisioned by Ostpolitik necessarily began with the Soviet Union, the only Eastern Bloc state with which the Federal Republic had formal diplomatic ties. In 1970 Brandt signed the Treaty of Moscow, renouncing the use of force, later that year, Brandt signed the Treaty of Warsaw, in the process formally recognizing the Peoples Republic of Poland. The Treaty of Warsaw essentially repeated the Moscow treaty, and in particular reiterated the Federal Republics recognition of the Oder–Neisse line, treaties with other Eastern European countries followed. The most controversial agreement was the Basic Treaty of 1972 with East Germany, the conservative CDU opposition party in the Bundestag refused the Basic Treaty because they thought that the government gave away some Federal positions too easily. They also criticized flaws like the publishing of the Bahr-Papier. The Brandt government, a coalition of Social Democrats and Free Democrats, in April 1972 it even seemed that opposition leader Rainer Barzel had enough support to become the new Chancellor, but in the parliamentary decision he came two votes short. Later emerged that the GDR had paid those two CDU deputies to vote against Barzel, new general elections in November 1972 gave the Brandt government a victory, and on May 11,1973 the Federal Parliament approved the Basic Treaty. According to the Basic Treaty the Federal Republic and GDR accepted each others de facto ambassadors, the CDU/CSU persuaded the FDP to defect from its coalition with the SPD in 1982, and thus CDU leader Helmut Kohl became Chancellor of West Germany. However, he did not change West German policy towards the GDR, Ostpolitik is also the name given to Pope Paul VIs policies towards the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellite states. The situation of the Church in Poland, Hungary and Romania improved somewhat during his pontificate, the Republic of Koreas 1980s policy of Nordpolitik was named in allusion to Ostpolitik, a similar concept is Sunshine Policy, the successor to Nordpolitik
32.
Pacifism
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Pacifism is opposition to war, militarism, or violence. The word pacifism was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud, a related term is ahimsa, which is a core philosophy in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. While modern connotations are recent, having been explicated since the 19th century, in Christianity, Jesus Christs injunction to love your enemies and asking for forgiveness for his crucifiers for they know not what they do have been interpreted as calling for pacifism. In modern times, interest was revived by Leo Tolstoy in his late works, Mohandas Gandhi propounded the practice of steadfast nonviolent opposition which he called satyagraha, instrumental in its role in the Indian Independence Movement. Its effectiveness served as inspiration to Martin Luther King Jr. James Lawson, James Bevel, Thich Nhat Hanh and many others in the Civil Rights Movement. Pacifism was widely associated with the much publicized image of Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989 with the Tank Man, historians of pacifism Peter Brock and Thomas Paul Socknat define pacifism in the sense generally accepted in English-speaking areas as an unconditional rejection of all forms of warfare. Philosopher Jenny Teichman defines the form of pacifism as anti-warism. Teichmans beliefs have been summarized by Brian Orend as, a pacifist rejects war and believes there are no moral grounds which can justify resorting to war. War, for the pacifist, is always wrong, in a sense the philosophy is based on the idea that the ends do not justify the means. Pacifism may be based on moral principles or pragmatism, principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found, some pacifists follow principles of nonviolence, believing that nonviolent action is morally superior and/or most effective. Some however, support physical violence for emergency defence of self or others, by no means is all nonviolent resistance based on a fundamental rejection of all violence in all circumstances. Many leaders and participants in such movements, while recognizing the importance of using non-violent methods in particular circumstances, have not been absolute pacifists, sometimes, as with the civil rights movements march from Selma to Montgomery in 1965, they have called for armed protection. The interconnections between civil resistance and factors of force are numerous and complex, the principle is described as difficult to abide by consistently, due to violence not being available as a tool to aid a person who is being harmed or killed. It is further claimed that such a pacifist could logically argue that violence leads to undesirable results than non-violence. Although all pacifists are opposed to war between states, there have been occasions where pacifists have supported military conflict in the case of civil war or revolution. Following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, French pacifist René Gérin urged support for the Spanish Republic, Gérin argued that the Spanish Nationalists were comparable to an individual enemy and the Republics war effort was equivalent to the action of a domestic police force suppressing crime. Advocacy of pacifism can be found far back in history and literature, during the Warring States period, the pacifist Mohist School opposed aggressive war between the feudal states
33.
Nobel Peace Prize
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Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
34.
Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565
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The Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV565, is a piece of organ music written, according to its oldest extant sources, by Johann Sebastian Bach. The piece opens with a section, followed by a fugue that ends in a coda. It has a claim to being the most famous work in the organ repertoire, scholars differ as to when it was composed. It could have been as early as c.1704, which would be one explanation for the unusual features, for a century after its creation the only certainty about this Toccata and Fugue is that it survived in a manuscript written by Johannes Ringk. The first publication of the piece, in the Bach Revival era, was in 1833, through the efforts of Felix Mendelssohn, who also performed the piece in an acclaimed concert in 1840. That popularity further increased, due for example to its inclusion in Walt Disneys Fantasia, in the last quarter of the 20th century scholars like Peter Williams and Rolf-Dietrich Claus published their studies on the piece, and argued against its authenticity. Bach scholars like Christoph Wolff defended the attribution to Bach, other commentators ignored the authenticity doubts or considered the attribution issue undecided. The only extant near-contemporary source for BWV565 is a copy by Johannes Ringk. A broad estimate is that the manuscript was written somewhere in the period from ten years before Bachs death in 1750 to ten years after it, Ringk produced his first copy of a Bach score in 1730 when he was 12. At the time Ringk was a student of Bachs former student Johann Peter Kellner at Gräfenroda, and probably faithfully copied what his teacher put before him. The title page of Ringks manuscript writes the title of the work in Italian as Toccata con Fuga, names Johann Sebastian Bach as the composer of the piece, which is usually seen as the key signature being D minor. However, in Ringks manuscript the staves have no ♭ accidental at the key, in this sense, in Ringks manuscript, the piece is written down in D Dorian mode. Another piece listed as Bachs was also known as Toccata and Fugue in D minor and it was that piece, BWV538, that received the Dorian nickname, that qualifier being effectively used to distinguish it from BWV565. Most score editions of BWV565 use the D minor key signature, Ringks manuscript does not use a separate stave for the pedal part, which was common in the 18th century. Printed editions of the BWV565 organ score invariably write the line on a separate stave. In Ringks manuscript the upper stave is written using the soprano clef. Whether these derive from an earlier manuscript independent from Ringks is debated by scholars and these near-identical 19th-century copies, the version Felix Mendelssohn knew, use the treble clef and a separate stave for the pedal. In the later copies the work is named for instance Adagio and Fuga, Ringks copy abounds in Italian tempo markings, fermatas and staccato dots, all very unusual features for pre–1740 German music
35.
St Matthew Passion
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The St Matthew Passion, BWV244, is a Passion, a sacred oratorio written by Johann Sebastian Bach in 1727 for solo voices, double choir and double orchestra, with libretto by Picander. It sets chapters 26 and 27 of the Gospel of Matthew to music, with interspersed chorales and it is widely regarded as one of the masterpieces of classical sacred music. The original Latin title Passio Domini nostri J. C. secundum Evangelistam Matthæum translates to The Passion of our Lord J C according to the Evangelist Matthew. The St Matthew Passion is the second of two Passion settings by Bach that have survived in their entirety, the first being the St John Passion, little is known with certainty about the creation process of the St Matthew Passion. The available information derives from extant early manuscripts, contemporary publications of the libretto, the St Matthew Passion was probably first performed on 11 April 1727 in the St. Thomas Church, and again on 15 April 1729,30 March 1736, and 23 March 1742. Bach then revised it again between 1743 and 1746, in Leipzig it was not allowed to paraphrase the words of the Gospel in a Passion presentation on Good Friday. A setting of the then popular Brockes Passion libretto, largely consisting of such paraphrasing and that was the option chosen by Bach for his 1724 St John Passion. The performance took place in the St. Thomas Church in Leipzig, in this version the Passion was written for two choruses and orchestras. Choir I consists of a soprano in ripieno voice, a solo, an alto solo. Choir II consists of SATB voices, violin I, violin II, viola, viola da gamba, cello, the music of the cantata consisted largely of music adapted from the St Matthew Passion. At the time only men sung in church, high pitch vocal parts were performed by treble choristers. The size of the organ lofts limited the number of performers for each Choir, Bach revised the Passion by 1736, for a performance on Good Friday 30 March 1736. This is the version that is known as the St Matthew Passion. In this version both choirs have SATB soloists and chorus, and a section and continuo consisting of at least violins I and II, viola, gamba. The woodwinds are two traversos, oboes and oboes damore for each choir, and in addition for choir I two oboes da caccia, some parts were adjusted for a new performance on Good Friday 23 March 1742. Bach finalized his autograph score 1743–1746, however not tied to any new performance, Bach did not number the sections of the St Matthew Passion, all of them vocal movements, but twentieth-century scholars have done so. Both use lettered subsections in some cases and this article is written using the NBA numbering system. Bach worked together with his librettist, Christian Friedrich Henrici, known as Picander, the text of the libretto of the St Matthew Passion was published by Picander in 1729
36.
St John Passion
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The Passio secundum Joannem or St John Passion, BWV245, is a Passion or oratorio by Johann Sebastian Bach, the older of two surviving Passions by Bach. It was written during Bachs first year as director of music in Leipzig and was first performed on April 7,1724. The structure of the falls in two halves, intended to flank a sermon. Compared with the St Matthew Passion, the St John Passion has been described as extravagant, with an expressive immediacy, at times more unbridled. The work is most often today in the 1724 version although Bach revised it in 1725,1732. Bach quickly agreed to their desire to move the service to St. Nicholas Church and he also asked that the harpsichord be repaired. The council agreed and sent a flyer announcing the new location to all the people around Leipzig, the council made the arrangements requested by Bach regarding the harpsichord and space needed for the choir. Bach followed chapters 18 and 19 of the Gospel of John in the Luther Bible, the compiler of the additional poetry is unknown. Models are the Brockes Passion and a Johannes-Passion by Christian Heinrich Postel, the first scene is in the Kidron Valley, and the second in the palace of the high priest Kaiphas. Part Two shows three scenes, one with Pontius Pilate, one at Golgatha, and the third finally at the burial site, the dramatic argument between Pilate, Jesus, and the crowd is not interrupted by reflective elements but a single central chorale, #22. Part One Part Two Bach followed the Gospel of John but added two lines from the Gospel of Matthew, the crying of Peter and the tearing of the curtain in the temple. For the words of the aria Ach, mein Sinn, Bach used an adaptation of a 1675 poem by Christian Weise, #21b Sei gegrüßet, lieber Jüdenkönig reappears as #25b Schreibe nicht, der Jüden König. The St John Passion is written for an ensemble of soloists, four-part choir, strings and basso continuo and pairs of flauti traversi and oboes. For special colours Bach also used lute, viola damore and viola da gamba, in present day performances the part of Jesus is given to one bass soloist, Pilate and the bass arias to another. Some tenors sing the Evangelist – a very demanding part –, the smaller parts are sometimes performed by choir members. Researchers have discovered that Bach revised his St John Passion several times before producing a version in the 1740s. Alternate numbers that Bach introduced in 1725 but later removed can be found in the appendix to scores of the work, the St John Passion was not Bachs first passion. While he was working as organist in 1708 and Konzertmeister in 1714 in Weimar, Bach possibly wrote a Passion, known as the Weimarer Passion, but it is now lost
37.
Brandenburg Concertos
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The Brandenburg Concertos by Johann Sebastian Bach are a collection of six instrumental works presented by Bach to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt, in 1721. They are widely regarded as some of the best orchestral compositions of the Baroque era, Bach wrote out the music himself for presentation to the Margrave rather than leaving it to a copyist. While he took the opportunity to revise the music, most likely and he appears to have selected the six pieces from concertos he had composed over a number of years while Kapellmeister at Köthen, and possibly extending back to his employment at Weimar. Bachs dedication to the Margrave was dated 24 March 1721, Bachs reference to his scoring the concertos for several instruments is an understatement. Bach used the widest spectrum of orchestral instruments … in daring combinations, every one of the six concertos set a precedent in scoring, and every one was to remain without parallel. Heinrich Besseler has noted that the forces required tallies exactly with the 17 players Bach had at his disposal in Köthen. Because King Frederick William I of Prussia was not a significant patron of the arts, the full score was left unused in the Margraves library until his death in 1734, when it was sold for 24 groschen of silver. The autograph manuscript of the concertos was only rediscovered in the archives of Brandenburg by Siegfried Wilhelm Dehn in 1849, the manuscript was nearly lost in World War II, when being transported for safekeeping to Prussia by train in the care of a librarian. The train came under bombardment, and the librarian escaped the train to the nearby forest. In the modern era these works have been performed by orchestras with the parts each played by a number of players, under the batons of, for example, Karl Richter. They have also performed as chamber music, with one instrument per part, especially by groups using baroque instruments and historically informed techniques. There is also an arrangement for piano duet by composer Max Reger. Title on autograph score, Concerto 1mo à2 Corni di Caccia,3 Hautb, è Bassono, Violino Piccolo concertato,2 Violini, Duration, about 22 minutes This concerto is the only one in the collection with four movements. The concerto also exists in a version, Sinfonia BWV 1046a. This implies a date of composition possibly as early as the 1713 premiere of the cantata, although it could have been used for a subsequent revival. The first movement can also be found as the sinfonia of a later cantata Falsche Welt, dir trau ich nicht, BWV52, but in a version without the piccolo violin that is closer to Sinfonia BWV 1046a. The third movement was used as the chorus of the cantata Vereinigte Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten, BWV207. Title on autograph score, Concerto 2do à1 Tromba,1 Flauto,1 Hautbois,1 Violino, concertati, the clarino does not play in the second movement, as is common practice in baroque era concerti
38.
The Sorrows of Young Werther
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The Sorrows of Young Werther is an epistolary, loosely autobiographical novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, first published in 1774. A revised edition followed in 1787 and it was one of the most important novels of the Sturm und Drang period in German literature, and influenced the later Romantic movement in literature. Goethe, twenty-four years old at the time, finished Werther in six weeks of writing in January–March 1774. It instantly put him among the foremost international literary celebrities, towards the end of Goethes life, a personal visit to Weimar became a crucial stage in any young mans Grand Tour of Europe. Most of The Sorrows of Young Werther is presented as a collection of written by Werther. These give an account of his stay in the fictional village of Wahlheim. There he meets Charlotte, a young girl who takes care of her siblings after the death of their mother. Werther falls in love with Charlotte despite knowing beforehand that she is engaged to a man named Albert eleven years her senior, despite the pain it causes him, Werther spends the next few months cultivating a close friendship with them both. His sorrow eventually becomes so unsupportable that he is forced to leave Wahlheim for Weimar and he suffers great embarrassment when he forgetfully visits a friend and unexpectedly has to face there the weekly gathering of the entire aristocratic set. He is not tolerated and asked to leave since he is not a nobleman and he then returns to Wahlheim, where he suffers still more than before, partly because Charlotte and Albert are now married. Every day becomes a torturing reminder that Charlotte will never be able to requite his love and she, out of pity for her friend and respect for her husband, decides that Werther must not visit her so frequently. He visits her one time, and they are both overcome with emotion after he recites to her a passage of his own Ossians translation. Even before that incident, Werther had hinted at the idea that one member of the love triangle – Charlotte, unable to hurt anyone else or seriously consider murder, Werther sees no other choice but to take his own life. After composing a letter to be found after his death. Charlotte receives the request with great emotion and sends the pistols, Werther then shoots himself in the head, but does not die until twelve hours later. He is buried under a tree that he has mentioned frequently in his letters. The funeral is not attended by any clergy, or by Albert or Charlotte, the book ends with an intimation that Charlotte may die of a broken heart. Charlottes life was despaired of, etc and he wrote Werther at the age of twenty-four, and yet this was what all some of his visitors in his old age knew him for
39.
Goethe's Faust
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Faust is a tragic play in two parts usually known in English as Faust, Part One and Faust, Part Two. Although rarely staged in its entirety, it is the play with the largest audience numbers on German-language stages, Faust is considered by many to be Goethes magnum opus and the greatest work of German literature. The earliest forms of the work, known as the Urfaust, were developed between 1772 and 1775, however, the details of development are not entirely clear. Urfaust has twenty-two scenes, one in prose, two largely prose and the remaining 1,441 lines in rhymed verse, the manuscript is lost, but a copy was discovered in 1886. The first appearance of the work in print was Faust, a Fragment, Goethe completed a preliminary version of what is now known as Part One in 1806. Its publication in 1808 was followed by the revised 1828–29 edition, Goethe finished writing Faust Part Two in 1831. The second part formed the occupation of Goethes last years. It appeared only posthumously in 1832, the original 1808 German title page of Goethes play read simply, Faust. The addition of erster Teil was only retrospectively applied by publishers when the sequel was published in 1832 with a page which read. The two plays have been published in English under a number of titles, and are most usually referred to as Faust Parts One and Two. Mephistopheles makes a bet with God, he says that he can lure Gods favourite human being, the next scene takes place in Fausts study where Faust, despairing at the vanity of scientific, humanitarian and religious learning, turns to magic for the showering of infinite knowledge. He suspects, however, that his attempts are failing, frustrated, he ponders suicide, but rejects it as he hears the echo of nearby Easter celebrations begin. He goes for a walk with his assistant Wagner and is followed home by a stray poodle, in Fausts study, the poodle transforms into the devil. Faust makes an arrangement with the devil, the devil will do everything that Faust wants while he is here on Earth, and in exchange Faust will serve the devil in Hell. Fausts arrangement is that if he is pleased enough with anything the devil gives him that he wants to stay in that moment forever, when the devil tells Faust to sign the pact with blood, Faust complains that the devil does not trust Fausts word of honor. In the end, Mephistopheles wins the argument and Faust signs the contract with a drop of his own blood, Faust has a few excursions and then meets Margaret. He is attracted to her and with jewellery and with help from a neighbor, Martha, with influence from the devil, Faust seduces Gretchen. Gretchens mother dies from a potion, administered by Gretchen to obtain privacy so that Faust could visit her
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Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
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Unification of Germany
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The unification of Germany into a politically and administratively integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in France. Princes of the German states gathered there to proclaim Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor after the French capitulation in the Franco-Prussian War. The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which had included more than 500 independent states, was dissolved when Emperor Francis II abdicated during the War of the Third Coalition. Economically, the creation of the Prussian Zollverein in 1818, and its subsequent expansion to other states of the German Confederation. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact, the model of diplomatic spheres of influence resulting from the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe. The negotiators at Vienna took no account of Prussias growing strength within and among the German states and this German dualism presented two solutions to the problem of unification, Kleindeutsche Lösung, the small Germany solution, or Großdeutsche Lösung, the greater Germany solution. Reaction to Danish and French nationalism provided foci for expressions of German unity, military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification. This experience echoed the memory of mutual accomplishment in the Napoleonic Wars, by establishing a Germany without Austria, the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism. 1797, The French First Republic annexed the Left Bank of the Rhine as a result of the War of the First Coalition,1802, Previous annexations by France confirmed following its victory in the War of the Second Coalition. 1804, Francis I of Austria declared the new Austrian Empire as a reaction to Napoleon Bonapartes proclamation of the First French Empire in 1804. 1806, As a result of the War of the Third Coalition, Napoleon I annexed some territories East of the Rhine,1807, Prussia lost one half of its territory following the War of the Fourth Coalition. 1815, After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna reinstated the Germanic states into the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire,1834, The Prussian-led custom union evolved into the Zollverein that included almost all Confederation states except the Austrian Empire. 1848, Revolts across the German Confederation, such as in Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt, in the meantime, the Frankfurt Parliament was set up in 1848 and attempted to proclaim a united Germany, but this was refused by William IV. The question of a united Germany under the Kleindeutsch solution or the so-called Großdeutsch began to surface,1864, The Danish-Prussian War started as Prussia protested against Danish incorporation of Schleswig into the Kingdom of Denmark. The Austrian Empire was deliberately drawn into war by Otto von Bismarck. The Austro-Prussian victory led to Schleswig, the part, being governed by Prussia and Holstein. 1866, Bismarck accused the Austrian Empire of stirring up troubles in Prussian-held Schleswig, Prussian troops drove into Austrian-held Holstein and took control of the entire state of Schleswig-Holstein. Austria declared war on Prussia and, after fighting the Austro-Prussian War, was swiftly defeated, Napoleon III declared war against Prussia
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Theoretical physics
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Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
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General relativity
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General relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newtons law of gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter, the relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations. Examples of such differences include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the redshift of light. The predictions of relativity have been confirmed in all observations. Although general relativity is not the only theory of gravity. Einsteins theory has important astrophysical implications, for example, it implies the existence of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape—as an end-state for massive stars. The bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, General relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves, which have since been observed directly by physics collaboration LIGO. In addition, general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of an expanding universe. Soon after publishing the special theory of relativity in 1905, Einstein started thinking about how to incorporate gravity into his new relativistic framework. In 1907, beginning with a thought experiment involving an observer in free fall. After numerous detours and false starts, his work culminated in the presentation to the Prussian Academy of Science in November 1915 of what are now known as the Einstein field equations. These equations specify how the geometry of space and time is influenced by whatever matter and radiation are present, the Einstein field equations are nonlinear and very difficult to solve. Einstein used approximation methods in working out initial predictions of the theory, but as early as 1916, the astrophysicist Karl Schwarzschild found the first non-trivial exact solution to the Einstein field equations, the Schwarzschild metric. This solution laid the groundwork for the description of the stages of gravitational collapse. In 1917, Einstein applied his theory to the universe as a whole, in line with contemporary thinking, he assumed a static universe, adding a new parameter to his original field equations—the cosmological constant—to match that observational presumption. By 1929, however, the work of Hubble and others had shown that our universe is expanding and this is readily described by the expanding cosmological solutions found by Friedmann in 1922, which do not require a cosmological constant. Lemaître used these solutions to formulate the earliest version of the Big Bang models, in which our universe has evolved from an extremely hot, Einstein later declared the cosmological constant the biggest blunder of his life
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Photoelectric effect
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The photoelectric effect or photo ionization is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light is shone onto a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons, the phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics, as well as in fields of chemistry, such as quantum chemistry or electrochemistry. According to classical theory, this effect can be attributed to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in the intensity of light would induce changes in the energy of the electrons emitted from the metal. Furthermore, according to theory, a sufficiently dim light would be expected to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron. However, the results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by classical theory. Instead, electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons when those photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency, below that threshold, no electrons are emitted from the metal regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the light. This shed light on Max Plancks previous discovery of the Planck relation linking energy, the factor h is known as the Planck constant. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. This model contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, in 1914, Robert Millikans experiment supported Einsteins model of the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies approaching zero to over 1 MeV for core electrons in elements with an atomic number. Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few electron-volts, study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality. Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the effect, the photovoltaic effect. It is also usual to have the surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the flow of photoelectrons. When the photoelectron is emitted into a rather than into a vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used. The photons of a light beam have an energy proportional to the frequency of the light
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