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Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
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Anatomy
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Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy, macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animals body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy, microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by an understanding of the functions of the organs. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a pair of related disciplines. Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē dissection, anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs. It includes the appearance and position of the parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts, the discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a scale, including histology. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs, angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term anatomy is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy, however, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature, the kingdom Animalia or metazoa, contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile. Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are known as eumetazoans. They have a digestive chamber, with one or two openings, the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells, unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts
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Human
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Modern humans are the only extant members of Hominina tribe, a branch of the tribe Hominini belonging to the family of great apes. Several of these hominins used fire, occupied much of Eurasia and they began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago. In several waves of migration, anatomically modern humans ventured out of Africa, the spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a profound impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldwide. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression and the exchange of ideas. Humans create complex structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families. Social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals. These human societies subsequently expanded in size, establishing various forms of government, religion, today the global human population is estimated by the United Nations to be near 7.5 billion. In common usage, the word generally refers to the only extant species of the genus Homo—anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. In scientific terms, the meanings of hominid and hominin have changed during the recent decades with advances in the discovery, there is also a distinction between anatomically modern humans and Archaic Homo sapiens, the earliest fossil members of the species. The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the words use as a noun dates to the 16th century. The native English term man can refer to the species generally, the species binomial Homo sapiens was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae. The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin homō man, the species-name sapiens means wise or sapient. Note that the Latin word homo refers to humans of either gender, the genus Homo evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids branch of the primates. The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees and gorillas, with the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, current estimates of similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%. The gibbons and orangutans were the first groups to split from the leading to the humans. The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch, during this split, chromosome 2 was formed from two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. There is little evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee. Each of these species has been argued to be an ancestor of later hominins
4.
Primate
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A primate is a mammal of the order Primates. In taxonomy, primates include two distinct lineages, strepsirrhines and haplorhines, Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests, many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three-dimensional environment. Most primate species remain at least partly arboreal, with the exception of humans, who inhabit every continent except for Antarctica, most primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas, Africa and Asia. Based on fossil evidence, the earliest known true primates, represented by the genus Teilhardina, an early close primate relative known from abundant remains is the Late Paleocene Plesiadapis, c. Molecular clock studies suggest that the branch may be even older. The order Primates was traditionally divided into two groupings, prosimians and anthropoids. Prosimians have characteristics more like those of the earliest primates, and include the lemurs of Madagascar, lorisoids, simians include monkeys, apes and hominins. Simians are divided into two groups, catarrhine monkeys and apes of Africa and Southeast Asia and platyrrhine or New World monkeys of South, catarrhines consist of Old World monkeys, gibbons and great apes, New World monkeys include the capuchin, howler and squirrel monkeys. Humans are the only extant catarrhines to have spread successfully outside of Africa, South Asia, New primate species are still being discovered. More than 25 species were described in the decade of the 2000s. Considered generalist mammals, primates exhibit a range of characteristics. Some primates are primarily terrestrial rather than arboreal, but all species possess adaptations for climbing trees, locomotion techniques used include leaping from tree to tree, walking on two or four limbs, knuckle-walking, and swinging between branches of trees. Primates are characterized by large brains relative to other mammals, as well as a reliance on stereoscopic vision at the expense of smell. These features are developed in monkeys and apes and noticeably less so in lorises. Three-color vision has developed in some primates, most also have opposable thumbs and some have prehensile tails. Many species are dimorphic, differences include body mass, canine tooth size. Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals and reach maturity later, depending on the species, adults may live in solitude, in mated pairs, or in groups of up to hundreds of members. The relationships among the different groups of primates were not clearly understood until relatively recently, for example, ape has been used either as an alternative for monkey or for any tailless, relatively human-like primate
5.
Epithelium
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Epithelial is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body, there are three principal shapes of epithelial cell, squamous, columnar, and cuboidal. All glands are made up of epithelial cells, functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the connective tissue. Cell junctions are well-employed in epithelial tissues, in general, epithelial tissues are classified by the number of their layers and by the shape and function of the cells. The three principal shapes associated with epithelial cells are—squamous, cuboidal and columnar, squamous epithelium has cells that are wider than their height. Cuboidal epithelium has cells whose height and width are approximately the same, columnar epithelium has cells taller than they are wide. However, when taller simple columnar epithelial cells are viewed in cross section showing several nuclei appearing at different heights and this kind of epithelium is therefore described as pseudostratified columnar epithelium. Transitional epithelium has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal, Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells with every cell in direct contact with the basement membrane that separates it from the underlying connective tissue. In general, it is found where absorption and filtration occur, the thinness of the epithelial barrier facilitates these processes. In general, simple epithelial tissues are classified by the shape of their cells, the four major classes of simple epithelium are, simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified. Simple squamous, which is found lining areas where passive diffusion of gases occur, E. g. skin, walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities, as well as the linings of the alveoli of the lungs. Simple cuboidal, these cells may have secretory, absorptive, or excretory functions, examples include small collecting ducts of kidney, pancreas and salivary gland. Simple columnar, cells can be secretory, absorptive, or excretory, Simple columnar epithelium can be ciliated or non-ciliated, ciliated columnar is found in the reproductive tract. Non-ciliated epithelium can also possess microvilli, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, can be ciliated or non-ciliated. The ciliated type is called respiratory epithelium as it is almost exclusively confined to the larger respiratory airways of the nasal cavity, trachea. Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered and it is therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insult such that layers can be abraded and lost without exposing subepithelial layers. Cells flatten as the layers become more apical, though in their most basal layers the cells can be squamous, stratified epithelia can have the following specializations, The basic cell types are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar classed by their shape
6.
Embryology
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Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth. After cleavage, the cells, or morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula. In bilateral animals, the blastula develops in one of two ways that divides the whole animal kingdom into two halves. If in the blastula the first pore becomes the mouth of the animal, it is a protostome, the protostomes include most invertebrate animals, such as insects, worms and molluscs, while the deuterostomes include the vertebrates. In due course, the changes into a more differentiated structure called the gastrula. The middle layer, or mesoderm, gives rise to the muscles, skeleton if any, the outer layer of cells, or ectoderm, gives rise to the nervous system, including the brain, and skin or carapace and hair, bristles, or scales. Embryos in many species appear similar to one another in early developmental stages. The reason for this similarity is because species have an evolutionary history. These similarities among species are called homologous structures, which are structures that have the same or similar function and mechanism, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, is a model organism in biology on which much research into embryology has been done. Before fertilization, the female produces an abundance of mRNA - transcribed from the genes that encode bicoid protein. These mRNA molecules are stored to be used later in what become the developing embryo. The male and female Drosophila gametes exhibit anisogamy, the female gamete is larger than the male gamete because it harbors more cytoplasm and, within the cytoplasm, the female gamete contains an abundance of the mRNA previously mentioned. At fertilization, the male and female gametes fuse and then the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete, note that before the gametes nuclei fuse, they are known as pronuclei. A series of nuclear divisions will occur without cytokinesis in the zygote to form a cell known as a syncytium. All the nuclei in the syncytium are identical, just as all the nuclei in every cell of any multicellular organism are identical in terms of the DNA sequence of the genome. Before the nuclei can differentiate in transcriptional activity, the embryo must be divided into segments, in each segment, a unique set of regulatory proteins will cause specific genes in the nuclei to be transcribed. The resulting combination of proteins will transform clusters of cells into early embryo tissues that will develop into multiple fetal
7.
Smooth muscle tissue
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Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle. It is divided into two subgroups, the single-unit and multiunit smooth muscle, within single-unit cells, the whole bundle or sheet contracts as a syncytium. Single unit smooth muscle, however, is most common and lines blood vessels, the tract. Smooth muscle is different from skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle in terms of structure, function, regulation of contraction. Smooth muscle cells known as myocytes, have a shape and, like striated muscle, can tense. However, smooth muscle tissue tends to demonstrate greater elasticity and function within a larger length-tension curve than striated muscle and this ability to stretch and still maintain contractility is important in organs like the intestines and urinary bladder. In the relaxed state, each cell is spindle-shaped, 20-500 micrometers in length, the smooth muscle is the only type of muscle without the ability to be voluntarily controlled in stressful situations. Myosin is primarily class II in smooth muscle, myosin II contains two heavy chains which constitute the head and tail domains. Each of these heavy chains contains the N-terminal head domain, while the C-terminal tails take on a coiled-coil morphology, thus, myosin II has two heads. In smooth muscle, there is a gene that codes for the heavy chains myosin II. Also, smooth muscle may contain MHC that is not involved in contraction, myosin II also contains 4 light chains, resulting in 2 per head, weighing 20 and 17 kDa. These bind the chains in the neck region between the head and tail. The MLC20 is also known as the light chain and actively participates in muscle contraction. Two MLC20 isoforms are found in muscle, and they are encoded by different genes. The MLC17 is also known as the light chain. Its exact function is unclear, but its believed that it contributes to the stability of the myosin head along with MLC20. Two variants of MLC17 exist as a result of alternate splicing at the MLC17 gene, in the uterus, a shift in myosin expression has been hypothesized to avail for changes in the directions of uterine contractions that are seen during the menstrual cycle. The thin filaments that form part of the machinery are predominantly composed of α-
8.
Semen
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Fellatio is an oral sex act involving the use of the mouth or throat, which is performed by a person on the penis of another person or oneself. Oral stimulation of the scrotum may also be termed fellatio or tea bagging, Fellatio can be sexually arousing for both participants, and may lead to orgasm for the receptive partner. It may be performed by a partner as foreplay before other sexual activities, or as an erotic. Like most forms of activity, oral sex creates a risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections. However, the risk for oral sex, especially HIV transmission, is significantly lower than for vaginal or anal sex. Most countries do not have laws which ban the practice of oral sex, people may also have negative feelings or sexual inhibitions about giving or receiving oral sex, they may refuse to engage in it of their own volition. Commonly, people do not regard forms of sex as affecting the virginity of either partner. The English noun fellatio comes from fellātus, which in Latin is the past participle of the verb fellāre, in fellatio the -us is replaced by the -io, the declension stem ends in -ion-, which gives the suffix the form -ion. The -io ending is used in English to create nouns from Latin adjectives and it can indicate a state or action wherein the Latin verb is being, or has been, further English words have been created based on the same Latin root. A person who performs fellatio upon another may be termed a fellator, because of Latins gender based declension, the equivalent term for a female is fellatrix. A person who performs fellatio on someone might be referred to as the partner. Fellatio can be sexually arousing for participants, and males commonly experience orgasm, though a person who receives fellatio is male, his sex partner may be of either gender. When the penis is thrust into someones mouth, it may be called irrumatio, the man receiving fellatio can slow the rhythm of the stimulation by holding his partners head. The mans partner may also play with his penis by licking, sucking, kissing or otherwise playing with the tongue. Fellatio may also include the stimulation of the scrotum, whether licking, sucking or taking the entire scrotum into the mouth. It is difficult for people to perform fellatio, due to their sensitivities to the natural gag reflex. Different people have different sensitivities to the reflex, but some people learn to suppress the reflex, deep-throating is an act in which a mans partner takes the entire erect penis deep into their mouth, in such a way as to enter their throat. Nancy Fridays book, Men in Love - Mens Sexual Fantasies, The Triumph of Love over Rage, the man receiving fellatio receives direct sexual stimulation, while his partner may derive satisfaction from giving him pleasure
9.
Vein
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Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the back to the heart, exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins. In contrast to veins, arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins are less muscular than arteries and are often closer to the skin. There are valves in most veins to prevent backflow, veins are present throughout the body as tubes that carry blood back to the heart. Veins are classified in a number of ways, including superficial vs. deep, pulmonary vs. systemic, superficial veins are those closer to the surface of the body, and have no corresponding arteries. Deep veins are deeper in the body and have corresponding arteries, perforator veins drain from the superficial to the deep veins. These are usually referred to in the limbs and feet. Communicating veins are veins that directly connect superficial veins to deep veins, pulmonary veins are a set of veins that deliver oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Systemic veins drain the tissues of the body and deliver deoxygenated blood to the heart, most veins are equipped with valves to prevent blood flowing in the reverse direction. Veins appear blue because the subcutaneous fat absorbs low-frequency light, permitting only the highly energetic blue wavelengths to penetrate through to the dark vein and reflect back to the viewer. The colour of a vein can be affected by the characteristics of a skin, how much oxygen is being carried in the blood. When a vein is drained of blood and removed from an organism, the largest veins in the human body are the venae cavae. These are two large veins which enter the right atrium of the heart from above and below. The superior vena cava carries blood from the arms and head to the atrium of the heart, while the inferior vena cava carries blood from the legs. The inferior vena cava is retroperitoneal and runs to the right, large veins feed into these two veins, and smaller veins into these. Together this forms the venous system, whilst the main veins hold a relatively constant position, the position of veins person to person can display quite a lot of variation. The pulmonary veins carry relatively oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, the superior and inferior venae cavae carry relatively deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower systemic circulations, respectively. The portal venous system is a series of veins or venules that directly connect two capillary beds, examples of such systems include the hepatic portal vein and hypophyseal portal system
10.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
11.
Autonomic nervous system
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The autonomic nervous system is a division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs. This system is the mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response. Within the brain, the nervous system is regulated by the hypothalamus. Autonomic functions include control of respiration, cardiac regulation, vasomotor activity and those are then subdivided into other areas and are also linked to ANS subsystems and nervous systems external to the brain. The hypothalamus, just above the stem, acts as an integrator for autonomic functions. The autonomic nervous system has two branches, the nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is considered the fight or flight system. In many cases, both of these systems have opposite actions where one system activates a response and the other inhibits it. An older simplification of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as excitory and inhibitory was overturned due to the many exceptions found, there are inhibitory and excitatory synapses between neurons. Although the ANS is also known as the nervous system. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can work in conjunction with the somatic nervous system which provides voluntary control. The autonomic nervous system is divided into the nervous system. The sympathetic division emerges from the cord in the thoracic and lumbar areas. The parasympathetic division has craniosacral “outflow”, meaning that the neurons begin at the cranial nerves, the preganglionic, or first, neuron will begin at the “outflow” and will synapse at the postganglionic, or second, neuron’s cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then synapse at the target organ, the sympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in the lateral grey column from T1 to L2/3. These cell bodies are GVE neurons and are the preganglionic neurons, the parasympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in one of two locations, the brainstem or the sacral spinal cord. These sensory neurons monitor the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen and sugar in the blood, arterial pressure and they also convey the sense of taste and smell, which, unlike most functions of the ANS, is a conscious perception. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide are in fact directly sensed by the carotid body, primary sensory neurons project onto “second order” visceral sensory neurons located in the medulla oblongata, forming the nucleus of the solitary tract, that integrates all visceral information
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