1.
Florida
–
Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
Florida
–
St. Augustine is the oldest city in the U.S., established in 1565 by Spain.
Florida
–
Flag
Florida
–
Aerial view of
Castillo De San Marcos (Florida).
Florida
–
The five flags of Florida from the right,
Spain (1565–1763), the
Kingdom of Great Britain, Spain (1784–1821), the
Confederacy, and the United States. France (flag not shown) also controlled part of Florida.
2.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
–
A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
–
Flag
California
–
Mount Shasta
California
–
Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
3.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
New York (state)
–
British general
John Burgoyne surrenders at
Saratoga in 1777.
New York (state)
–
Flag
New York (state)
–
1800 map of New York from
Low's Encyclopaedia
New York (state)
–
The
Erie Canal at
Lockport, New York in 1839
4.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
Texas
–
Sam Rayburn Reservoir
Texas
–
Flag
Texas
–
Texas Hill Country
Texas
–
Big Bend National Park.
5.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
–
A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
–
Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
–
Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
–
Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
6.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
–
Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
–
The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
–
Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
7.
Roman Catholicism
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholicism
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholicism
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
8.
Protestantism
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestantism
–
(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestantism
–
The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestantism
–
Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestantism
–
The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
9.
Judaism
–
Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
Judaism
–
Judaica (clockwise from top):
Shabbat candlesticks,
handwashing cup,
Chumash and
Tanakh,
Torah pointer,
shofar and
etrog box
Judaism
–
Silver case containing a handwritten
Torah (
Museum of Jewish Art and History, Paris)
Judaism
–
Glass platter inscribed with the Hebrew word zokhreinu – remember us
Judaism
–
A 19th-century silver
Macedonian Hanukkah menorah
10.
Italians
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
Italians
–
Amerigo Vespucci, the notable geographer and traveller from whose name the word
America is derived.
Italians
Italians
–
Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of the
New World.
Italians
–
Laura Bassi, the first chairwoman of a university in a scientific field of studies.
11.
Spaniards
–
Within Spain there are a number of nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the countrys complex history and diverse culture. There are several commonly spoken languages, most notably Basque. There are many populations outside Spain with ancestors who emigrated from Spain, the Roman Republic conquered Iberia during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. As a result of Roman colonization, the majority of languages, with the exception of Basque. The Germanic Vandals and Suebi, with part of the Iranian Alans under King Respendial conquered the peninsula in 409 AD. The Iberian Peninsula was conquered and brought under the rule of the Arab Umayyads in 711 and by the Berber North African dynasties the Almohads, in the early 16th century the Kingdom of Navarre was also conquered. In parallel, a wave of emigration began to the Americas began with over 16 million people emigrating to the Americas during the colonial period. In the post-colonial period, a further 3.5 million Spanish left for the Americas, particularly Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, as a result, Spanish-descendants in Latin America number in the hundreds of millions. Spain is home to one of the largest communities of Romani people, the Spanish Roma, which belong to the Iberian Kale subgroup, are a formerly-nomadic community, which spread across Western Asia, North Africa, and Europe, first reaching Spain in the 15th century. The population of Spain is became increasingly diverse due to recent immigration, the earliest modern humans inhabiting Spain are believed to have been Neolithic peoples who may have arrived in the Iberian Peninsula as early as 35, 000–40,000 years ago. In more recent times the Iberians are believed to have arrived or developed in the region between the 4th millennium BC and the 3rd millennium BC, initially settling along the Mediterranean coast, celts settled in Spain during the Iron Age. Some of those tribes in North-central Spain, which had contact with the Iberians, are called Celtiberians. In addition, a known as the Tartessians and later Turdetanians inhabited southwestern Spain. The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians successively founded trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast over a period of several centuries, the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians and Romans was fought mainly in what is now Spain and Portugal. The Roman Republic conquered Iberia during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC transformed most of the region into a series of Latin-speaking provinces, hispania emerged as an important part of the Roman Empire and produced notable historical figures such as Trajan, Hadrian, Seneca and Quintilian. The Germanic Vandals and Suebi, with part of the Iranian Alans under King Respendial, the Suebi became the first Germanic kingdom to convert officially to Roman Catholicism in 447 AD. under king Rechiar. After two centuries of domination by the Visigothic Kingdom, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by a Muslim force under Tariq Bin Ziyad in 711 and this army consisted mainly ethnic Berbers from the Ghomara tribe, which were reinforced by Arabs from Syria once the conquest was complete. Muslim Iberia became part of the Umayyad Caliphate and would be known as Al-Andalus, the Berbers of Al Andalus revolted as early as 740 AD, halting Arab expansion across the Pyrenees into France
Spaniards
–
Lady of Elche, a piece of
Iberian sculpture from the 4th century BC
Spaniards
–
1st row:
Isabella I of Castile
Spaniards
–
A young
Hispano-Roman nobleman from the 1st century BC
Spaniards
–
People of
Granada
12.
French people
–
The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
French people
–
Louis XIV of France "The Sun-King"
French people
–
Row 1:
Joan of Arc
French people
–
Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix
French people
–
French people in Paris, August 1944
13.
Germans
–
Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
Germans
Germans
–
Germanic Kingdoms in Europe c. 500 AD
Germans
–
Extent of
Holy Roman Empire in 972 (red line) and 1035 (red dots) with
Kingdom of Germany marked in blue
Germans
–
18 January 1871: The proclamation of the
German Empire in the
Hall of Mirrors of the
Palace of Versailles.
Bismarck appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later
Friedrich III, stands on his father's right.
14.
Basques
–
The Basques are an indigenous ethnic group characterised by the Basque language, a common Basque culture and shared ancestry to the ancient Vascones and Aquitanians. The Basques are known as, Euskaldunak in Basque Vasco in Spanish Basque in French, the English word Basque may be pronounced /bɑːsk/ or /bæsk/ and derives from the French Basque, which is derived from Gascon Basco, cognate with Spanish Vasco. These, in turn, come from Latin Vasco, plural Vascones, several coins from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC found in the Basque Country bear the inscription barscunes. The place where they were minted is not certain, but is thought to be somewhere near Pamplona, in Basque, the people call themselves the euskaldunak, singular euskaldun, formed from euskal- and -dun, euskaldun literally means a Basque speaker. Therefore, the neologism euskotar, plural euskotarrak, was coined in the 19th century to mean a culturally Basque person, alfonso Irigoyen posits that the word euskara is derived from an ancient Basque verb enautsi to say and the suffix -ara. Thus euskara would literally mean way of saying, way of speaking, one item of evidence in favour of this hypothesis is found in the Spanish book Compendio Historial, written in 1571 by the Basque writer Esteban de Garibay. He records the name of the Basque language as enusquera and it may, however, be a writing mistake. In the 19th century, the Basque nationalist activist Sabino Arana posited an original root euzko which, he thought, on the basis of this putative root, Arana proposed the name Euzkadi for an independent Basque nation, composed of seven Basque historical territories. Aranas neologism Euzkadi is still used in both Basque and Spanish, since it is now the official name of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. Since the Basque language is unrelated to Indo-European, it has long thought to represent the people or culture that occupied Europe before the spread of Indo-European languages there. A comprehensive analysis of Basque genetic patterns has shown that Basque genetic uniqueness predates the arrival of agriculture in the Iberian Peninsula and it is thought that Basques are a remnant of the early inhabitants of Western Europe, specifically those of the Franco-Cantabrian region. Basque tribes were mentioned in Roman times by Strabo and Pliny, including the Vascones, the Aquitani. There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time, castile deprived Navarre of its coastline by conquering key western territories, leaving the kingdom landlocked. The Basques were ravaged by the War of the Bands, bitter partisan wars between local ruling families, weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies. However, the Navarrese territory north of the Pyrenees remained beyond the reach of an increasingly powerful Spain, Lower Navarre became a province of France in 1620. Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a deal of self-government until the French Revolution and the Carlist Wars. On either side of the Pyrenees, the Basques lost their native institutions, labourd, Lower Navarre, and Soule were integrated into the French department system, with Basque efforts to establish a region-specific political-administrative entity failing to take off to date. The corresponding Basque names of these territories are Araba, Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, the BAC only includes three of the seven provinces of the currently called historical territories
Basques
–
1st row:
Sancho III,
Elcano,
Ignatius Loyola,
Francis Xavier,
Lope de Aguirre,
Fausto Elhuyar 2nd row:
Zumalacárregui,
D'Abbadie,
Gayarre,
Sarasate,
Pío Baroja,
Balenciaga 3rd row:
Oteiza,
Cenarrusa,
Chillida,
Ibárruri,
Garamendi,
Atxaga
Basques
–
Basque women in
Bayonne
Basques
–
Monument to the
Charters in Pamplona (1903)
Basques
–
Ulgor, earliest nucleus of the cooperative movement and
MCC in Mondragon (1956)
15.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans, are Americans who are descendants of the peoples of Spain, Portugal, or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, other U. S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese-speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the persons parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race, as the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, the predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country. Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans, hispanic/Latinos overall are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565, after Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, the terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity, people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the term Latino includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish-language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry, others are wholly or predominately of European ancestry, or wholly or predominantly of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread. The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some, the U. S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions, one definition of Latino is a Latin male in the United States. This is the oldest and the definition used in the United States. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas, under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U. S. Census Bureau and OMB, a later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term Latino-Americano, the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino, a Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain, however, would be classified as Hispanic, while the U. S. Census Bureaus definition of Hispanic is limited to Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term
Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, 16th century Spanish admiral who founded the first European settlement in North America (
Saint Augustine, Florida).
Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
Percent of Hispanic and Latino population by state in 2012.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
Castillo de San Marcos in
Saint Augustine, Florida. Built in 1672 by the Spanish, it is the oldest masonry fort in the United States.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
Miami 's
Brickell neighborhood is known for its large concentration of wealthy Hispanics, largely of
South American descent.
16.
Argentine Americans
–
Argentine Americans are Americans whose full or partial origin is in Argentina. Prior to the 1970s, the Argentines that emigrated to the United States were classified in the category of Other Hispanics, therefore, early Argentines who settled in the United States arrived primarily in the 1960s, looking for greater economic possibilities. The majority of them held academic degrees, and many were medical doctors, however, immigrants in the late 1970s arrived fleeing the political persecution of the Dirty War. This new immigrant group had a level lower than earlier immigrants. The majority of Argentine immigrants are directed to areas, especially New York City. In the 1980s, that increased to just over 23 percent. Immigration to New York City was popular because of the existing Argentine and Italian communities, the 1990 U. S. Census recorded 92,563 Argentines, evidencing that nearly half of the Argentine immigrants arrived in the last two decades alone. After the nineties, Southern California and Florida became leading destinations for new immigrants from Argentina, the profile of the Argentine American population is generally similar to the overall U. S. populations. Among the key differences, however, is educational attainment, Argentine Americans exhibit a rate of 39. 5% of holders of bachelors, graduate, or professional degrees, contrasted with the 27. 5% of the overall U. S. population. The difference is marked among women,40. 2% for Argentine American females. Another major difference is that 69. 1% of Argentine Americans are immigrants, Argentine Americans had a median household income of $55,044. Again, this is higher than the figure, which was $50,740. The most noticeable Argentine American populations are in the areas of Florida, Texas, California, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut. Minority have Amerindian ancestors, Chinese ancestors, Indian/Indo-Caribbean ancestors, only data for immigrant Argentine Americans are available
Argentine Americans
–
Fernando Caldeiro
Argentine Americans
–
Carlos Alazraqui
Argentine Americans
–
Ariel Dorfman
Argentine Americans
–
Albert Hammond, Jr.
17.
Bolivian American
–
A Bolivian American is an American of Bolivian descent. Bolivian Americans are identified as Indigenous, European, Afro Bolivian, additionally, there are Bolivian Americans of Japanese descent, albeit, in small numbers. Bolivians compose the third smallest Hispanic group in the United States, the highest concentration resides in the Washington Metropolitan Area, which accounts for 38% of the total Bolivian population in the US. Additional areas of concentration include the New York City borough of Queens, Miami-Dade County, Bolivian immigration into the United States occurred in two significant phases. The first phase occurred during and subsequent to the 1952 National Revolution, most of these immigrants consisted of middle- to upper-middle income occupational professionals or political dissidents, and identify with Bolivias White or Criollo society. The second notable phase of Bolivian immigration was a result of Bolivias fiscal policies in the 1970s which gave way to the hyperinflation throughout most of the 1980s, most of these immigrants consisted of lower-income Mestizo and Indigenous Bolivians obtaining work posts as service and manual laborers. Many Bolivians who emigrated to the United States came as tourists, however, many remained indefinitely in the country, setting with family and friends. This made it difficult to know the number of Bolivians living in the United States, between 1984 and 1993, only 4,574 Bolivians got U. S. citizenship. In this period about 457 were naturalized each year, Bolivians have settled throughout the United States, mainly in Washington D. C. Maryland, and Virginia, there are large groups of Bolivian immigrants in Texas, New York City, New Jersey, South Florida, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Chicago. The number of Bolivians in the U. S. in 2006 was estimated at 82,322, slater - singer/songwriter Alberto Torrico - member of the California Unemployment Insurance Appeals Board. Kori Udovički, politician Raquel Welch, actress, author Marcelo Claure, CEO of Sprint Wireless, and Brightstar Corporation Jacob Thalacker - local celebrity, public interest
Bolivian American
–
Jaime Escalante
Bolivian American
–
117,842 2014 Us surveys 0.04% of the U.S. population (2014)
Bolivian American
–
Cecilia Muñoz
Bolivian American
–
Marco Etcheverry
18.
Brazilian Americans
–
Brazilian Americans are Americans who are of full or partial Brazilian ancestry. There were an estimated 371,529 Brazilian Americans as of 2012, other U. S. Previously, Brazilians were not identified separately from other South Americans. Of approximately 234,761 South American emigres arrived in the United States between 1820 and 1960, at least some of them were Brazilian, the 1960 United States Census report recorded 27,885 Americans of Brazilian ancestry. From 1960 until the mid-1980s, between 1,500 and 2,300 Brazilian immigrants arrived in the United States each year, during the mid-1980s, economic crisis struck Brazil. As a result, between 1986 and 1990 approximately 1.4 million Brazilians emigrated to parts of the world. It was not until this time that Brazilian emigration reached significant levels, thus, between 1987 and 1991, an estimated 20,800 Brazilians arrived in the United States. A significant number of them,8,133 Brazilians, arrived in 1991, the 1990 U. S. Census Bureau recorded that there are about 60,000 Brazilians living in the United States. C. Los Angeles, Miami, Houston, and Phoenix. The 2000 U. S. Census showed that 34.5 percent of Brazilians had completed four or more years of college, second-and third-generation Brazilian Americans tend to have better jobs, they have been educated in the United States, speak English, and have citizenship. Naza is a Brazilian American Visual Artist, people who profess Spiritism make up 1. 3% of the countrys population, and those professing Afro-Brazilian religions make up 0. 3% of the countrys population. Brazilians began immigrating to the United States in large and increasing numbers in the 1980s as a result of worsening conditions in Brazil at that time. However, many of the Brazilians who have emigrated to the United States since this decade have been undocumented, more women have immigrated to the United States from Brazil than men, with the 1990 and 2000 U. S. Censuses showing there to be ten percent more female than male Brazilian Americans, the top three metropolitan areas by Brazilian population are New York City, Boston, and Miami. New York City is a point of entry for Brazilians entering the United States. West 46th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues in Manhattan has been designated Little Brazil has historically been a center for Brazilians living in or visiting New York City. Another NYC neighborhood home to many Brazilian Americans is located in Astoria, newark, New Jersey is also home to many Brazilian and Portuguese-Americans, most prominently in the citys Ironbound district. Massachusetts, particularly the Boston metropolitan area, has a sizable Brazilian immigrant population, framingham has the highest percentage of Brazilians of any municipality in Massachusetts. Large populations also exist in Somerville, Everett, Barnstable, Lowell, South Floridas large Brazilian community is mostly centered between around the islands and northeastern section of Miami-Dade County with the exception of Doral
Brazilian Americans
–
Camilla Belle
Brazilian Americans
–
Marcelo Gleiser
Brazilian Americans
–
Morena Baccarin
Brazilian Americans
–
Benny Feilhaber
19.
Chilean American
–
Chilean Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from Chile. The Chilean population at the 2010 US Census was 126,810, in the United States, Chileans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group from South America and the fifth smallest overall amongst all Hispanic groups. Most Chileans migrating to the United States settle in metropolitan areas, in recent history, it is for economic or academic rather than political reasons that Chileans emigrate. Chileans and other South Americans have been present in the state of California since the 1850s gold rush, not all Chileans made it to the gold fields. Some remained in San Francisco, San Jose, Sacramento, and Stockton where they worked as bricklayers, bakers. Some with capital established themselves in various businesses, particularly the importation of flour, in the cities most tended to congregate and live in specific areas in the poorer sections of town. In the gold fields they lived in camp sites. In the summer of 1849 Chileans constituted the majority of the population of Sonora, Chileans frequently worked their mines as group efforts. When the placer gold ran out around Sonora the Chileans were amongst the first miners in California to extract gold from quartz, names of Chilean towns and places are often found in the names of streets in Northern California, Valparaiso, Santiago, and Calera. Many of San Franciscos streets carry names of residents of Chile, Atherton, Ellis, Lick, Larkin. Chilean women also left their names, Mina and Clementina, manuel Briseño, an early journalist in the mines was one of the founders of the San Diego Union. Juan Evangelista Reyes was a Sacramento pioneer as were the Luco brothers, luis Felipe Ramírez was one of the City Fathers in Marysville. The Leiva family owned at one time, much of the land in Marin County, in 1975, Chilean exiles of the Agusto Pinochet dictatorship established La Peña Cultural Center in Berkeley, California, which is to this day the largest Chilean cultural center in the United States. Chileans integrated quickly and like their Little Chiles, becoming part of the mainstream of the United States, Chilean Americans have achieved many skills as entrepreneurs, judges, congressmen, and others. Most Chilean immigration to the U. S. has occurred largely since the 1990s, for the most part, Chileans left as either political asylees and refugees during the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, or for economic reasons. Also, there have been others that have emigrated to seek higher education, since the 2010 Chile earthquake, many Chileans have pursued economic opportunities in the United States, with Paterson, New Jersey, representing an increasingly common destination. Many of the Pinochet-era immigrants were of middle or upper class origin, a significant proportion of them arrived with advanced educations and well-developed skills. They had contacts with other Chilean exiles and a sense of identity from their commitment to a democratic Chile
Chilean American
–
Claudio Arrau
Chilean American
–
140,045 0.05% of the U.S. population (2012)
Chilean American
–
Isabel Allende
Chilean American
–
Cote de Pablo
20.
Colombian American
–
Colombian Americans are Americans who trace their full or partial nationality or heritage to Colombia. They are the largest South American ethnic group in the United States, the first Colombians immigrants who settled in the United States likely arrived in the 1800s. However, the Colombian presence in United States would not be known with certainty since the census did not specify the country of origin for South Americans until 1960. These immigrants did not maintain any relation with their countries, just until a few generations after. Most immigrants settled in Jackson Heights, a neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City. The growth of the Colombian American population was slow until 1940, most Colombians who arrived after the mid-1960s wanted to stay in the United States temporarily. Therefore, the number of Colombian illegal immigrants increased, from 250,000 to 350,000 people in the mid 1970s, despite a succession of immigration laws, the Colombian population in the United States continued to grow. New York remained the most popular destination, smaller communities formed in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Houston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D. C. and in the 1970s, North Side, Chicago. Since the 1980s, many Colombians have settled in Miami, initially they settled in Little Havana, the largest Cuban neighborhood, many of them engaged in the business of trade between Miami and Latin America. The area also attracted wealthy Colombians, who settled there to get medical care, send their children to school, and escape from social, economic, by 1987, Colombian Americans were one of the fastest growing Hispanic groups in Miami. By the early 1990s, many Colombian Americans left the metropolitan centers for the due to crime. This trend was started for the first time in the coastal towns of Connecticut. Despite the migration to areas, the largest communities remained in New York City, Miami. In 1990 and 1991,43,891 Colombians were admitted to the United States and they were for the first time the most populous group of illegal immigrants in the US from South America. Between 1992 and 1997, the intensity of the conflict in Colombia increased, so nearly 75,000 Colombians immigrated to the United States in this period, many of them going to California. After of World War I, many Colombians immigrated to United States in order to complete their education there, most of them settled in New York. After the civil war in 1948 and increased poverty in Colombia many Colombians also emigrated to United States during the 1950s, in the 1960s, the economic crisis prompted the emigration of many Colombians to the United States, obtaining U. S. citizenship Between 1960 and 1977. Since the 1980s, many Colombians American fled their cities to migrate to suburban areas in states like New Jersey and Connecticut
Colombian American
–
1,039,923 0.34% of the U.S. population (2012)
21.
Costa Rican American
–
Costa Rican Americans are Americans of Costa Rican descent. The Costa Rican population at the 2010 Census was 126,418, Costa Ricans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the smallest Central American population. Costa Rican populations are prominent in the New York Metropolitan Area, additional areas with significant Costa Rican residents include New York City, Suffolk County, New York, and Fairfield County, Connecticut. There are also groups of Costa Ricans in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, South Florida metropolitan area. There have never been waves of migration from Costa Rica to the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service records indicate that very few Costa Ricans have actually tried to enter the country illegally. This is because, unlike other Hispanic groups, they have not been forced to emigrate to the U. S. for political oppression or extreme economic circumstances. Most Costa Ricans living in the United States have settled in the U. S. for any of the reasons, they have married American citizens. Since 1931 only 57,661 Costa Ricans have immigrated to the United States, hence, the number of Costa Rican emigrants has been increasing very slowly. This is a different from the pattern of emigration from most other Central American countries. The other two countries in this region that have a slow rate of emigration are Belize and Panama. Costa Ricans tend to blend in the English-speaking population or form working and friendly relationships with other Hispanics. If both parents speak Spanish, chances are that the children will be raised bilingually, however, if only one parent speaks Spanish, the children usually grow up speaking only English. Therefore, they usually acculturate and assimilate rapidly, most of Costa Ricans who live in the US live in California, Florida, Texas, and the New York City / New Jersey area. There is a significant Costa Rican American population in the Chicago, Illinois, the geographical preferences of Costa Ricans become evident in the statistics from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, as consistent with the findings of the 1990 census. Jardines - intelligence officer Rosa Mendes - professional wrestler Candice Michelle - professional wrestler, model, actress Alexander Salazar - prelate Harry Shum, Jr. com
Costa Rican American
–
Franklin Chang Díaz
Costa Rican American
–
140,152 0.05% of the U.S. population (2012)
Costa Rican American
–
Sonia Chang-Díaz
Costa Rican American
–
Candice Michelle
22.
Cuban American
–
Cuban Americans are Americans who trace their ancestry to Cuba. Cuban Americans are the third largest Latino group in the United States, many communities throughout the United States have significant Cuban American populations. Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the US, standing out in part because of its proximity to Cuba, followed by California, New Jersey, New York and Texas. South Florida is followed by New York City, Tampa, Union County and North Hudson, New Jersey areas, particularly Union City, Elizabeth, with a population of 141,250, the New York metropolitan areas Cuban community is the largest outside of Florida. Nearly 70% of all Cuban Americans live in Florida, thousands of Cuban settlers also immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1802 and Texas during the period of Spanish rule. Since 1820, the Cuban presence was more than 1,000 people. In 1870 the number of Cuban immigrants increased to almost 12,000, of which about 4,500 resided in New York City, about 3,000 in New Orleans, and 2,000 in Key West. The year 1869 marked the beginning of one of the most significant periods of emigration from Cuba to the United States, the exodus of hundreds of workers and businessmen was linked to the manufacture of tobacco. It was an exodus of skilled workers, precisely the class in the island that had succeeded in establishing a free labor sector amid a slave economy. The manufacture of snuff by the Cuban labor force, became the most important source of income for Key West between 1869 and 1900. Tampa was added to such efforts, with a migration of Cubans. However, the half of the 1890s marked the decline of the Cuban immigrant population. The War accentuated Cuban immigrant integration into American society, whose numbers were significant, in the mid- to late 19th century, several cigar manufacturers moved their operations to Key West to get away from growing disruptions as Cubans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule. The Cuban government had established a grammar school in Key West to help preserve Cuban culture. There, children learned folk songs and patriotic hymns such as La Bayamesa, in 1885, Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his cigar operations from Key West to the town of Tampa, Florida to escape labor strife. Ybor City was designed as a company town, and it quickly attracted thousands of Cuban workers from Key West. West Tampa, another new cigar manufacturing community, was founded nearby in 1892, both Ybor City and West Tampa were instrumental in Cubas eventual independence. After the Spanish–American War, some Cubans returned to their native land, several other small waves of Cuban emigration to the U. S. occurred in the early 20th century
Cuban American
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Desi Arnaz
Cuban American
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2,013,155 0.63% of the U.S. population (2013)
Cuban American
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Andy García
Cuban American
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Marco Rubio
23.
Dominican American
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Dominican Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from the Dominican Republic. Although their emigration began in the century, thousands of Dominicans passed through the gates of Ellis Island in the 19th. The most recent movement of emigration to the United States began in the 1960s, in 2010, there were approximately 1.41 million people of Dominican descent in the US, including both native and foreign-born. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic group in the United States, the first recorded person of Dominican descent to migrate into what is now known as the United States, outside of New Spain, was sailor-turned-merchant Juan Rodriguez. He arrived on Manhattan in 1613 from his home in Santo Domingo and he also became the first Dominican, the first Latino and the first person with European and African ancestry to settle in what is present day New York City. Dominican emigration to the United States continued throughout the centuries, recent research from the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute has identified some 5,000 Dominican immigrants who were processed through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1924. With increased emigration, Dominican diaspora communities have sprouted in New York metro area, New Jersey, Boston metro area, Providence, South Florida, Dominican emigrant communities have similar settlement patterns to that of the Puerto Rican population. Almost half of all the Dominican Americans today arrived since the 1990s, there has been another surge of immigration in recent years as immigration from Mexico has declined, which allowed more backlogged Dominican applicants to obtain legal residence. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic or Latino American group, after Mexican Americans, Stateside Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, as of 2010, the five largest concentrations of Dominican Americans are in New York, New Jersey, Florida, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Rhode Island is the state where Dominicans are the largest Hispanic group. Dominicans are the most dominant Hispanic group in most of southeastern New England, Dominicans are also starting to be pretty dominant in many areas in North Jersey and the Lower Hudson Valley. The 2010 Census estimated the nationwide Dominican American population at 1,414,703, about 41% of Dominican Americans live in New York City alone. Many of New Yorks Dominicans live in the boroughs of the Bronx and Manhattan, there are also large populations in other parts of New York State, including Long Island and the Hudson Valley. S. There are smaller and growing Dominican populations in states like Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Ohio, Texas, however, in both cities, Dominicans make up only a plurality of the Hispanic population. Since 1980, the Census Bureau has asked US residents to classify their race separately from their Hispanic or Latino origin, in 2010,29. 6% of Dominican Americans responded that they were white, while 12. 9% considered themselves black. A majority of 57. 5% chose the category Other race, in New York City, Dominican entrepreneurs have carved out roles in several industries, especially the bodega and supermarket and taxi and black car industries. Over two dozen Dominican Americans are elected local or state legislators, mayors or other in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. A1997 Dominican law, which took effect in 2004, allows Dominicans living abroad to retain their Dominican citizenship and voting rights even if they become citizens of another country
Dominican American
Dominican American
Dominican American
Dominican American
24.
Ecuadorian American
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Ecuadorian Americans are Americans of full or partial Ecuadorian ancestry. Ecuadorian Americans can be Mestizo, White Spaniard, Afro-Ecuadorian, Indigenous, Mulato, some Ecuadorians are also of Lebanese, Sephardic and Japanese descent. Until the 1960s, very few Ecuadorians migrated to the United States, in the late 1960s, several waves of migration started. Most Ecuadorian immigration to the United States has occurred since the early 1970s and this emigration was because of several reasons, The first of them was that United States immigration law changed. Before 1965, national quotas on immigrants favored more European immigration than Latin American immigration, after 1965, changes in immigration law made it easier for Latin Americans and other foreign groups to emigrate to United States. In addition, the price of air travel lowered making immigration more accessible to Latin Americans and they were drawn to the U. S. for economic opportunities and political freedoms. Ecuadorian immigration peaked in the turmoil of 1996-97 and national banking crisis of 1998-99. Another factor in Ecuadorian emigration was the 1964 Ecuadorian land reform and this improved the lives of many Ecuadorian poor, but also had far-reaching and unpredictable consequences. Many new small landowners were forced to sell their land, many landowners abandoned their land and migrated to countries like Venezuela and the United States. Most immigrants who live in the United States send money home, many immigrants get American citizenship, others simply are legalized, while other groups live illegally, crossing the border from Mexico or entering by boat from Puerto Rico. Ecuadorian Americans come from every part of Ecuador, during the 1970s, most of the Ecuadorians came from the northern and central highlands, including the area around Quito. In the 1980s, many Ecuadorians came from the coast, in the 1990s, most of them came from the southern highlands, near the border with Peru. The majority of Ecuadorian immigrants emigrate into New York City and its surrounding suburbs, the 1990 census recorded that 60 percent of Ecuadorians living in the United States live in the New York City Metropolitan Area, while another 10% live in Miami. Queens Countys percentage of Ecuadorians is about 4. 7%, and it has the largest Ecuadorian community of any county in New York and in the United States, Ecuadorians are the largest South American Latino group in New York City as well as in the State of New York. Ecuadorians are the fourth largest Latino group in New York after Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Ecuadorians also constitute Queens Countys largest Latino group. Another New York group of Ecuadorians live in the Bronx, in the Morris Heights, still other Ecuadorian neighborhoods are situated in Brooklyn, in New Jersey cities such as Newark and Jersey City, and in towns in Connecticut. S. State with the smallest Ecuadorian population was North Dakota with 55 Ecuadorians, first Licensed Latin American to import spirits into the United States. Zhumir Aguardiente from Ecuador was the first spirit product he imported to United States, violet Chachki - American drag queen, singer and actress born in Atlanta, Georgia
Ecuadorian American
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Emanuel Xavier
Ecuadorian American
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Ecuadorian 662,633 0.22% of the U.S. population (2012)
Ecuadorian American
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Michael Steger
Ecuadorian American
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Gerardo
25.
Guatemalan American
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Guatemalan Americans are Americans of full or partial Guatemalan descent. The Guatemalan American population at the 2010 Census was 1,044,209, Guatemalans are the fifth largest Latino group in the United States and the second largest Central American population after Salvadorans. Half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California, Guatemalans have emigrated to the USA since the 1930s and 1940s. Along with other Central Americans they first arrived by way of Mexico and settled in areas like Chicago, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Houston, New York City. Guatemalan refugees became an important political and economic influence on seeking an end to the civil war, during the Guatemalan civil war, there was massive destruction of rural villages and farmlands. In the 1996 peace accords, there was an exchange of civilian land to favor the rise of corporate agribusinesses with the drop of prices of local agricultural products. This heavily affected farm workers and inhabitants of the countryside and they had to immigrate into the US through Mexican territory, Guatemalan Americans are a very culturally diverse group of people, included about 23 distinct ethnic groups, whose languages are different, although maintain unique cultural traditions. The groups are, in majority, Mayan, the Ladino are a different group that speak Spanish language and have the Spanish culture. So, Guatemalan Americans are a multicultural community and this reason is why the assimilation processes, traditional beliefs, and customs vary differently between groups. Immigrant Mayan American communities have preserved their ethnic customs, the Guatemalans of European descent often mixed with other U. S. Hispanic groups. However, it is unknown the transmission of cultural traditions Guatemalans of immigrants to their descendants by lack of studies, some Guatemalan traditions are the celebration of Quinceñeros, the formation of soccer leagues, and the Organization de las Fiestas de la Patronal. The difference with Guatemalans in the US from other Latinos is that a percentage of Guatemalans are Evangelical Protestants. Guatemala had seen a rise of Protestant and Evangelist churches in the late 20th century, according to the national census in 2006, Protestants constituted about 30% of the population in Guatemala, the majority are from rural indigenous communities. Guatemalan-Americans are a contributor to the rise of Hispanic Protestants in the USA during the 2000s, half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California. A combined population of 267,335 resides in Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, the Northeast megalopolis, extending from Northern Virginia to north of Boston is home to a population of 257,729 Guatemalans. Luis Beza – American trumpet player for third-wave ska band Suburban Legends, David Campos – Guatemalan-American attorney and member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors representing District 9. David Estrada – He is of Guatemalan descent, Francisco Goldman – American novelist, journalist, and Allen K. Smith Professor of Literature and Creative Writing. He is son of a Guatemalan Catholic mother and Jewish-American father, oscar Isaac – Guatemalan born American raised actor and singer
Guatemalan American
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Luis von Ahn
Guatemalan American
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1,241,560 0.40% of the U.S. population (2012)
Guatemalan American
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Héctor Tobar
Guatemalan American
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David Campos
26.
Honduran American
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Honduran Americans are Americans of Honduran descent. Honduran Americans are a group of people who may descend from Spanish, Honduran Native, Garifuna, African, Palestinian and Chinese people, the Honduran population at the 2015 Census was 837,694. Hondurans are the eighth largest Hispanic group in the United States, all periods of conflict have led to minor waves of Honduran emigration to the United States. This was the case after the 1956 military coup, Hondurans immigrated to the United States in the 1960s, primarily to Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. The main reason for Hondurans to leave their country was to escape poverty, many Honduran-Americans are migrant farm laborers who first established themselves in the largest U. S. cities, in which they had support networks from the Honduran-American communities. In the late 1980s and 1990s, most Honduran Americans lived in New York City, Los Angeles, in 2000, Hondurans grew to be the third largest immigrant from Central America. Honduran-Americans have actively participated in U. S. military service, a total of 13.7 percent of native Honduran-American males older than 16 years are in the military. In addition,769 Honduran-American non-citizen males serve in the military, usually, Honduran-Americans live in areas with high economic growth and demand for employment in construction, domestic services, and other industries. Many Honduran-Americans suffer discrimination, as other Hispanic groups do, Honduran-American girls tend to spend more years in school than Honduran-Americans boys, in part due to pressure by their families on boys to start working at age 12 or 14. A total of 1,091 Honduran-Americans have a degree,862 have other professional degrees. The majority of individuals are women. According to the 2010 United States Census there are 633,401 Hondurans living in the United States, by 2011, the number of Hondurans estimated to reside in the United States by the Census Bureaus American Community Survey was 702,000. In 2014, according to Pew Research, 60% of 573,000 Honduran immigrants in the U. S. are unauthorized and he was a Republican candidate for the United States Senate in 2004. Steve Van Buren - NFL Hall of Fame Running Back Bianca Del Rio - actor, comedian, costume designer, brandon Escobar - wrestler Roger Espinoza - footballer who currently plays for Sporting Kansas City in Major League Soccer. Miguel Estrada - an attorney who became embroiled in controversy following his 2001 nomination by President George W. Bush to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He was the first Latino to be nominated to a position in the judicial branch. America Ferrera - film actress Michelle Fields - political journalist, Huffington Post contributor Henry Flores - professional American photographer who addresses modern pop culture and his background is Engineering and Information Technology. Brina Palencia - American voice actress, ADR director, and singer known for her work for Funimation Entertainment/OkraTron 5000
Honduran American
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Roger Espinoza
Honduran American
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837,694 0.24% of the U.S. population (2014)
Honduran American
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Brina Palencia
27.
Mexican American
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Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. Mexican-American history spans more than 400 years and varies from region to region within the United States, in 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Indians. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican-American population are descended from the colonial settlers. As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico, in those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole and this was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc. As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the volume of Anglo-American immigration. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state and his story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he, after receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War. As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an population of colonial settlers. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory, in California, Spanish settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios, settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior
Mexican American
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Juan Seguin
Mexican American
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35,320,579 10.94% of total U.S. population, 2014
Mexican American
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Selena Gomez
Mexican American
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Romualdo Pacheco
28.
Nicaraguan American
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A Nicaraguan American is an American of Nicaraguan descent. The Nicaraguan American population at the 2010 Census was 348,202, Nicaraguans are the eleventh largest Hispanic group in the United States and the fourth largest Central American population. More than two-thirds of the Nicaraguan population in the US resides in California or Florida, in California, Nicaraguans are more dominant in the Greater Los Angeles Area and San Francisco Bay Area. Large populations also reside in the Inland Empire and the cities of Sacramento, San Diego, in Florida, 90% of Nicaraguans reside in the Miami Metropolitan Area. Miami-Dade County is home to 30% of Nicaraguans residing in the US, Nicaraguans have immigrated to the United States in small groups since the early 1900s, but their presence was especially felt over the last three decades of the 20th century. The Nicaraguan community is concentrated in three major urban areas, Metropolitan Miami, Greater Los Angeles, and San Francisco Bay Area. A more affluent group of Nicaraguan Americans reside in the New York metropolitan area, the earliest documents of immigration from Nicaragua to the United States was combined in total with those of other Central American countries. However, according to the U. S. Census Bureau some 7,500 Nicaraguans legally immigrated from 1967 to 1976, an estimated 28,620 Nicaraguans were living in the U. S. in 1970, 90% of which self-reported as white on the 1970 census. Most Nicaraguan immigrants during the late 1960s were women, there were only 60 male Nicaraguan immigrants for every 100 female immigrants during this period, over 62 percent of the total documented immigration from 1979 to 1988 occurred after 1984. In 1998 more than two million Nicaraguans were left due to hurricane Mitch, as a result many Nicaraguans received permanent residence or temporary protected status in the late 1990s. According to the 1990 U. S. Census 168,659 of the total 202,658 documented Nicaraguans in the U. S. were born in Nicaragua, in 1992 approximately 10–12% of the Nicaraguan population had emigrated. These emigrants tended to be disproportionately of working age, better educated, in addition, emigrants were more likely to come from larger premigration households and higher income households. The Sandinista revolution that started in the mid-1970s and the Contra war that brought the first large waves of Nicaraguan refugees into the U. S. As a result of the reforms under the FSLNs rule. They consisted mainly of large landholders, industrialists, and managers of North American enterprises, many Nicaraguan upper-class exiles had economic roots in the United States and in Miami before the upheaval. This phase of upper-class arrivals included exiled dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle and his family, another major wave of Nicaraguans to the United States, consisting primarily of bluecollar workers, peaked in the dramatic exodus of early 1989. Again, their motivation for migration was escape from political and economic torment in their homeland. By the late 1980s, the war, Hurricane Joan in 1988, many of these Nicaraguan immigrants settled in poor and deteriorated sections of Miami, where struggling Cubans who came during the Mariel boatlift exodus of 1980 had previously lived
Nicaraguan American
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Diana López
Nicaraguan American
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405,601 0.13% of the U.S. population (2012)
Nicaraguan American
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Randy Caballero
Nicaraguan American
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Bianca Jagger
29.
Panamanian American
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A Panamanian American are Americans of Panamanian descent. The Panamanian population at the 2010 Census was 165,456, Panamanians are the sixth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the second smallest Central American population. The largest population of Panamanians reside in Brooklyn and South Florida, since 1820, more than one million immigrants from Central and South America migrated to the United States. Until 1960, the U. S. Census Bureau did not produce statistics that separated the Panamanian immigrants, the Panamanian Americans increased slowly in the United States. Since the 1830s, only 44 arrivals were recorded in this country, after World War II the flow of immigrants from Panama remained small even though there were no immigration restrictions on the people from the Western Hemisphere. However, the Panamanian immigration increased dramatically after the 1965 Immigration Act and its increase immigration was such that by 1970, Panamanians were able to be one of the largest of the Central American groups in the United States. Most Panamanians that came were nonwhites and most were women, the number of immigrant males per 100 females was very low in the 1960s, falling to 51 for Panama. Many of the immigrants worked of in service, domestic, or low-paid, white-collar workers who immigrated to earn money to, in return. Since 1962 the percentage of employed newcomers who are domestic servants has remained high, the entry of homemakers and children after 1968 was eased by the immigration preference system favoring family reunions. They had already approximated 86,000 people of Panamanian ancestry living in the United States, although many of the first Panamanian immigrants managed to get or to hold jobs, the second generation of Panamanian Americans placed more emphasis on vocational training and college education. Most newcomers are domestic, very few are agricultural or industrial laborers, in the last two decades many Panamanians have embraced professional careers, and become white collar workers. Subsequent generations have progressed further in their educational and professional pursuits. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Panamanians congregated mainly in urban areas, most Panamanian immigrants are set in New England, or on the Gulf Coast, or Pacific Coast, or in middle Atlantic or Great Lakes areas. While, New York City contains the largest urban population of Panamanians, also there an important number of Panamanians settled in Florida and California. In contrast to other Hispanic nationalities, Panamanians are heavily concentrated in Army base cities, cities home to Navy and Air Force bases also lay claim to a concentration of Panamanians. These include San Antonio, Hampton Roads, Jacksonville, San Diego, more than other Hispanic groups, a significant percentage of Panamanian Americans are black, with the remaining being of mixed race. Although most Panamanian Americans speak Spanish, the group tends to identify more with English speaking West Indian groups rather than with other Hispanic groups. As a result, Panamanians are one of the least visible Hispanic nationalities in the US
Panamanian American
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Tyson Beckford
Panamanian American
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183,743 0.06% of the U.S. population (2012)
Panamanian American
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Melissa De Sousa
Panamanian American
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Hulk Hogan
30.
Paraguayan American
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A Paraguayan American are Americans of Paraguayan descent. The Paraguayan population at the 2010 Census was 20,023, Paraguayans are the smallest Hispanic group in the United States. The Paraguayan population is concentrated mainly in Queens, NY, Westchester County, NY, additional areas of concentration include Miami-Dade County and Montgomery County, MD. The highest concentration of Paraguayans in the US reside in Somerset County and it is estimated that the first Paraguayans arrived to the United States between the years of 1841 and 1850. At that time, Paraguayans were not coming directly to the United States from Paraguay, but through others countries such as Brazil, Argentina, the Paraguayan residents in the U. S. were included in the early records in the group of other South Americans. During those years,3,579 other immigrants arrived, in the 1960s, one-fourth of all Paraguayans were registered as living in countries outside Paraguay, with a majority in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. In 1979, close to 11,000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States, in 1982,4000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States. The reasons of migration were varied, but many immigrants were people that wanted educational opportunities to get professional knowledge, skills. Additionally, some of the immigrants arrived for political reasons or to escape civil riots, the women exceeded in number to the male immigrants slightly, and more than half of its immigrants lacked occupation. Many Paraguayan immigrants were also adopted by American families. More than a thousand Paraguayan infants were adopted in this country, of these,254 were adopted in 1989,405 in 1993 and 351 in 1995. Others have agricultural jobs in California and Kansas, the latter state has partnered with Paraguay in an exchange program through a non-profit volunteer organization called Partners of the Americas. Both Kansas and Paraguay are land-locked, grow cattle and wheat, also a small number of Paraguayan American professionals who immigrated in search of better job and pay. It should be noted that of the 80 Paraguayan Americans who became U. S. citizens in 1984, in fact, most of these immigrants arrived eight to ten years earlier. Between 1987 and 1996, naturalization figures for Paraguayans in the United States increased slightly, thus, in 1996,420 Paraguayans became American citizens. In 1990,5,144 Paraguayan Americans spoke Spanish or Guarani and they have grown within the Hispanic community in the United States. In accordance with the 1990 U. S, of the 5,415 Paraguayan Americans in the U. S. population,1,830 only are enrolled in school. The large populations of Paraguayan Americans are in New York City, Miami, Paraguayan Americans also have population importance in Dallas and Atlanta
Paraguayan American
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24,933
31.
Peruvian American
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Peruvian Americans are Americans of Peruvian descent. Among Peruvian Americans there are those of White, mestizo, Amerindian, and Afro-Peruvian descent, as well as others, including British, Italian, French, German, a significant number are of pure or mixed Chinese and/or Japanese heritage. Peruvians have emigrated mainly due to turmoil and economic hardships the country had faced during the 1980s. Peruvian Americans are a relatively recent ethnic group, as most of them have moved to the United States since 1990, according to the U. S. Census Bureau,594,418 U. S. residents identify themselves as being of Peruvian origin. Small but significant waves of immigration occurred in San Francisco during the gold rush, however, the majority of Peruvians that have emigrated to the United States have arrived since the 90s. Peruvians typically emigrate due to economic reasons, to escape poverty, significant demographics of Peruvians are found in Northern New Jersey, the New York City Metropolitan Area, Miami, the Washington, D. C. The most popular dishes of Peruvian food in the U. S. include cebiche, papa a la huancaina, Peruvian cuisine is often recognized for being one of the most diverse and appreciated of the worlds cuisines, with influences including European, Native American, and African. Since there is a sizable Chinese and Japanese minority in Peru, there are Chifas, or Asian style Peruvian restaurants that serve typical Chinese or Japanese food with a Peruvian culinary influence. Inca Kola, a soda that originated in Peru, is sold in many heavily concentrated Latino areas, the Peruvian American Coalition in Passaic, New Jersey functions as an activist organization on behalf of the overall welfare of Peruvian Americans. The annual Peruvian Independence Day Parade is held in Paterson. S, state with the smallest Peruvian population was North Dakota with 78 Peruvians. Her mother is Puerto Rican, and her father is from Peru and he is a Peruvian born, but American raised. S. Soccer forward Lorenzo OBrien - writer-producer Carlos Bustamante biologist Julio C, canani - Peruvian trainer in American Thoroughbred horse racing who has won three Breeders Cup races. Kenny Florian - mixed martial artist Gabriela Lena Frank - American pianist and he is of Spanish and Peruvian descent. Santillan - Peruvian- American Actor and Currency Trader, also has many doubles in the DC metro area. Wenceslaus Sarmiento - also known as W. A. Sarmiento, carmen Giménez Smith - American poet, writer, and editor. Tony Succar - Peruvian born American musician, composer, arranger and producer, david Utrilla - The 31st member of the Utah Corps of Consuls Jose Valdivia, Jr. - jockey in American Thoroughbred horse racing. Carlos De Valdez - Peruvian film actor who appeared in around forty American films and he spend the last years of his life in United States. Boris Vallejo - Peruvian-born American painter, alberto Vargas - Peruvian painter of pin-up girls. peruanosenusa. net http, //www. peruvian-americans. tv http, //www. peruvianamericans. com http, //www. peruvianamerican. com http, //www. curito. com
Peruvian American
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Carlos I. Noriega
Peruvian American
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626,789 0.19% of the U.S. population (2014)
Peruvian American
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Marie Arana
Peruvian American
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Carmen Giménez Smith
32.
Puerto Ricans in the United States
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Puerto Ricans, either born in the island or in the states, are American citizens. At 10 percent of the Latino population in the United States, Puerto Ricans are the second largest Latino group nationwide, and comprise 1. 5% of the entire population of the United States. Although the 2010 Census counted the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States at 4.6 million, more recent estimates show the Puerto Rican population to be over 5 million, as of 2012. The portmanteau Nuyorican refers to Puerto Ricans and their descendants in the New York City metropolitan area, important Puerto Rican institutions have emerged from this long history. ASPIRA was established in New York City in 1961 and is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States, the government of Puerto Rico has a long history of involvement with the stateside Puerto Rican community. In July 1930, Puerto Ricos Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The Migration Division, also part of Puerto Rico’s Department of Labor, was created in 1948, the strength of stateside Puerto Rican identity is fueled by a number of factors. Since 1898, Puerto Rico has been under the control of the United States, even during Spanish rule, Puerto Ricans settled in the US. However, it was not until the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 that a significant influx of Puerto Rican workers to the US began, with its 1898 victory, the United States acquired Puerto Rico from Spain and has retained sovereignty since. The 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act made all Puerto Ricans US citizens, freeing them from immigration barriers, the massive migration of Puerto Ricans to the mainland United States was largest in the early and late 20th century, prior to its resurgence in the early 21st century. U. S. political and economic interventions in Puerto Rico created the conditions for emigration, by concentrating wealth in the hands of US corporations, policymakers promoted colonization plans and contract labour programs to reduce the population. US employers, often with government support, recruited Puerto Ricans as a source of labour to the United States. Puerto Ricans migrated in search of jobs, first to New York City, and later to other cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia. New York City neighborhoods such as East Harlem in Upper Manhattan, the South Bronx, between the 1950s and the 1980s, large numbers of Puerto Ricans migrated to New York, especially to Brooklyn, the Bronx, Spanish Harlem and Loisaida neighborhoods of Manhattan. Labor recruitment was the basis of this particular community, in 1960, the number of stateside Puerto Ricans living in New York City as a whole was 88%, with most living in East Harlem. They helped others settle, find work, and build communities by relying on social networks containing friends, there are significant Puerto Rican communities in all five boroughs. The Puerto Rican population in East Harlem and New York City as a whole remains the poorest among all migrant groups in US cities, as of 1973, about 46. 2% of the Puerto Rican migrants in East Harlem were living below the federal poverty line. The struggle for legal work and affordable housing remains fairly low, New York Citys Puerto Rican community contributed to the creation of hip hop music, and to many forms of Latin music including Boogaloo, Salsa, Latin House, and Freestyle
Puerto Ricans in the United States
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José Ferrer
Puerto Ricans in the United States
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5,266,738 1.7% of the U.S. population (2014)
Puerto Ricans in the United States
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Sonia Sotomayor
Puerto Ricans in the United States
–
Nicholas Estavillo
33.
Salvadoran American
–
Salvadoran Americans are Americans of full or partial Salvadoran descent. As of 2010, there are 1,648,968 Salvadoran Americans in the United States, recent estimates put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013. Salvadorans are the largest group of Central Americans of the Central American Isthmus community in the U. S, among the Hispanic groups, Salvadorans are also the largest group of Spanish speakers in the United States who use voseo. Salvadoran is the accepted and used term for naming people of Salvadoran ancestry, however both Salvadorian and Salvadorean are equally the most widely used terms in daily life by English speaking Salvadoran citizens living in the U. S and other English speaking countries. Salvadorian and Salvadorean in their spelling and pronunciation can be seen in most restaurant and other El Salvador related signs in the U. S. This is because the sounds ia and ea, in Salvadorian and Salvadorean sound more closely to the ñ sound in the Spanish term Salvadoreño. The first Salvadorians that came to the United States before the war began arrived mostly to San Francisco, where they worked as shipyard employees in the early twentieth century. These were mostly working class Salvadorans, as Salvadorans from the middle and upper classes came to the U. S. for education or residence in the early 1900s, usually in the East Coast. Salvadorans that came during this period were economic migrants, as El Salvador was affected by economic turmoil during the Great Depression. In the 1960s and early 1970s, most of the immigrants were women, documented Salvadorans in the United States 1930-1970 While Salvadoran migration to the U. S. Many Salvadoran refugees came to the city of Los Angeles, where today holds the largest population of Salvadorans in the country, a large population of Salvadorans also arrived in Washington D. C, where by 1989, an estimated 150,000 Salvadorans reside in the nation’s capital. It is important to note that many Salvadorans came undocumented and applied for asylum and/or work permits in order to legalize their situation. This massive migration to the U. S. was a result of the violence as much as it was the deteriorating economic conditions in El Salvador. Young men, escaping the country from being drafted to the military or the guerilla and they numbered over 1,000 individuals and many of them are temporary exiles, who planned to go back after the war ends. By the end of 1989, more than 250,000 Salvadorans migrated to the U. S. Unofficially, El Salvadors exiled population is already changing life at home through its influence and its dollars and will undoubtedly play an important role in its future history. Salvadoran American immigration has changed the face of foreign affairs in the United States, the flood of refugees from a U. S. -supported government forced a national rethinking of foreign policy priorities. This in turn transformed the nature of American support for the Salvadoran government, Salvadoran Americans are at the center of an ongoing national debate about U. S. responsibility toward the worlds refugees and the future of immigration in general. The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of economic and political problems
Salvadoran American
–
Christy Turlington
Salvadoran American
–
2,102,160 (2014 US Community Survey) 0.64% of the U.S. population (2014)
Salvadoran American
–
Allison Iraheta
Salvadoran American
–
Dustin Corea
34.
Spanish Americans
–
Spanish Americans is a term with multiple meanings. The term can also extend to mean those who share a language and culture rooted in Spain, Spanish Americans are the longest-established European-American group with a continuous presence in Florida since 1565 and are the eighth-largest Hispanic group in the United States of America. Throughout the colonial times, there were a number of settlements of Spanish populations in the present–day United States of America with governments answerable to Madrid. The first settlement was at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona, Texas, and Louisiana. In 1598, San Juan de los Caballeros was established, near present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Juan de Oñate, Spanish immigrants also established settlements in San Diego, California, San Antonio, Texas and Tucson, Arizona. By the mid-1600s the Spanish in America numbered more than 400,000 and these Spanish settlers expanded European influence in the New World. The Canary Islanders settled in areas surrounding New Orleans in Louisiana from 1778 to 1783 and in San Antonio de Bejar, San Antonio, Texas. The earliest known Spanish settlements in the then northern Mexico were the result of the forces that later led the English to come to North America. Exploration had been fueled in part by imperial hopes for the discovery of wealthy civilizations, in addition, like those aboard the Mayflower, most Spaniards came to the New World seeking land to farm, or occasionally, as historians have recently established, freedom from religious persecution. A smaller percentage of new Spanish settlers were descendants of Spanish Jewish converts, basques stood out in the exploration of the Americas, both as soldiers and members of the crews that sailed for the Spanish. Prominent in the service and colonial administration, they were accustomed to overseas travel. The Spanish presence in the United States declined sharply between 1930 and 1940 from a total of 110,000 to 85,000, many immigrants moved either back to Spain or to another country. Beginning with the Fascist revolt against the Second Spanish Republic in 1936, at the time of the Fascist takeover, a small but prominent group of liberal intellectuals fled to the United States. After the civil war the country endured 20 years of autarky, as a result, in the mid-1960s,44,000 Spaniards immigrated to the United States. In the 1970s, when Franco abandoned Spains autarkic economic system, prosperity began to emerge in Spain, in the 1980s, as Europe enjoyed an economic boom, Spanish immigrants to the United States dropped to only 15,000. The 1990 U. S. census recorded 76,000 foreign-born Spaniards in the country, many of the Hispanic and Latino Americans bring their Spanish-speaking culture into the country. However, some Spanish Americans are descendants of settlers in the southwestern states, especially New Mexico. Spanish-Americans in the United States are found in large concentrations in five states from 1940 through the early twenty-first century
Spanish Americans
–
El Centro Español de Tampa is a cultural house built in 1912 in the
Ybor City neighborhood of
Tampa, Florida.
Spanish Americans
–
Spanish children from the
SS Heliopolis after arriving in
Hawaii.
Spanish Americans
–
Anita Page was a New York-born actress of paternal Spanish descent.
Spanish Americans
–
Santa Barbara, California ’s annual Old Spanish Days Fiesta celebration.
35.
Uruguayan American
–
Uruguayan Americans are Americans of Uruguayan ancestry or birth. The American Community Survey of 2006 estimated the Uruguayan American population to number 50,538, similar to neighboring country Argentina, Uruguay took in many immigrants from Europe beginning in the late 19th century and lasting until the mid 20th century. As it stands, approximately 93% of Uruguays population is of European descent with Italians, Spaniards, French, because of this, many Uruguayan Americans identify both with their nationality and their familys country of origin. The history of Uruguayan emigration to the United States is very recent, before 1960, the Uruguayan living conditions were favorable, with many job opportunities, good education and a good healthcare system. The few Uruguayans that left the country migrated to other Hispanic countries such as Argentina, for this reason the Uruguayan emigration to the United States was low during that period. Moreover, Uruguay was ruled by a military regime for approximately a decade since 1973. All this led to a major Uruguayan emigration, which included numbers of well-educated professionals. This migration, also, contributed to a security crisis, as the population aged. This grew the burden on the financial resources. Of the Uruguayan immigrants from 1963 to 1975,17.7 percent of them were aged 14 years or younger, while 68 percent of them were between the ages of 15 and 39, only 14.3 percent were over 40 years old. The continued unemployment problem of the late 1980s developed yet another impetus for the youth of Uruguay to seek employment, some of them went to the United States, but the majority of Uruguayan emigrants continued to migrate to Argentina. Most Uruguayans find it easy to adapt to life in cities in the United States. Uruguayans in general have an exposure that makes English not an obstacle for adaptation in American society. In addition, the value that is given to higher education has led many Uruguayan students to migrate to the United States to continue their University studies there. According to the 2010 census on the Uruguayan descent population in the U. S. there are about 56,884 people of that origin, the majority of Uruguayans that migrated to the United States arrived in the 1960s and 1970s. It is estimated that, between 1963 and 1975,180,000 Uruguayans left the country, later on, between 1973 and 1985, during the period of oppressive military control,150,000 Uruguayans left Uruguay. And, in 1989, only 16,000 of these citizens had returned to their native country, when these two figures are added together, the migration figure stands at approximately one-tenth of the population of Uruguay. Most Uruguayan immigrants established themselves in New York City, New Jersey, two other remarkable centers for Uruguayan American population are Washington, D. C. and Florida
Uruguayan American
–
Bruno Fonseca
Uruguayan American
–
Uruguayan 626,789
36.
Venezuelan American
–
Venezuelan Americans are Americans who trace their heritage, or part of their heritage, to the nation of Venezuela. Venezuelan Americans are one of 20 Latin American groups in the United States and this includes influences from Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, Germans, and the French, along with influences from African and indigenous Amerindian elements. Venezuelan Spanish is the spoken form of the Spanish language. Until the 20th century, there was no record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States, however, there are not many specific figures that indicate the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to this country. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education and they are frequently joined by relatives. In recent years, more Venezuelans opposing the economic and political policies of president Hugo Chávez are migrating to the U. S, the largest concentration of Venezuelans in the United States is in South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston. Other main states with Venezuelan American populations are, according to the 1990 census, New York, California, Texas, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland. Some of the areas with a highly populated Venezuelan community include Miami, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles. State with the smallest Venezuelan population was South Dakota with 25 Venezuelans, some 70 percent of Venezuelan immigrants are a mixture of European, Amerindian, and African ancestry. The rest are 21 percent white,8 percent black and 1 percent is Amerindian, most Venezuelan Americans are descendants of Spanish, Italians, Portuguese, Germans, French, and Chinese. The Venezuelan American population is highly educated, thus, they teach the language to their children. Venezuelan Americans work in a variety of professions, however, most of them are inclined to banking and the petroleum industry. Thus, they often have an expertise in these professions. Venezuelan Americans also work in highlighted positions of television, publishing, also, many Venezuelan Americans are becoming politicians, working both local politics as in government. In addition, also is growing the number of Venezuelan Americans that work in government service on the federal level, now, the Venezuelan Americans are involved in all the aspect of the American politics. Venezuelan Americans still maintain strong relations with their country of origin, which can easily be seen in business, family, Venezuelan Americans often report on the social and current events in Venezuela and first-generation immigrants visit there frequently. It is also common for Venezuelans to visit their relatives in the United States
Venezuelan American
–
Carolina Herrera
Venezuelan American
Venezuelan American
–
Fred Armisen
Venezuelan American
–
Carlos Pena, Jr.
37.
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
The history of Latinos and Hispanics in the United States is wide-ranging, spanning more than four hundred years and varyingday United States, too. Hispanics became the first American citizens in the newly acquired Southwest territory after the Mexican–American War, as late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War, Spain held claim to roughly half of todays continental United States. In the Treaty of Paris France ceded Louisiana to Spain from 1763 until it was returned in 1800 by the Treaty of San Ildefonso, in 1775, Spanish ships reached Alaska. The first confirmed landing in the continental US was by a Spaniard, Juan Ponce de León, within three decades of Ponce de Leóns landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, coronado travelled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States and he was the first European that saw the Canyon´s Colorado. In all, Spaniards probed half of todays lower 48 states before the first English colonization attempt, the Spanish didnt just explore, they settled, creating the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida in 1565. The fort was part of the Spanish King’s ongoing effort to establish a “Window on the Atlantic”, Spain needed a presence on the east coast of America to provide protection for the Spanish treasure galleons traveling back to Europe. By 1571 Menendez had brought settlers, including farmers and craftsmen, Santa Elena was now the first European capitol on the American mainland, with Mendez as Governor. Santa Elena was a settlement for 21 years, ending when Spain consolidated its Florida colony to St. Augustine. Later came Spanish settlements in San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco, the Spanish even established a Jesuit mission in Virginias Chesapeake Bay 37 years before the founding of Jamestown. Two iconic American stories have Spanish antecedents, too, almost 80 years before John Smiths alleged rescue by Pocahontas, a man by the name of Juan Ortiz told of his similar rescue from execution by an Indian girl. Spaniards also held a thanksgiving,56 years before the Pilgrims, Spanish claims to Alaska and the west coast of North America date to the papal bull of 1493, and the Treaty of Tordesillas. In 1513, this claim was reinforced by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean, Spain only started to colonize the claimed territory north of present-day Mexico in the 18th century, when it settled the northern coast of Las Californias. They also explored Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, thus, the Spanish explorer Manuel Lisa, first settler of Nebraska, left St. Louis, Missouri to head northwest toward Montana, inaugurating the Oregon Trail. The Spanish moved since the Missouri to eastern Montana, and along the Yellowstone to western and southern Montana. Juan Ponce de León, a Spanish conquistador, named Florida in honor of his discovery of the land on April 2,1513, during Pascua Florida, from that date forward, the land became known as La Florida. Over the following century, both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, French Huguenots founded Fort Caroline in modern-day Jacksonville in 1564, but this fort was conquered by forces from the new Spanish colony of St. Augustine the following year. Augustine founder Pedro Menéndez de Avilés time to march his men over land, St. Augustine came to serve as the capitals of the British and Spanish colonies of East and West Florida, respectively
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
California is shown as an island on this 1650 map. The smaller islands located in the "channel" were mentioned in an early myth and subsequently included by mapmakers over the centuries who took it on faith that region had actually been explored.
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
A portrait of Junípero Serra.
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
An early map illustrating the route of "El Camino Real" in 1821, along with the 21 Franciscan Alta California missions. The road at this time was merely a horse and mule trail.
38.
History of Mexican Americans
–
Large-scale new migration augmented their numbers during the 1910s, as Mexico was torn by a high-casualty civil war. Until the 1960s, most lived within a few hundred miles of the border, more recently, Mexican Americans have diffused throughout the U. S. especially in the Midwest and Southeast, with the largest numbers in California and Texas. In the past hundred years Mexican-Americans have campaigned for voting rights, stood against educational, employment, at the same time many Mexican-Americans have struggled with defining and maintaining their communitys identity. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. When Mexico took over control from Spain in the early 1820s, when Texas seemed too independent, Mexicos President Santa Anna led an army to massacre the villagers and destroy the American settlements. After initial victories and massacres at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texans, who declared independence. The Tejanos in Texas joined the revolution and supported the new Republic of Texas, The Hispanics in New Mexico and California were localistic and did not identify with the regime in Mexico City. Only when large numbers of Americans arrived did they develop a sense of lo mexicano, that is of being Mexican, American entrepreneurs often cultivated alliances and partnerships with the Mexican propertied elites in the states of Texas and California, and the territories of New Mexico and Arizona. The Latino culture of the rest of the Southwest, especially New Mexico and southern Texas, beginning in the 1820s, immigrants from the U. S. and Europe settled in Texas, then part of Mexico. Anglo and Hispanic Texas joined to fight Mexico in 1836, defeating an invading army, the Texas Republic included Tejanos as leading citizens, but Mexico refused to recognize its legal existence. The US annexed Texas in 1845, leading to the Mexican–American War of 1846–48, while there were some Americans who considered the war with Mexico illegal and immoral, others considered it part of Manifest Destiny—the American destiny to pursue the war. This policy claimed that it was the United States right to expand westward across North America, the Americans won easily and the war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In the Treaty Mexico gave up more than 500,000 square miles of territory, which today comprises Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The United States in 1853 purchased the Gadsden Purchase, a strip of land in southern New Mexico, the vast majority of Hispanic populations chose to stay and become full US citizens. By and large, the Hispanic populations of these supported the new government. After the Santa Fe Ring succeeded in dispossessing thousands of landholders in New Mexico, some Hispanics, of whom Joaquín Murieta was a legendary example and Tiburcio Vásquez a real one, responded by resorting to banditry. During the Gold Rush, there was an immigration of Mexican miners to California, about 20,000 Tejanos lived in South Texas in the 1850s. The social structure has been analyzed by historian Randolph Campbell, South Texans of Hispanic descent lived in a three-tiered society during the antebellum years, at the top stood the landed elite, the owners of huge ranches, many of which originated as haciendas in the Spanish colonial period
History of Mexican Americans
–
Dolores Huerta speaking at a rally in
Santa Barbara, California on September 24, 2006.
History of Mexican Americans
–
César Chávez at a
United Farmworkers rally, 1974
39.
Castizo
–
Castizo is a Spanish word with a general meaning of pure, genuine or representative of its race. From this meaning it evolved other meanings, such as typical of an area and it was used for one of the colonial Spanish race categories, the castas. In Latin America Castizo is used to describe the individuals with an admixture of 75% European, during this era, various other terms were also used. The word cuarterón usually denotes someone whose racial origin is three-quarters White and one-quarter Black, under the colonial caste system, the offspring of a Spaniard and a Castiza was classified as a criollo, thus the offspring regained his or her purity of blood. For castizos whose residual quarter of Amerindian ancestry was not apparent at all, many simply consolidated themselves within the criollos, some countries, however, have recently reintroduced voluntary and anonymous declarations of race in recent population censuses for statistical purposes, with no legal consequence to the individual. A person who formerly would have deemed a castizo would today simply identify as mestizo or White. The word castizo itself has lost all racial meaning, today they are scattered in almost all Latin America but many focus on specific countries or regions of the same. ARGENTINA, Since most of European immigrants arrived in Argentina during the century were men, many of these mixed with mestizo women. They in turn, mixed with Europeans over and over again, recent studies show that nearly 60% of Argentinas population has at least one ancestor of Native American or African origin, and that the average Argentinian is about 74% European and 23% Amerindian. CHILE, It might be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America and they are located mainly in the central valleys of the country, in cities such as Santiago, Valparaíso, Viña del Mar, Rancagua and Talca. They also constitute an important percentage in Northern and Southern Chile, in Chile whites and castizos together represent the countrys largest ethnic group. COSTA RICA, It could also be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America due to continued European immigration, castizos are located in almost all the national territory. MEXICO, Castiza population in Mexico is located mainly in north and these areas have a similar castiza and white population to Costa Rica or Chile. PERU, Peruvian castizos are concentrated in the departments of Lima, Cajamarca, Arequipa, La Libertad, Lambayeque and Piura, GUATEMALA, Most Guatemalan castizos inhabit the eastern region of the country such as the departments of Zacapa, Chiquimila, and Jalapa. Castizo is used in Madrid for costumes, music, speech typical of the Madrid populace about the end of the 19th century, a person dressed in Castizo fashion can be called manolo/manola and chulapo/chulapa. Many zarzuelas are set in a Castizo environment, like La verbena de la Paloma, items associated with Castizo culture are the street swivel piano, barquillos, Schottisch music and Manila shawls. Casticismo is a tendency among Spanish and Latin American intellectuals to reject foreign loanwords, an example is deporte, a word recovered from Medieval Castilian meaning pastime, that successfully replaced the Anglicism sport, which has the same Latin origin as the Spanish word. Its closely related to costumbrismo in literature, White Latin American Peninsulares Mestizo Cholo Casta
Castizo
–
Union of castizo (left) and mestiza (right): chamizo
40.
Cholo
–
Its use has migrated from the initial negative ethnic designation as originated by Hispanic criollos in the 16th century. In sociological literature, it is one of castas, and refers to Mexican American gangsters, the precise usage of cholo has varied widely in different times and places. In modern American usage, it most often applies to the low-rider sub-culture manner of dress, the terms use is first recorded in a Peruvian book published in 1609 and 1616, the Comentarios Reales de los Incas by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. He writes The child of a Black male and an Indian female, or of an Indian male and Black female, they call mulato, the children of these they call cholo. Cholo is a word from the Windward Islands, it means dog, not of the variety, but of very disreputable origin. In Colonial Mexico, the terms cholo and coyote co-existed, indicating mixed Mestizo, other terms were used to denote other ratios of smaller or greater Spanish-to-Amerindian ancestry. During the War of the Pacific Peruvians were contemptuously referred to as cholos by Chilean officers, an article in the Los Angeles Express of April 2,1907, headlined Cleaning Up the Filthy Cholo Courts Has Begun in Earnest, uses the terms cholos and Mexicans interchangeably. In 1571, Fray Alonso de Molina, in his Nahuatl vocabulary, defined the word xolo as slave, servant, or waiter. The Porrúa Dictionary defines cholo, as used in the Americas, as a civilized Native American or a half-breed or mestizo of a European father and Native American mother. The word has historically been used along the borderland as a term to mean lower class Mexican migrants. Despite, or because of, its history of denigrating semantics. During the 1930s and 40s, Cholos and Chicanos were known as pachucos and were associated with the zoot suit, the press at the time accused the Cholos in the US of gang membership and petty criminality, leading to the Zoot Suit Riots. Continuing until the early 1970s, the typical cholo and chicano hairstyle was a variant of the pompadour, piled high on the head, Cholos are known for starching and pressing their pants and shirts, and often wear military-style webbed belts. Cholos in the 1990s and 2000s frequently have their hair buzzed very short, though some continue to have the more traditional slicked-back hair, footwear originally included Stacy Adams dress shoes, and biscuits. Modern cholos tend to wear shoes, such as Converse, Nike Cortez, Vans, Fila, Adidas Stan Smith, slip-on house shoes. Popular Cholo brands include Dickies, Ben Davis, Joker, Lowrider, in South Texas, cholos are sometimes referred to as chucs or chukes. This term is short for pachucos, tejano cholos typically make heavy use of starch on their pants but so do traditional Tejanos. This designation may also be associated with black ink tattoos, commonly involving calligraphy, a cholo might also stereotypically own a lowrider
Cholo
–
An example of "cula de Castas" which classified people by their ancestry, admixture, and degree of admixture. Within this representation of Cholos during the Latin American colonial period one can read "De mestizo e india, sale coiote" (from Mestizo and Amerindian, begotten a Coyote).
Cholo
–
Typical dress of a chola
cuencana
41.
Criollo people
–
Although Criollos were legally Spaniards, in practice, they ranked below the Iberian-born Peninsulares. Nevertheless, they had preeminence over all the populations, Amerindians, enslaved Africans. According to the Casta system, a criollo could have up to 1/8 Amerindian ancestry without losing social place, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, changes in the Spanish Empires policies towards its colonies led to tensions between Criollos and Peninsulares. Criollos were the supporters of the Spanish American wars of independence. The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed to come from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar, in Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Whites in colonial Brazil, born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos, limpieza de sangre or cleanness of blood was a legal concept in use since the Spanish Reconquista, and introduced to the Spanish colonies in the Americas. The English word creole was a loan from French créole, which in turn is believed to come from Spanish criollo or Portuguese crioulo, such cases might include the offspring of a Castizo parent and one Peninsular or Criollo parent. This one-eighth rule, also in theory, did not apply to African admixture, in reality, officials assigned various racial categories to mix-raced people depending on their social status, what they were told or due to testimony from friends and neighbors. To preserve the Spanish Crowns power in the colonies, the Spanish colonial society was based on a caste system. The highest-ranking castes were the españoles, Spaniards by birth or descent, people of mixed ancestry were classified in other castes — such as castizos, mestizos, cholos, mulatos, indios, zambos, and enslaved Africans, called blacks. Poole argues that the Virgin Mary, especially as Our Lady of Guadalupe and they used the story to legitimize their own social position and infuse it with an almost messianic sense of mission and identity. Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs and that situation changed by the Bourbon Reforms during the reign of Charles III. Spain needed to extract increasing wealth from its colonies to support the European, the Crown expanded the privileges of the Peninsulares, who took over many administrative offices which had been filled by Criollos. At the same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the ranks of the clergy. By the 19th century, this policy of the Spanish Crown. With increasing support of the castes, they engaged Spain in a fight for independence. The former Spanish Empire in the Americas separated into a number of independent republics, the word criollo retains its original meaning in most Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas. In some countries, however, the word criollo has over time come to have additional meanings, for instance, comida criolla in Spanish-speaking countries refers to local cuisine, not cuisine of the criollos
Criollo people
–
Clockwise from top left:
Agustín de Iturbide
Criollo people
–
Criollos rejoice upon learning about the declaration of independence from Spain on September 15, 1821.
Criollo people
42.
Mestizo
–
The term was used as an ethnic/racial category in the casta system that was in use during the Spanish Empires control of their New World colonies. Mestizos are usually considered to be mixed Spaniards by the crown of Spain, the term mestizaje - taking as its root mestizo or mixed - is the Spanish word for miscegenation, the general process of mixing ancestries. To avoid confusion with the usage of the term mestizo. In colonial Venezuela, pardo was more commonly used instead of mestizo, pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture, it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Amerindian, and Black African. In colonial Brazil most of the population was mestiço in the original Iberian definition of the word. In the Philippines, which was a colony of Spain, the term came to refer to a Filipino with any foreign ancestry especially whites. In Canada, the Métis people is a community composed of those who possess combined European, in Saint Barthélemy, the term mestizo refers to people of mixed European and East Asian ancestry. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius, meaning mixed and its usage has been documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian and a Jew. This term was first documented in English in 1582 and it is related to the particular racial identity of historical non-white Amerindian-descended Hispanic and Latino American communities in an American context. In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis, as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French, in the United States, Métis Americans and Mestizo Americans are two distinct racial and ethno-racial identities, as reflected in the use of French and Spanish loanwords, respectively. The latter was listed as a mestizo de sangley in birth records of the 19th century, with sangley as a reference to the Hokkiense word for business. Mestizo, mestiço, métis, mestís, Mischling, meticcio, mestiezen, mestee, in the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed an extremely vast complex system of racial hierarchy, which was used for social control and which also determined a persons standing in society. There were three categories of race during the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, White Spaniard, Amerindian. During the Spanish colonial era, a myriad of terms were created to differentiate these racial mixtures, by the end of the colonial period in 1821, over one hundred sub-categories of possible variations of mixture existed, but official church and civil records were maintained with few categories. Church baptismal and marriage registers and civil records used the terms español, castizo, mestizo, mulato, and indio. As time went on, a system of hierarchy, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas developed where society was divided based on race, wealth. Mestizo – a person of mixed White European and Amerindian ancestry, in theory, and as depicted in eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, español status could also be attained by people of mixed origin who consistently had intermarried with Europeans. Such cases might include the offspring of a parent and one Peninsular or criollo parent
Mestizo
–
A painting of a Spanish man and a Peruvian indigenous woman with Mestizo child, 1770.
Mestizo
–
Las castas. 18th century, Museo Nacional del Virreinato,
Tepotzotlán, Mexico.
Mestizo
–
A representation of a Mestizo, in a Pintura de Castas from
New Spain during the late colonial period. The painting's caption states "Spanish and Indian produce Mestizo", 1780.
Mestizo
–
A statue of
Gonzalo Guerrero, who adopted the Maya way of life and fathered the first mestizo children of
Mexico, but not of the
Americas, since the first mestizos were born in the Caribbean, by Spanish men and indigenous Caribbean women.
43.
Mulatto
–
Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD, and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, descendant, offspring, scion, child, son, boy, young animal, in al-Andalus, Muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Notable examples of this include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. Thus, in context, the term Muwalad has a meaning close to the adopted. According to the source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century and this earliest usage regarded black and white as discrete species, with the mulatto constituting a third separate species. According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the origin of mulato. The Real Academia Española casts doubt on the muwallad theory, Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and they projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollers points out that this etymology is anachronistic, The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word Mulatto. Of São Tomé and Príncipes 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço. or mixed race, 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such
Mulatto
–
Juan de Pareja by
Diego Velázquez, 1650
Mulatto
–
The Christmas Bands are a popular Cape Coloured cultural tradition in
Cape Town
Mulatto
–
Don Miguel Enríquez, a
Puerto Rican privateer, is the only known mulatto knighted by the
Monarchy of Spain. After being born illegitimate, he became a shoemaker and privateer, ultimately one of the wealthiest men of the New World.
Mulatto
–
Portrait "A Redenção de Cam" (1895), showing a Brazilian family.
44.
Zambo
–
Zambo and cafuzo are racial terms used in the Spanish and Portuguese Empires and occasionally today to identify individuals in the Americas who are of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry. Historically, the cross between African slaves and Amerindians was referred to as a zambaggoa, then zambo, then sambo. In the United States, the word sambo is thought to refer to the cross between a black slave and a white person. The meaning of the term however is contested in North America. The word most likely originated from one of the Romance languages, or Latin, under the casta system of Spanish colonial America, the term originally applied to the children of one African and one Amerindian parent, or the children of two zambo parents. During this period, many other terms denoted individuals of African-Amerindian ancestry in ratios smaller or greater than the 50,50 of zambos, today, zambo refers to all people with significant amounts of both African and Amerindian ancestry, though it is frequently considered pejorative. The term zambo was not formally used in Spanish writing until the seventeenth century, African slaves began mixing with indigenous people from the beginning of their importation into Hispaniola in the early sixteenth century. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish began producing systematic racial classifications, some famous zambo groups were created by runaway or rebel Africans who mixed with or took over indigenous communities. They united with the indigenous Miskito people, and by the eighteenth century came to dominate the kingdom. Their alliance with and protection of English merchants and settlers in the area helped England found the colony of British Honduras, officially, zambos represent small minorities in the northwestern South American countries Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Ecuador. A small but noticeable number of resulting from recent unions of Amerindian women to Afro-Ecuadorian men are not uncommon in major coastal cities of Ecuador. In Central America, there are two indigenous-African mixed groups, the Miskito and the garifunas, the Garifuna originated from the combination of Africans who were either shipwrecked or fled from neighboring islands to St. Vincent, in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1797 they were deported by the English for their role in supporting France during the French Revolutionary Wars to the island of Roatan off the coast of Honduras, from there they spread up and down the coast of Central America, communities being found from Nicaragua to Belize. In Mexico, where zambos were sometimes known as lobos, they form a sizeable minority, according to the 2015 Intercensus Estimate,896,829 people identified as both Afro-Mexican and Indigenous Mexican. The great majority of the countrys Afro-descended population has been absorbed into the mestizo population. Culturally, Mexican lobos followed more Amerindian traditions rather than African influences and this acculturation also took place in Bolivia, where the Afro-Bolivian community absorbed and retained many aspects of Amerindian cultural influences, such as dress and use of the Aymara language. These communities of Afro-Bolivians reside in the Yungas region of the Bolivian department of La Paz
Zambo
–
16th century painting of Zambo
Caciques from
Esmeraldas, Ecuador.
Zambo
–
A representation of an infant zambo, in an 18th-century "Pintura de Castas" from
New Spain. The painting illustrates "from a Black and an Amerindian produces a lobo ", here a synonym for zambo.
Zambo
–
"From a black man with a
mulata produces a
Sambo ", Indian school, 1770.
45.
Chicano Movement
–
Socially, the Chicano Movement addressed negative ethnic stereotypes of Mexicans in mass media and the American consciousness. While most people of Mexican descent still refused to call themselves Chicanos, Chicanos did this through the creation of works of literary and visual art that validated the Mexican American ethnicity and culture practices. The term Chicanos was originally used as a label for the sons. Some prefer to spell the word Chicano as Xicano and this new generation of Mexican Americans were singled out by people on both sides of the border in whose view these Mexican Americans were not American, yet they were not Mexican, either. In the 1960s Chicano was accepted as a symbol of self-determination, the Chicano Movement also addressed discrimination in public and private institutions. Early in the century, Mexican Americans formed organizations to protect themselves from discrimination. One of those organizations, the League of United Latin American Citizens, was formed in 1929, the Chicano Movement had been fermenting since the end of the U. S. –Mexican War in 1848, when the current U. S–Mexican border took form. Since that time, many Chicanos and Chicanas have campaigned against discrimination, racism, the Chicano Movement that culminated in the early 1970s took inspiration from heroes and heroines from their indigenous, Mexican and American past. The movement gained momentum after World War II when groups such as the American G. I, Forum, which was formed by returning Mexican American veterans, joined in the efforts by other civil rights organizations. After the Longoria incident, the AGIF quickly expanded throughout Texas and by the 1950s, there were several leaders throughout the Chicano Movement. In New Mexico there was Reies López Tijerina who worked on the land grant movement and he fought to regain control of what he considered ancestral lands. He became involved in civil rights causes within six years and also became a cosponsor of the Poor Peoples March on Washington in 1967. In Texas, war veteran Dr. Hector P. Garcia founded the American GI Forum and was appointed to the United States Commission on Civil Rights. In Denver, Rodolfo Corky Gonzáles helped define the meaning of being a Chicano through his poem Yo Soy Joaquin, in California, César Chávez and the farm workers turned to the struggle of urban youth, and created political awareness and participated in La Raza Unida Party. The most prominent civil rights organization in the Mexican-American community is the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, founded in 1968. Although modeled after the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, MALDEF has also taken on many of the functions of organizations, including political advocacy. This led Chicana women to form the Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional, in 1975, it became involved in the case Madrigal v. Quilligan, obtaining a moratorium on the compulsory sterilization of women and adoption of bilingual consent forms. These steps were necessary because many Hispanic women who did not understand English well were being sterilized in the United States at the time, sVREPs mission is to empower Latinos and other minorities by increasing their participation in the American democratic process
Chicano Movement
–
Cesar Chavez with demonstrators
Chicano Movement
–
Casa
Aztlán. A mural in
Pilsen, Chicago for the Chicano Movement
46.
Congressional Hispanic Caucus
–
The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is an organization of 30 Democratic members of the United States Congress of Hispanic descent. The Caucus is dedicated to voicing and advancing, through the process, issues affecting Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The CHC was founded in December 1976 as a service organization of the United States House of Representatives. Today, the CHC is organized as a Congressional Member organization, the Congressional Hispanic Caucus aims to address national and international issues and the impact these policies have on the Hispanic community. The function of the Caucus is to serve as a forum for the Hispanic, in addition to covering legislative action, the CHC also monitors Executive and Judicial issues. CHC legislative priorities cover all areas that have a impact on the Hispanic or Latino community. In order to best address these issues, members work in smaller task forces that draw on their expertise. The CHC is currently composed entirely of Democrats, although it had been an organization since its founding. The Republican members left in the late 1990s over policy differences and, in 2003, formed their own group, the Congressional Hispanic Caucus was organized in 1976 by five Hispanic Congressmen, Herman Badillo, Baltasar Corrada del Río, Kika de la Garza, Henry B. It was staffed by Raquel Marquez Frankel, who had grown up in Silver City and Albuquerque, New Mexico, and had become, in 1947, the first Latina to attend the University of New Mexico School of Law. Rep. Baca has denied this charge, but two other CHC members, Linda Sánchez and Hilda Solis, expressed support for Loretta Sanchez. In the case of Solis, Baca called her a kiss-up to Speaker Nancy Pelosi, a year prior to the whore incident, The CHCs Political action committee gave $3,000 to Joe Bacas childrens campaigns for state offices in California. Although Baca recused himself from the decision to make the contributions, six members of the caucus criticized the decision, saying that CHCs PAC should support only federal candidates. Consequently, on November 15,2006, when Joe Baca was elected chair of the CHC, Solis, on Monday, April 2,2007, Congresswoman Linda Sánchez closed her offices in honor of César Estrada Chávez Day, a state holiday in California. CHC chair Baca made the comment on Sánchezs decision to close the office I believe the best way to observe César Estrada Chávez Day is not by taking the day off from work or school. She specifically stated that her decision was not based on personal animus directed at Baca, on June 30,2013, Congressman Filemon Vela, Jr. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus has received support over the years from Mexican billionaire, Ricardo Pliego, ramirez has appeared at functions for the Congressional Hispanic Caucus. Nydia Velázquez In October 1981, the House Committee on House Administration drafted new regulations stipulating that fundraising activities were to be moved off all government premises, Congressional caucus Congressional Hispanic Conference 1977 Womens National Conference, Minority-Latino-Women Congressional Hispanic Caucus Website Congressional Hispanic Caucus Institute
Congressional Hispanic Caucus
–
Hispanic Caucus meeting at the White House in 2009
Congressional Hispanic Caucus
Congressional Hispanic Caucus
47.
Congressional Hispanic Conference
–
The Congressional Hispanic Conference is a Republican Party-controlled caucus in the United States Congress. Currently with 13 members, the CHC was formed in 2003, with the goal of promoting policy outcomes of importance to Americans of Hispanic or Latino. These priorities included support of the following, then-President George W, the impetus behind the Conferences creation was the debate surrounding the nomination of conservative lawyer Miguel Estrada to the DC Circuit Court of Appeals. The Congressional Hispanic Conference should not be confused with the older Congressional Hispanic Caucus, on March 17,2003, Diaz-Balart revealed the formation of the Conference in an open letter published in the Wall Street Journal. S. The group was announced at a press conference two days later. They were soon joined by two more Portuguese American congressmen, Richard Pombo of California and Patrick Toomey of Pennsylvania, like their Democratic counterpart, the Conference allows members from the Senate. Mel Martinez, the first Cuban-American US Senator, joined the group shortly after his election in 2004, additionally, the Conference is open to non-Hispanic associate members who represent districts with significant Hispanic populations or generally support its goals with regards to public policy. In 2003, Conference members also formed the Congressional Hispanic Leadership Institute as an equivalent to the Democratic CHC-affiliated CHCI, in the 2006 and 2008 elections, the Conference suffered the loss of nearly half of their members to electoral defeat, attempts at higher office or resignations. Past chair Luis Fortuño left Congress after being elected Governor of Puerto Rico
Congressional Hispanic Conference
–
CHC members in 2005 with Attorney General
Alberto Gonzales
48.
League of United Latin American Citizens
–
The League of United Latin American Citizens is the oldest surviving Latino civil rights organization in the U. S. It was established on February 17,1929, in Corpus Christi, Texas, LULAC was a consolidation of smaller, like-minded civil rights groups already in existence. With a goal of achieving assimilation, the organization initially admitted only United States citizens as members, the organization has a national headquarters, active councils in many states, and a professional staff. LULAC follows an ideology which emerged among cholos groups around the time of the Great Depression in the United States. In response to sentiment, the federal government deported an estimated 500,000 Mexican nationals. Benjamin Marquez asserts, This demographic shift favored the rise of a more assimilated political leadership, but as LULAC has been interested in assimilation to the US, it admitted as members only those ethnic Mexicans who were United States citizens. LULAC promoted the adaptation of its members into the dominant European-American culture. The organization claimed that discrimination was caused by racism, not by the economic or political systems, LULAC promoted capitalism and individualism, its leaders believed that, through hard work and assimilation into American culture, Mexican Americans could improve their socio-economic standing. LULAC emphasized American patriotism as a path to assimilation and it asserted that Mexican Americans should disavow any allegiance to Mexico, remain permanently in the United States, and commit fully to democratic ideals. The leagues official song is America, its language is English. Its constitution is modeled on the United States Constitution, because of LULAC’s assimilation ideology and its advancement of the interests of Mexican-American citizens, it advocated restrictions on immigration. LULACs central means of achieving equal status with European Americans was dependent on promoting the image of Mexican residents as conforming to the norms of the United States. The League recognized that most of the dominant society did not distinguish among the cultures and attitudes of immigrants, citizens, and naturalized persons of Mexican descent. New immigrants from Mexico resisted the assimilation strategy, as they had ties to their native culture, limited English proficiency. Some Mexican Americans knew that they would be lumped together with the recent immigrants and be perceived as un-American, backward, and poor and it fully supported education of its members and adoption of fluent English. Through formal education, Mexican Americans would learn how to function in American institutions, socialize with European-American children, with respect to organizational structure, the League of Latin American Citizens was similar to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Du Bois and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, though the two civil rights groups may have possessed some institutional similarities, LULAC tried to establish distance from the African American civil rights struggle. As LULAC believed that blacks were more oppressed than Latinos, its members thought that forces would not strengthen its own struggle for equality
League of United Latin American Citizens
–
League of United Latin American Citizens
League of United Latin American Citizens
–
The LULAC No. 7 hall (established 1929) at 1613 Hidalgo Street in
Laredo,
Texas; in 2013 Laredo LULAC was named the "National Council of the Year" at the annual convention in
Las Vegas,
Nevada. From 2012 to 2013, the council raised $35,000 in scholarships.
49.
MEChA
–
The term mecha may refer to both scientific ideas and science fiction genres that centers on robots or machines controlled by people. Mechas are typically depicted as walker types of Mobile robots and these machines vary greatly in size and shape, but are distinguished from vehicles by their humanoid or biomorphic appearance. Different subgenres exist, with varying connotations of realism, the concept of Super Robot and Real Robot are two such examples found in Japanese anime. The term may refer to real world piloted humanoid robots / non-humanoid robotic platforms. Alternatively, in the original Japanese context of the word, mecha may refer to mobile machinery/vehicles in general, the word mecha is an abbreviation first used in Japanese of the word mechanical. Outside of this usage, it has associated with large robots with limbs or other biological characteristics. While the distinction is often hazy, mecha typically does not refer to form-fitting powered armor such as Iron Mans suit and they are usually much larger than the wearer, like Iron Mans enemy the Iron Monger, and possess a cockpit from which they are operated. In most fiction in which appear, mecha are fighting machines. Often, they are the means of combat, with conflicts sometimes being decided through gladiatorial matches. Other works represent mecha as one component of a military force, supported by and fighting alongside tanks, fighter aircraft. In some continuities, special scenarios are constructed to make mecha more viable than current-day status, for example, in Gundam the fictional Minovsky particle inhibits the use of radar, making long-range ballistic strikes impractical, thus favouring relatively close range warfare of Mobile Suits. Mecha also see roles as transporters, recreation, advanced hazmat suits, Mecha have been used in fantasy settings, for example in the anime series Aura Battler Dunbine, The Vision of Escaflowne, Panzer World Galient and Maze. In those cases, the designs are usually based on some alternative or lost science-fiction technology from ancient times. In case of anime series Zoids, the machines resemble dinosaurs and animals, the 1880 Jules Verne novel La Maison à vapeur featured a steam-powered, piloted, mechanical elephant. One of the first appearances of such machines in modern literature was the tripods of H. G. Wells famous The War of the Worlds. The novel does not contain a detailed description of the tripods mode of locomotion, however it is hinted at. That was the impression those instant flashes gave, but instead of a milking stool imagine it a great body of machinery on a tripod stand. Two of the earliest uses of mecha in the United States were Kimball Kinnisons battle suit in E. E, doc Smiths Lensman novel Galactic Patrol, and the Mobile Infantry battle suits in Robert Heinleins Starship Troopers
MEChA
–
An illustration depicting mass-produced versions of
Metal Gear REX on a conventional battlefield.
MEChA
–
Illustration of a
Tripod walker from the 1906 French edition of
The War of the Worlds
MEChA
–
The Imperial AT-AT Walkers in
The Empire Strikes Back
MEChA
–
Strike Suit Zero is a 2013 space combat video game featuring mecha designs by Junji Okubo.
50.
National Council of La Raza
–
The National Council of La Raza is the USAs largest Latino nonprofit advocacy organization. It advocates in favor of public policy changes including immigration reform, a path to citizenship for immigrants living in the country illegally. Founded in 1968, NCLR has regional offices in Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Miami, Phoenix, San Antonio and is headquartered in Washington, janet Murguía serves as NCLRs president. In 1963, a group of Mexican Americans in Washington, D. C. formed the National Organization for Mexican American Services, the organization existed primarily to provide technical assistance to Hispanic groups and bring them together under one umbrella. NOMAS presented a proposal to the Ford Foundation to establish an organization that could provide technical assistance, the Ford Foundation hired Herman Gallegos, Julian Samora, and Ernesto Galarza to travel the Southwest and make a recommendation on how the Ford Foundation could help Mexican Americans. Gallegos, Samora and Galarza founded the Southwest Council of La Raza in Phoenix, Arizona, SWCLR was given financial support from the Ford Foundation, the National Council of Churches, and the United Auto Workers, and the organization received 501 status later that year. In 1973, the SWCLR became an organization, changed its name to the National Council of La Raza. The Spanish word raza is often translated into English as race, the phrase La Raza has a particular history in the context of political activism in which NCLR uses it. NCLR uses “La Raza” to refer to “the people” or “the Hispanic people of the New World, beginning in about 1975, the NCLR began expanding its focus to include the issues of non-Mexican American Latinos. This policy was made official in 1979, by 1980, the NCLR was funded almost entirely by the federal government. When the Reagan Administration reduced available funding, the NCLR cut back the scale of its operations. As a result, the organization began focusing on policy and concentrating its efforts in Washington. The organization holds an annual conference, in 2016, Elizabeth Warren and Steve St. Angelo spoke at the conference. Prior to 2000, three-quarters of the funding came from private sources, including individuals and corporations. As of 2015, the organization reported receiving 85% of its funding from individuals, corporations, and foundations, some critics, such as conservative talk radio host George Putnam, call NCLR exclusionary in its approach to civil rights. César Chávez was a critic of La Raza, stating to Peter Matthiessen of The New Yorker, some people don’t look at it as racism, but when you say ‘la raza, ’ you are saying an anti-gringo thing, and it won’t stop there. Today it’s anti-gringo, tomorrow it will be anti-Negro, Chávez friend and UFW staffer LeRoy Chatfield stated, Thats one of the reasons is so upset about La Raza. The same Mexicans that ten years ago were talking about themselves as Spaniards are coming on real strong these days as Mexicans, everyone should be proud of what they are, of course, but race is only skin-deep
National Council of La Raza
–
National Council of La Raza
Florida - 14,542 (0.1% of state population)
New Jersey - 10,902 (0.1% of state population)
New York - 6,021 (less than 0.1% of state population)
California - 4,110 (less than 0.1% of state population)
Georgia - 2,708 (less than 0.1% of state population)
Texas - 2,566 (less than 0.1% of state population)
Massachusetts - 2,317 (less than 0.1% of state population)
Virginia - 1,594 (less than 0.1% of state population)
Connecticut - 1,294 (0.1% of state population)
Maryland - 1,282 (less than 0.1% of state population)
Pennsylvania - 1,181 (less than 0.1% of state population)
