1.
Currency of Uruguay
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This is an outline of Uruguays monetary history. For the present currency of Uruguay, see Uruguayan peso, Uruguays currency was initially that common to all of Spanish America. During the struggle over this region, initially between Spain and Portugal, then between Argentina and Brazil, the coinage of both contestants circulated, when the area was annexed to Brazil in 1821 as Provincia Cisplatina, the Portuguese administration put notes of Banco do Brazil into circulation. This was the first paper money to circulate in Uruguay, then, in 1826–1828, Argentine troops fighting against Brazil were paid in one-peso notes issued by Banco Nacional of Buenos Aires for Provincia Oriental. All parties to the conflict used the Spanish dollar, which circulated with a value of 8 Spanish reales or 960 Brazilian reis, circulation consisted of coins from mints in Mexico, Potosí, Brazil, and Buenos Aires. During the turbulent period of conflict preceding independence, an amount of poor-quality copper coin from both Buenos Aires and Brazil came into circulation. But a large quantity of debased copper coin also circulated, lacking the means to implement a national coinage, Gen. Next, it was withdrawn at one patacón in silver or gold for 13 reales in copper, to meet the need for small change, the government obtained Buenos Aires coins of one-tenth real, and put about 1·6 million of them into circulation at half face value. This is considered the first money issued by República Oriental del Uruguay, finally, the government created a new monetary system, known as Sistema real, with accounts kept in a patacón of 8 reales, each of 100 centésimos. The patacón was a coin, 27·06 g, 0·902 fine. The standard gold coin was the onza de oro of 27·06 g, 0·875 fine, other silver and gold coins were rated in terms of the patacón and onza, according to their intrinsic value. Law 208 also authorized the minting of 20,000 pesos in copper coin, the Government put the first of these coins into circulation on 15 October 1840. Copper coins and a silver peso were authorized by laws 254 and 255 of 13 December 1843, during Uruguays long civil war, the government established a mint that produced three copper denominations and a silver peso fuerte or peso del Sitio. Uruguay did not issue any paper money during this period, the Law of 26 January 1831 provided for a copper exchange company to issue notes for 1 and 5 pesos in exchange for copper coin. A law of 29 April 1835 authorized a loan to pay off a portion of the national debt. These were high-denomination vales for 400,500,2000, and 5000 pesos, payable to bearer. Uruguays first coins were two copper, centésimo denominations dated 1840, struck by a firm in Montevideo, the type being that of a radiate sunface, 5c,24 mm. The 5c coin was known as cinquiño, the 20c as a vintén
2.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
3.
Currency symbol
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A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
4.
Dollar sign
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The dollar sign is a symbol primarily used to indicate the various units of currency around the world. The symbol can interchangeably have one or two vertical strokes, note that the two-stroked version is not the same symbol as the cifrão. In common usage, the sign appears to the left of the amount specified, the best documented explanation holds that the sign evolved out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation pˢ for pesos. A study of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p, a variation, though less plausible, of this hypothesis derives the sign from a combination of the Greek character psi and S. There are a number of hypotheses about the origin of the symbol, some with a measure of academic acceptance. Kingdom of Sicily Denaro minted in the Kingdom in Sicily at least by 1258–1266 had what could be construed as a dollar symbol. These coins were widely circulated due to the Crusades – and specifically the Crusade that targeted Tunis, several alternative hypotheses relate specifically to the dollar sign drawn with two vertical lines. A common hypothesis holds that the sign derives from the Spanish coat of arms, in 1492, Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted the symbol of the Pillars of Hercules and added the Latin warning Non plus ultra meaning nothing further beyond, indicating this is the end of the world. But when Christopher Columbus came to America, the legend was changed to Plus ultra, the Pillars of Hercules wrapped in a banner thus became a symbol of the New World. In this example the right-hand pillar clearly resembles the dollar sign, the symbol was adopted by Charles V and was part of his coat of arms representing Spains American possessions. The symbol was later stamped on coins minted in gold and silver, the coin, also known as Spanish dollar, was the first global currency used in the entire world since the Spanish Empire was the first global Empire. These coins, depicting the pillars over two hemispheres and a small S-shaped ribbon around each, were spread throughout America, Europe and Asia. According to this, traders wrote signs that, instead of saying Spanish dollar, had this made by hand. When the US got independence from the UK, they created the American dollar, a dollar sign with two vertical lines could have started off as a monogram of USA, used on money bags issued by the United States Mint. The letters U and S superimposed resemble the historical double-stroke dollar sign, robert Morris was such a zealous patriot – known as the Financier of the Revolution in the West – that conjecture does not overstep its bounds in purporting this hypothesis as viable. A similar idea claims that the letters U and S would stand for unit of silver, referencing pieces of eight again, another hypothesis is that it derives from the symbol used on a German Thaler. This refers to the Bible, Numbers, Chapter 21, a similar symbol, constructed by superposition of S and I or J, was used to denote German Joachimsthaler. It was known in the English-speaking world by the 17th century, robert Morris was the first to use that symbol in official documents and in official communications with Oliver Pollock
5.
Uruguay
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Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the area of its capital and largest city. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres, Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname. Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the region, in 1680. Montevideo was founded as a stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century. Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828, following a struggle between Spain, Portugal, Argentina and Brazil. It remained subject to influence and intervention throughout the 19th century. Modern Uruguay is a constitutional republic, with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy, peace, lack of corruption, e-government, on a per-capita basis, Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country. It ranks second in the region on economic freedom, income equality, per-capita income, Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI, GDP growth, innovation and infrastructure. It is regarded as a country by the UN. Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation, Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool, rice, soybeans, frozen beef, malt and milk. Nearly 95% of Uruguays electricity comes from energy, mostly hydroelectric facilities. The Economist named Uruguay country of the year in 2013, acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production, sale, the name of the namesake river comes from the Spanish pronunciation of the regional Guarani word for it. There are several interpretations, including bird-river, the name could also refer to a river snail called uruguá that was plentiful in the water. The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, the Portuguese discovered the region of present-day Uruguay in 1512. The Spanish arrived in present-day Uruguay in 1516, the indigenous peoples fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries
6.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
7.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
8.
Ethnic groups in Europe
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The ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. The total number of minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people. There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the ethnic group or nationality. There are eight peoples of Europe with more than 30 million members residing in Europe and these eight groups between themselves account for some 465 million or about 65% of European population, Russians, Germans, French, British, Italians, Spanish, Ukrainians, Poles. About 20–25 million residents are members of diasporas of non-European origin, the population of the European Union, with some five hundred million residents, accounts for two thirds of the European population. Of the total population of Europe of some 730 million, over 80% or some 600 million fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, viz. Slavic, Italic and Germanic, the largest groups that do not fall within these three are the Greeks and the Albanians. Beside the Indo-European languages there are two major language families on the European continent, Turkic languages and Uralic languages. The Semitic languages that dominate the coast of northern Africa as well as the Near East are preserved in Malta, abkhaz–Adyghean, Basque, Kartvelian, and Nakho-Dagestani are linguistic isolates with no known relation to each other or to any other languages inside or outside of Europe. The Basques are assumed to descend from the populations of the Atlantic Bronze Age directly, the Indo-European groups of Europe are assumed to have developed in situ by admixture of early Indo-European groups arriving in Europe by the Bronze Age. The Finnic peoples are mostly assumed to be descended from populations that had migrated to their homelands by about 3,000 years ago. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian and perhaps also Eteocretan, a pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty. Regarding the European Bronze Age, the only secure reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek, a Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic, and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages, iron Age populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus, Aegean, Greek tribes, Pelasgians/Tyrrhenians, and Anatolians. Armenian Highlands/Anatolia, Armenians Balkans, Illyrians, Dacians, and Thracians, Caucasus, Georgians Italian peninsula, Italic peoples, Etruscans, Adriatic Veneti, Ligurians and Greek colonies. Western/Central Europe, Celts, Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii, Iberian peninsula, Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula Basques and Phoenicians. Sardinia, ancient Sardinians, comprising the Corsi, Balares and Ilienses tribes, British Isles, Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland and Picts/Priteni. Northern Europe, Finnic peoples, Germanic peoples, iranian influence, Achaemenid control of Thrace and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes. The Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD70, the Bulgars, a semi-nomadic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs
9.
Division (mathematics)
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Division is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the others being addition, subtraction, and multiplication. The division of two numbers is the process of calculating the number of times one number is contained within one another. For example, in the picture on the right, the 20 apples are divided into groups of five apples, Division can also be thought of as the process of evaluating a fraction, and fractional notation is commonly used to represent division. Division is the inverse of multiplication, if a × b = c, then a = c ÷ b, as long as b is not zero. Division by zero is undefined for the numbers and most other contexts, because if b =0, then a cannot be deduced from b and c. In some contexts, division by zero can be defined although to a limited extent, in division, the dividend is divided by the divisor to get a quotient. In the above example,20 is the dividend, five is the divisor, in some cases, the divisor may not be contained fully by the dividend, for example,10 ÷3 leaves a remainder of one, as 10 is not a multiple of three. Sometimes this remainder is added to the quotient as a fractional part, but in the context of integer division, where numbers have no fractional part, the remainder is kept separately or discarded. Besides dividing apples, division can be applied to other physical, Division has been defined in several contexts, such as for the real and complex numbers and for more abstract contexts such as for vector spaces and fields. Division is the most mentally difficult of the four operations of arithmetic. Teaching the objective concept of dividing integers introduces students to the arithmetic of fractions, unlike addition, subtraction, and multiplication, the set of all integers is not closed under division. Dividing two integers may result in a remainder, to complete the division of the remainder, the number system is extended to include fractions or rational numbers as they are more generally called. When students advance to algebra, the theory of division intuited from arithmetic naturally extends to algebraic division of variables, polynomials. Division is often shown in algebra and science by placing the dividend over the divisor with a line, also called a fraction bar. For example, a divided by b is written a b This can be read out loud as a divided by b, a fraction is a division expression where both dividend and divisor are integers, and there is no implication that the division must be evaluated further. A second way to show division is to use the obelus, common in arithmetic, in this manner, ISO 80000-2-9.6 states it should not be used. The obelus is also used alone to represent the operation itself. In some non-English-speaking cultures, a divided by b is written a, b and this notation was introduced in 1631 by William Oughtred in his Clavis Mathematicae and later popularized by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
10.
Gold standard
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A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. Three types can be distinguished, specie, bullion, and exchange, the gold bullion standard is a system in which gold coins do not circulate, but the authorities agree to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price in exchange for the circulating currency. The gold exchange standard usually does not involve the circulation of gold coins. This creates a de facto standard, where the value of the means of exchange has a fixed external value in terms of gold that is independent of the inherent value of the means of exchange itself. Most nations abandoned the standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century. An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history and this is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres, or a cube 21 metres on a side. There are varying estimates of the volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years, another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the output in illegal mining activities. World production for 2011 was at 2,700 tonnes, since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth of around 2x, although far less than world economic growth of some 8x, or some 4x since 1980. The gold specie standard arose from the acceptance of gold as currency. Various commodities have been used as money, typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form, the use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor. During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe, however, as the Byzantine Empires economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant. In its place, European territories chose silver as its currency over gold, Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa CE 757–796. Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros circulated in Europe, Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545. International trade came to depend on such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and later. In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard, following Queen Annes proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816
11.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
12.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
13.
Currency
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A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
14.
Uruguayans
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Uruguayans or Uruguayan people are the citizens of Uruguay. The country is home to people of different ethnic origins, as a result, Uruguayans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, but with citizenship. Uruguayans share a Spanish linguistic and cultural background with its neighbour country Argentina, also, like Argentinians, most Uruguayans descend from colonial-era settlers and immigrants from Europe with almost 90% of the population being of European descent. There is also smaller numbers of Japanese, as well as Amerindians, mainly Charrúa, Minuán, Chaná, Güenoa, many colonies such as Nueva Helvecia-Colonia Suiza a Swiss colony and Colonia Valdense a Piedmontese waldensian colony, are located in the department of Colonia. Also, there are towns founded by British settlers, like Conchillas, a Russian colony called San Javier, is found in the department of Río Negro. Also there are Mennonite colonies in the department of Río Negro like Gartental and El Ombú, in Canelones Department called Colonia Nicolich, El Ombú, is famous for its well-known Dulce de Leche Claldy, and is located near the city of Young. Many of the European immigrants arrived in Uruguay in the late 19th century and have influenced the architecture and culture of Montevideo. For this reason, Montevideo and life within the city are very reminiscent of Europe, the majority of Uruguayans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries, with the exception of the Native American population. People of European ancestry comprise 87. 7% of Uruguays population according to the 2011 official Census, early Uruguayans are descendants of colonists from Spain and Portugal during the colonial period prior to 1810. Similar to the demographics of Argentina, more recent immigrants from Europe, largely from Italy and France, arrived in the great migratory wave during the late 19th century and early 20th century. Today, Uruguays culture is influenced heavily by its European roots which is evident in its language, food, up to 2. 4% of the population are of Mestizo ancestry according to the 2011 census. People with Amerindian ancestry can be found in the north of Uruguay, primarily in Tacuarembó Department, a 1996 census identified that 12,600 people in Uruguay were Amerindian descendants. In 2006 a census confirmed that there were 115,118 Uruguayans that descended from one Amerindian ethnic group, in 2005 Sinthia Pagano, M. D conducted a genetic study, detecting the possibility that 38% of Uruguayans may have expressed partial genetic influence from the Amerindian population. Africans, Blacks, and Mulattos in Uruguay are more or less 209,662 and they are found in Montevideo, Rivera Department, Artigas Department, Salto Department. A2011 census marked that there are more than 300,000 African descendants, although Spanish is dominant, being the national language spoken by virtually all Uruguayans, Italian and French are also relevant. A mix of Portuguese-Spanish is spoken in the Uruguayan-Brazilian frontier called Portuñol/Portunhol, the audiovisual standard language is the Uruguayan Spanish, a variety of Rioplatense Spanish. Lunfardo is also spoken in Uruguay, Uruguay has no official religion and church and state are separate. Most Uruguayans baptize their children and marry in Roman Catholic churches, a 2006 survey had Roman Catholicism as the main religion, with 47. 1% of the population,11. 1% claim to be Non-Catholic Christian and 0. 3% Jewish
15.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
16.
Government
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A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
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Coin
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A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend
18.
Banknote
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A banknote is a type of negotiable instrument known as a promissory note, made by a bank, payable to the bearer on demand. Banknotes were originally issued by banks, who were legally required to redeem the notes for legal tender when presented to the chief cashier of the originating bank. These commercial banknotes only traded at face value in the served by the issuing bank. Commercial banknotes have primarily been replaced by national banknotes issued by central banks, national banknotes are generally legal tender, meaning that medium of payment is allowed by law or recognized by a legal system to be valid for meeting a financial obligation. Historically, banks sought to ensure that they could always pay customers in coins when they presented banknotes for payment and this practice of backing notes with something of substance is the basis for the history of central banks backing their currencies in gold or silver. Today, most national currencies have no backing in precious metals or commodities and have value only by fiat, with the exception of non-circulating high-value or precious metal issues, coins are used for lower valued monetary units, while banknotes are used for higher values. The idea of using a durable light-weight substance as evidence of a promise to pay a bearer on demand originated in China during the Han Dynasty in 118 BC, the first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, during the Yuan Dynasty, banknotes were adopted by the Mongol Empire. In Europe, the concept of banknotes was first introduced during the 13th century by such as Marco Polo. Counterfeiting, the forgery of banknotes, is an inherent challenge in issuing currency and it is countered by anticounterfeiting measures in the printing of banknotes. Fighting the counterfeiting of banknotes and cheques has been a driver of security printing methods development in recent centuries. Paper currency first developed in the Tang Dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, the usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century, napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Paper money originated in two forms, drafts, which are receipts for value held on account, and bills, the perception of banknotes as money has evolved over time. Originally, money was based on precious metals, Banknotes were seen as essentially an I. O. U. or promissory note, a promise to pay someone in precious metal on presentation. With the gradual removal of precious metals from the system, banknotes evolved to represent credit money. Notes or bills were referred to in 18th century novels and were often a key part of the plot such as a note drawn by Lord X for £100 which becomes due in 3 months time. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty, as merchants, before the use of paper, the Chinese used coins that were circular, with a rectangular hole in the middle
19.
Eduardo Fabini
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Eduardo Fabini was a Uruguayan composer and musician. Fabini, along with Alfonso Broqua, Luis Cluzeau Mortet and Vicente Ascone, was a representative of the nationalist tendency that emerged in Uruguayan music in the 1910s and 20s. Born May 18,1882 in the town of Solís de Mataojo, Lavalleja, with her parents Juan Fabini and Antonia Bianchi, of Italian origin. He spent his childhood in intimate contact with nature. His musical knowledge was very early, at the age of four years, his favorite toy was the accordion. At six admired his performances in the harmonium, Fabini was the first South American in that environment was heard expressions of our native music. In 1913 he was also co-founder of the Association of Chamber Music and it is from time retiring to a life of field, to reside in Solís and the Source Salus, avoiding public activity. During this period he composed Campo, his first symphonic poem, Fabini died in May 1950 because of a heart condition. Several schools bear his name, it is the school in Minas. Salas and Pauletto added that Fabini is essentially a nativist, simple, las cinco grandes obras sinfónicas Grabaciones Históricas de su obra Volumen 2 &3 Free scores by Eduardo Fabini at the International Music Score Library Project
20.
Pedro Figari
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Pedro Figari was a Uruguayan painter, lawyer, writer, and politician. Although he did not begin the practice until his later years, in most of his pieces, he attempts to capture the essence of his home by painting local customs that he had observed in his childhood. Figari painted primarily from memory, a technique that gives his work a far more personal feeling, Pedro Figari was born in 1861. Although he showed an interest in art during his childhood, most of his life was devoted to the practice of law, in 1886 he received a degree in law. His position as a counsel for the poor exposed him to many social issues that most likely influenced his art later on. During the same year in which he received his degree, Figari studied under Godofredo Sommavilla, an academically-trained Italian painter, married and it was there that he was exposed to Post-Impressionism, which also greatly influenced his art. On his return to Uruguay he became involved in journalism, law. He was a member of the Uruguayan Parliament, president of the Ateneo of Montevideo, although people repeat that Figari did not actually begin to paint until his later life, he had always painted to some extent. His early paintings were “tight watercolor and oil sketches academic charm the expert domestic intimacy of Manet and it was not until 1921, at the age of 60, that Figari devoted himself completely to painting. He moved to Buenos Aires and left behind the Italian style that he had adopted earlier in his career, when he returned to Paris in 1925, he continued to paint this subject matter from memory, which brought him recognition as a painter. Pedro Figari clearly has a style of his own, although he was heavily influenced by Italian art earlier in his career, he managed to reconnect with a more naïve style when he began to paint seriously. Figari painted during a period in which the members of the art community in South America were in the process of struggling to find their own personal style, mainly, they wanted to separate their style from that of the Europeans. More often than not, paintings of the past depicted highly impersonal scenes, European paintings emphasized quality of technique, attention to purely plastic values, fantasy. Figari is noted as one of the first painters to veer away from this typical European style and instead create something original and he considered that European civilization had entailed the loss of a harmonious and simple life, while America offered the possibility of returning to the origins. His preference for a return to origins mirrors the actual style of his paintings. Rather than painting objects accurately and informatively, Figari painted with the intent to capture the essence and he says himself, “My painting is not simply a way of painting. Rather, it is a way of seeing, thinking, feeling, I am surprised I have been able to paint sensations, and not things, even before mastering completely pictoral techniques. ”He rejects the idea to paint mechanistically determined matters, instead emphasizing energy and life. It is what is considered a style, one that “allowed him to caricature the social conventions of the bourgeoisie in his native Uruguay with a sort of wide-eyed innocence. ”During his travels in Europe
21.
Juana de Ibarbourou
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Juana Fernández Morales de Ibarbourou, also known as Juana de América, was a Uruguayan poet. She was one of the most popular poets of Spanish America and her poetry, the earliest of which is often highly erotic, is notable for her identification of her feelings with nature around her. She was born Juana Fernández Morales on March 8,1892, in Melo, Cerro Largo, the date of Juanas birth is often given as March 8,1895, but according to a local state civil registry signed by two witnesses, the year was actually 1892. Juana began studies at the José Pedro Varela school in 1899 and moved to a school the following year. In 1909, at 17 years old, she published a piece, Derechos femeninos. She married Captain Lucas Ibarbourou in a civil ceremony June 28,1913, in 1918, Juana moved to Montevideo with her family. As was the custom, Juana and Lucas were remarried in a ceremony on June 28,1921 in the Church of Our Lady of Perpetual Aid. Lucas Ibarbourou died January 13,1942, Juana de Ibarbourou died July 15,1979 in Montevideo, Uruguay. Juana de Ibarbourou was a feminist, naturalist, and pantheist, Juana de Ibarbourou was an early Latin American feminist. Also, in La Cita, Ibarbourou extols her naked form devoid of ornamentation, comparing her natural features to various material accessories. Nature imagery and eroticism define a great body of Ibarbourous poetry, Ibarbourous depiction of death in her poetry was not consistent throughout her body of work. In La Inquietud Fugaz, Ibarbourou portrayed a binary, final death consistent with Western tradition, in Vida-Garfio and Carne Inmortal, however, Ibarbourou describes her dead body giving rise to plant life, allowing her to live on. In Rebelde, one of Ibarbourous most richly constructed poems, Ibarbourou details a confrontation between herself and Charon, the ferryman of the River Styx. Surrounded by wailing souls on the passage to the underworld, Ibarbourou defiantly refuses to lament her fate. Although Ibarbourou does not escape her fate, she wins a victory against the forces of death. Like most poets, Ibarbourou nursed an intense fear of death, though it is easy to surmise this from her poetry, she states so explicitly in the first line of Carne Inmortal. RECONQUISTA No sé de donde regresó el anheloDe volver a cantar como en el tiempoen que tenía entre mi puño el cieloY con una perla azul el pensamiento. De una enlutada nube, la centella, Súbito pez, hendió la noche cálidaY en mí se abrió de nuevo la crisálidaDel verso alado y su bruñida estrella, ahora ya es el hino centelleanteQue alza hasta Dios la ofrenda poderosaDe su bruñida lanza de diamante
22.
Montevideo
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Montevideo is the capital and largest city of Uruguay. According to the 2011 census, the city proper has a population of 1,319,108 in an area of 201 square kilometres. The southernmost capital city in the Americas, Montevideo is situated in the southern coast of the country, the city was established in 1724 by a Spanish soldier, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala, as a strategic move amidst the Spanish-Portuguese dispute over the platine region. It was also under brief British rule in 1807, Montevideo hosted all the matches during the first FIFA World Cup. Montevideo is the seat of the headquarters of Mercosur and ALADI, Latin America’s leading trade blocs. Montevideo has consistently rated as having the highest quality of life of any city in Latin America. As of 2010, Montevideo was the 19th largest city economy in the continent, in 2015, it has a GDP of $40.5 billion, and a per capita of $24,400. It is classified as a Beta World City, ranking seventh in Latin America, by 2014, is also regarded as the tenth most gay-friendly city in the world, first in Latin America. It is the hub of commerce and higher education in Uruguay as well as its chief port, the city is also the financial and cultural hub of a larger metropolitan area, with a population of around 2 million. There are several explanations about the word Montevideo, all agree that Monte refers to the Cerro de Montevideo, the hill situated across the Bay of Montevideo, but there is disagreement about the etymological origin of the video part. Monte vide eu is the most widespread belief but is rejected by the majority of experts, who consider it unlikely because it involves a mix of dialects. This is the oldest Spanish document that mentions the promontory with a similar to the one that designates the city. With the passing of time, these words were unified to Montevideo, no conclusive evidence has been found to confirm this academic hypothesis nor can it be asserted with certainty which were the other five mounts observable before the Cerro. Ovidio was the bishop of the Portuguese city of Braga, where he was always revered. Between 1680 and 1683, Portugal founded the city of Colonia do Sacramento in the region across the bay from Buenos Aires and this city met with no resistance from the Spanish until 1723, when they began to place fortifications on the elevations around Montevideo Bay. On 22 November 1723, Field Marshal Manuel de Freitas da Fonseca of Portugal built the Montevieu fort, a Spanish expedition was sent from Buenos Aires, organized by the Spanish governor of that city, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. There was also one significant early Italian resident by the name of Jorge Burgues, a census of the citys inhabitants was performed in 1724 and then a plan was drawn delineating the city and designating it as San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo, later shortened to Montevideo. The census counted fifty families of Galician and Canary Islands origin, more than 1000 indigenous, mostly Guaraní, in 1776, Spain made Montevideo its main naval base for the South Atlantic, with authority over the Argentine coast, Fernando Po, and the Falklands
23.
Economy of Uruguay
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The economy of Uruguay is characterized by an export-oriented agricultural sector and a well-educated work force, along with high levels of social spending. Real GDP fell in four years by nearly 20%, with 2002 the worst year, the unemployment rate rose, inflation surged, and the burden of external debt doubled. Financial assistance from the IMF helped stem the damage, Uruguay restructured its external debt in 2003 without asking creditors to accept a reduction on the principal. Economic growth for Uruguay resumed, and averaged 8% annually during the period 2004-08, the 2008-09 global financial crisis put a brake on Uruguays vigorous growth, which decelerated to 2. 9% in 2009. Nevertheless, the managed to avoid a recession and keep positive growth rates, mainly through higher public expenditure and investment. Uruguay has a partially dollarized economy, as of August 2008 almost 60% of bank loans use United States dollars, but most transactions use the Uruguayan peso. Throughout Uruguays history, their strongest exporting industries have been beef, in the case of beef exports, they have been boosted since Uruguay joined the Mercosur agreement in 1991 and the country has been able to reach more distant markets, such as Japan. At the same time with timber refining being kept within the country, forestry has become an industry in the recent years. Due to two major investments made in 1991 and 1997, the most significant manufactured exports in Uruguay are plastics and these investments laid the way for most of the substantial exports of plastic-based products which has taken an important role in Uruguays economy. In 2013, travel and tourism accounted for 9. 4% of the countrys GDP and their tourist industry is mainly characterized for attracting visitors from neighboring countries. Currently Uruguays major attraction is the interior, particularly located in the region around Punta del Este, cattle were introduced to Uruguay before its independence by Hernando Arias de Saavedra, the Spanish Governor of Buenos Aires in 1603. Beef exports in 2006 amounted to around 37% of Uruguayan exports, wool is a traditional product exported mainly to America, followed by the UK and India. Conaprole, National Cooperative of Milk Producers is the main exporter of products in Latin America. The area of the dedicated to the dairy food is located mainly in the south west. Fine varieties are produced in the lowlands in the east of the close to Merin lake on the Uruguay-Brazil border. The national company Saman claims to be the main exporter in Latin America, countries it exports to include Brazil, Iran, Peru, South Africa, Chile, Senegal, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, USA, Canada and China. International cruises call at Montevideo from October to March every year, also, Uruguay hosts many year-round international conferences. Uruguays well-educated workforce and lower-than-international wages have put Uruguay on the IT map, a product named GeneXus, originally created in Uruguay by a company called ArTech, is noteworthy
24.
Standard Catalog of World Coins
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The Standard Catalog of World Coins is a series of numismatic catalogs, commonly known as the Krause catalogs. They are published by Krause Publications, a division of F+W Media, the by-century volumes list by date virtually every coin type, most of which are photographed, with mintage and other information, plus market valuations in up to 5 grades. Listings are by denomination rather than series, as in earlier World coin catalogs, the proprietary Krause-Mishler numbers are widely used, for just a few countries earlier systems such as Y and C numbers are given instead. The century format is considered inconvenient and expensive for those who collect geographically. Originally covering 1835 or so to date, the main catalog evolved into an annual 20th century-only work, plus separate 17th, 18th, beginning with the 34th ed, listings covering 2001 to date are included in a separate 21st Century catalog. Data from the volumes are collated together in special editions for Crowns, Gold, German. Fantasies and medallion issues, which do not appear in the catalogs, are covered in a publication called Unusual World Coins. There is also a publication called Collecting World Coins that includes only 20th-, list priced at $73 to $85 they are often discounted, and can be found in many public libraries. Older editions are steeply discounted even though revisions between editions in many areas are minimal, following the appearance of unlicensed DVD versions, DVDs were included with the 1601-1700 4th edition, the 1901-2000 36th edition, and possibly others, but are now sold as a separate product. George S. Cuhaj is the current editor, with Thomas Michael credited as market analyst, although Krause collate contributions from many collecting experts, coin catalog Standard Catalog of World Paper Money A Guide Book of United States Coins Piedfort Vcoins. com Krause Publications Numismaster. com
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Peso
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The peso was a coin that originated in Spain and became of immense importance internationally. Peso is now the name of the unit of several former Spanish colonies. Peso was a given in Spain and particularly in Hispanic America to the 8-royal coin or real de a ocho. It had a weight of 27.468 g and a millesimal fineness of 930.5. This real de a ocho or peso was minted in Spain from the mid 16th century and it was originally known as the piece of eight in English, due to the nominal value of 8 reales. The piece of eight became a coin of importance in the 17th century, especially in trade with India and the Far East. At this time, the piece of eight was produced in Mexico and Peru in a rapid and simplified manner. Instead of making a proper flan or planchet, a lump of silver of proper weight and fineness was cut off the end of a bar, then flattened out. The result was a crude, temporary coin, a lump of silver. This type of coin known as a cob in English. The Crown was entitled to a fifth of all gold and silver mined, the Quinto Real, although intended to serve only temporarily, some did remain in circulation as currency. Because of their shape and incomplete design, cobs were ideal candidates for clipping and counterfeiting. This coin was known in English as a piece of eight, then as a Spanish dollar. In French, it was a piastre and in Portuguese, a pataca or patacão, the Spanish names at various times and in various places were patacón, duro, or fuerte. Because of domestic financial and monetary problems, Spain devalued its currency by about 20% on October 14,1686. The new eight-real was known as a peso maria or peso sencillo, after this, the monetary systems of Spain and of Spanish America developed along different lines. Accounts in Spain were kept in the real of 34 maravedíes, while in Spanish America accounts continued in the silver real. After 1686, the old piece of eight remained the standard coin in the Spanish colonies, Spanish laws of 1728 and 1730 adopted modern minting techniques
27.
Argentine peso
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The peso is the currency of Argentina, identified by the symbol $ preceding the amount in the same way as many countries using dollar currencies. It is subdivided into 100 centavos and its ISO4217 code is ARS. Several earlier currencies of Argentina were also called peso, as inflation progressed a new currency with a few zeroes dropped, since 1970, thirteen zeroes have been dropped. As of October 2014, the rate was about 8 pesos per dollar, by February 2015, it was 10 per US dollar. The peso introduced in 1992 is just called peso, and is preceded by a $ sign only. The peso was an often used for the silver Spanish eight-real coin. Following independence, Argentina began issuing its own coins, denominated in reales, soles and escudos and these coins, together with those from neighbouring countries, circulated until 1881. In 1826, two paper money issues began, denominated in pesos, one, the peso fuerte was a convertible currency, with 17 pesos fuertes equal to one Spanish ounce of 0.916 fine gold. It was replaced by the peso moneda nacional at par in 1881, the non-convertible peso moneda corriente was also introduced in 1826. It started at par with the peso fuerte, but depreciated with time, although the Argentine Confederation issued 1-, 2- and 4-centavo coins in 1854, with 100 centavos equal to 1 peso =8 reales, Argentina did not decimalize until 1881. The peso moneda nacional replaced the earlier currencies at the rate of 1 peso moneda nacional =8 reales =1 peso fuerte =25 peso moneda corriente, initially, one peso moneda nacional coin was made of silver and known as patacón. However, the 1890 economic crisis ensured that no silver coins were issued. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Argentine peso was one of the most traded currencies in the world. The Argentine gold coin from 1875 was the gold peso fuerte, one and two-thirds of a gram of gold of fineness 900, equivalent to one and this unit was based on that recommended by the European Congress of Economists in Paris in 1867 and adopted by Japan in 1873. The monetary system before 1881 has been described as anarchistic. Law 1130 of 1881 put an end to this, it established the unit as the peso oro sellado, a coin of 1.612 grams of gold of fineness 900. Gold coins of 5 and 2.5 pesos were to be used, silver coins of one peso and 50,20,10 and 5 centavos, the depreciated peso moneda corriente was replaced in 1881 by the paper peso moneda nacional at a rate of 25 to 1. This currency was used from 1881 until January 1,1970 The design was changed in 1899, initially the peso m$n was convertible, with a value of one peso oro sellado
28.
Chilean peso
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The peso is the currency of Chile. The current peso has circulated since 1975, with a previous version circulating between 1817 and 1960. Its symbol is defined as a letter S with either one or two vertical bars superimposed prefixing the amount, $ or, the symbol, available in most modern text systems, is almost always used. Both of these symbols are used by many currencies, most notably the US dollar, the ISO4217 code for the present peso is CLP. It is officially subdivided into 100 centavos, although there are no current centavo-denominated coins, the exchange rate was around CLP$600 to 1 U. S. dollar at the end of 2014, by August 2015 it fell to 694 per 1 US dollar. The first Chilean peso was introduced in 1817, at a value of 8 Spanish colonial reales, until 1851, the peso was subdivided into 8 reales, with the escudo worth 2 pesos. Also in 1851, the peso was set equal 5 French francs on the sild,22.5 grams pure silver, however, gold coins were issued to a different standard to that of France, with 1 peso =1.37 grams gold. In 1885, a standard was adopted, pegging the peso to the British pound at a rate of 13⅓ pesos =1 pound. This was reduced in 1926 to 40 pesos =1 pound, from 1925, coins and banknotes were issued denominated in cóndores, worth 10 pesos. The gold standard was suspended in 1932 and the pesos value fell further, the escudo replaced the peso on 1 January 1960 at a rate 1 escudo =1000 pesos. Between 1817 and 1851, silver coins were issued in denominations of ¼, ½,1 and 2 reales and 1 peso, in 1835, copper ½ and 1 centavo coins were issued. A full decimal coinage was introduced between 1851 and 1853, consisting of copper ½ and 1 centavo, silver ½ and 1 décimo,20 and 50 centavos, and 1 peso, and gold 5 and 10 pesos. In 1860, gold 1 peso coins were introduced, followed by cupro-nickel ½,1 and 2 centavos between 1870 and 1871, copper coins for these denominations were reintroduced between 1878 and 1883, with copper 2½ centavos added in 1886. A new gold coinage was introduced in 1895, reflecting the lower gold standard, in 1896, the ½ and 1 décimo were replaced by 5 and 10 centavo coins. In 1907, a short-lived, silver 40 centavo coin was introduced following cessation of production of the 50 centavo coin, in 1919, the last of the copper coins were issued. The following year, cu pro-nickel replaced silver in the 5,10 and 20 centavo coins, a final gold coinage was introduced in 1926, in denominations of 20,50 and 100 pesos. In 1927, silver 2 and 5 peso coins were issued, cu pro-nickel 1 peso coins were introduced in 1933, replacing the last of the silver coins. In 1942, copper 20 and 50 centavos and 1 peso coins were introduced, the last coins of the first peso were issued between 1954 and 1959
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Colombian peso
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The peso is the currency of Colombia. Its ISO4217 code is COP and it is also abbreviated as COL$. However, the peso symbol is $. As of August 21,2016, the rate of the Colombian peso is 2,857 Colombian pesos to 1 U. S. dollar. The peso has been the currency of Colombia since 1810 and it replaced the real at a rate of 1 peso =8 reales and was initially subdivided into 8 reales. In 1847, Colombia decimalized and the peso was subdivided into ten reales, the real was renamed the decimo in 1853, although the last reales were struck in 1880. The current system of 100 centavos to the peso was first used in 1819 on early banknotes, in 1871, Colombia went on the gold standard, pegging the peso to the French franc at a rate of 1 peso =5 francs. This peg only lasted until 1886, from 1888, printing press inflation caused Colombias paper money to depreciate and the exchange rate between coins and paper money was fixed at 100 peso moneda corriente =1 coinage peso. Between 1907 and 1914, coins were issued denominated in peso p/m, in 1910, the Junta de Conversión began issuing paper money and, in 1915, a new paper currency was introduced, the peso oro. This was equal to the peso and replaced the old peso notes at a rate of 100 old paper pesos =1 peso oro. In 1931, when the U. K. left the standard, Colombia shifted its peg to the U. S. dollar, at a rate of 1.05 pesos =1 dollar. Although it never appeared on coins, Colombias paper money continued to be issued denominated in peso oro until 1993, when the word oro was dropped. Since 2001, the Colombian senate has debated whether to redenominate the currency by introducing a new peso worth 1000 old pesos, in other words, such a plan has yet to be adopted. Between 1837 and 1839, the Republic of New Grenada introduced silver ¼, ½,1,2, and 8 real coins, along with gold 1,2, and 16 pesos. These were mostly continuations of coins issued before 1837 in the name of the Republic of Colombia, in 1847, the currency was decimalized and coins were introduced in denominations of ½ and 1 décimo de real in copper and 1,2,8 and 10 reales in silver. ¼ and ½ real coins followed in 1849 and 1850, in 1853, silver ½ and 1 décimo, and gold 10 peso coins were introduced, followed by 2 décimos in 1854 and 1 peso in 1855, both in silver. In 1856, gold 5 peso coins were added. Between 1859 and 1862, coins were issued by the Grenadine Confederation in silver for ¼, ½ and 2 reales, ¼, ½ and 1 décimo, and 1 peso, the United States of New Grenada issued silver 1 décimo &1 peso in 1861
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Cuban peso
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The peso is one of two official currencies in use in Cuba, the other being the convertible peso. There are currently 25 CUP per CUC, most Cuban state workers receive their wages in national pesos, but some receive a portion of their salary in convertible pesos. Shops that sell basics like fruit and vegetables generally accept only the normal peso, the word pesos may refer to both types of money. Cuban convertible pesos are 25 times more valuable, but that not completely eliminate the confusion for tourists. Since goods bought in national pesos have government-controlled prices, tourists are sometimes confused by prices that look too cheap, the hard pesos are easy to tell apart from the national ones, as CUC coins have an octagonal shape within the outer round rim. The only exception to this is the most common CUP coin, also, CUC currency shows monuments, and CUP bills have portraits. Before 1857, Spanish and Spanish colonial reales circulated in Cuba, from 1857, banknotes were issued specifically for use on Cuba. These were denominated in pesos, with each peso worth 8 reales, from 1869, notes were also issued denominated in centavos, with 100 centavos worth each peso. In 1881, the peso was pegged to the US dollar at par, the currency continued to be issued only in paper form until 1915, when the first coins were issued. In 1960, the peg to the dollar was replaced by one to the Soviet ruble, the peso lost value by the United States embargo against Cuba and the suspension of the sugar quota. The suspension was the economic force driving Cuba to seek out a new economic partner. When the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, the peso lost much of its value, recently, it has become more valuable and fluctuated between 23 and 25 pesos to the US dollar. In 1993, during the period of economic austerity known as the Special Period, the US dollar became the currency used to purchase some non-essential goods and services, such as cosmetics, and even staple kinds of food and drink. In 1994, the peso was introduced at a par with the dollar. On November 8,2004, the Cuban government withdrew the US dollar from circulation, in 1897 and 1898, pesos were issued by revolutionary forces promoting independence. In 1915, cupro-nickel 1,2 and 5 centavos, silver 10,20 and 40 centavos and 1 peso and these coins were designed by Charles E. Barber, who also designed the Barber dimes, quarters, half dollars for the US. The coins were minted at the US mint at Philadelphia, the gold coins and 2 centavos were not produced after 1916, with the large star design 1 peso ceasing production in 1934. A new silver peso showing a woman, representing the Cuban Republic, finally, a centennial of Jose Marti commemorative peso was produced in 1953
31.
Dominican peso
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The Dominican peso is the currency of the Dominican Republic. Its symbol is $, with RD$ used when distinction from other pesos is required, each peso is divided into 100 centavos, for which the ¢ symbol is used. It is the currency that is legal tender in the Dominican Republic for all monetary transactions. The first Dominican peso was introduced with the independence from Haiti in 1844. It replaced the Haitian gourde at par and was divided into 8 reales, the Dominican Republic decimalized in 1877, subdividing the peso into 100 centavos. A second currency, the franco, was issued between 1891 and 1897 but did not replace the peso, however, in 1905, the peso was replaced by the U. S. dollar, at a rate of 5 pesos to the dollar. The peso oro was introduced in 1937 at par with the U. S. dollar, only one denomination of coin was issued by the Dominican Republic before decimalization. This was the ¼ real, issued in 1844 in bronze, decimalization in 1877 brought about the introduction of three new coins, the 1, 2½ and 5 centavos. 1¼ centavo coins were issued between 1882 and 1888. After the franco was abandoned, silver coins were introduced in 1897 in denominations of 10 and 20 centavos, the designs of these coins were very similar to those of the franco. OLDER COINS Coins were introduced in 1937 in denominations of 1,5,10,25 centavos, all coins bore the national arms on the reverse while all except the 1 centavo bore a crowned allegorical Indian head on the obverse. The 1 centavo instead depicted a tree, the symbol of the ruling Dominican Party. The coins were all of identical weights, diameter, and composition to U. S. coins of the era. Two denominations appeared on coins, one in centavos or pesos. A two coin set of 1955 commemorative coins were minted for the 25th anniversary of Rafael Trujillos reign and these consisted of a gold 30 peso and a silver one peso, both showing him in profile. 50,000 of the one peso coins were produced in issued into circulation. In 1963 the silver content in the 10,25,50, the 1963 issue also distinctively commemorated the centennial of the republic and the crowned Indian head was added to the 1 centavo, replacing the palm. After 1963 the Peso Oro became a currency and base metals replaced silver in the higher denominations, with the 10
32.
Macanese pataca
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The Macao pataca, Macau pataca, or Macanese pataca is the currency of Macau. It is subdivided into 100 avos, with 10 avos called ho in Cantonese, the abbreviation MOP$ is commonly used. Macau has a currency board system under which the tender, Macau pataca, is 100 percent backed by foreign exchange reserves. Moreover, the board, Monetary Authority of Macau, has a statutory obligation to issue and redeem pataca on demand against the Hong Kong dollar at a fixed exchange rate. The pataca was introduced in Portuguese Macau and Portuguese Timor in the year 1894, the unit initially corresponded to the Mexican dollar, and it replaced the Portuguese real at a rate of 1 pataca =450 reais. The name pataca derives from the fact that the Portuguese always referred to the Mexican dollar as the pataca mexicana.5 escudos. This meant that the Macau pataca was worth only 1 shilling sterling and was therefore at a discount of 3 pence sterling in relation to the Hong Kong unit. The first exclusively Macau coinage was not introduced until the year 1952, in that year in Macau, denominations below 10 patacas were replaced by coins. In 1980, the Macau government set up the Issuing Institute of Macau, the BNU became the IEMs agent bank and continued to issue banknotes. On agreement with the BNU on October 16,1995, the Macau branch of Bank of China became the second note-issuing bank, the authority to issue patacas was transferred to the Monetary Authority of Macau. Coins were not issued for use in Macau until 1952, with the 20 cent coin of Canton Province circulating, in 1952, bronze 5 and 10 avos, cupro-nickel 50 avos and.720 fineness silver 1 and 5 patacas were introduced. Nickel-brass replaced bronze in 1967, including the last issue of 5 avos, nickel replaced silver in the 1 pataca in 1968. In 1971, a final issue of 5 patacas was produced. Brass 10,20 and 50 avos and cupro-nickel 1 and 5 patacas were introduced in 1982, the 20 avos and 5 patacas became dodecagonal in 1993 and 1992, respectively, whilst a bimetallic 10 patacas was introduced in 1997 and a cupronickel 2 patacas in 1998. Coins are issued by the Monetary Authority of Macau, owing to Macaus Portuguese colonial past, banknotes are printed in Portuguese as well as Chinese, including the name of the Bank of China which is written as both Banco da China and 中國銀行. Following the initial issues of banknotes in 1906, the new currency was supplemented the following year by 10 and 25 pataca notes. In 1923, the Banco Vui Hang introduced 10 pataca notes which stated that they were backed by Cantonese 20 cent coins. These notes were followed until 1934 by cashiers cheques issued by banks in denominations of 1,5,10,50,100,200,400,800 and 1000 dollars
33.
Mexican peso
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The Mexican peso is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a origin in the 15th–19th century Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign. The Mexican peso is the 8th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded currency originating from the Americas, the current ISO4217 code for the peso is MXN, prior to the 1993 revaluation, the code MXP was used. The peso is subdivided into 100 centavos, represented by ¢, as of March 31,2017, the pesos exchange rate was $19.94 per Euro and $18.71 per U. S. dollar. The name was used in reference to pesos oro or pesos plata. The Spanish word peso means weight, the peso was originally the name of the eight-real coins issued in Mexico by Spain. These were the so-called Spanish dollars or pieces of eight in wide circulation in the Americas, in 1863, the first issue was made of coins denominated in centavos, worth one hundredth of the peso. This was followed in 1866 by coins denominated one peso, coins denominated in reales continued to be issued until 1897. In 1905, the content of the peso was reduced by 49. 3%. However, from 1918 onward, the weight and fineness of all the coins declined, until 1977. On January 1,1993 the Bank of Mexico introduced a new currency, one new peso, or N$1.00, was equal to 1000 of the obsolete MXP pesos. The ISO4217 code, however, remained unchanged as MXN, thanks to the stability of the Mexican economy and the growth in foreign investment, the Mexican peso is now among the 15 most traded currency units in recent years. The first coins of the currency were 1 centavo pieces minted in 1863. Emperor Maximilian, ruler of the Second Mexican Empire from 1864–1867 and his portrait was on the obverse, with the legend Maximiliano Emperador, the reverse shows the imperial arms and the legends Imperio Mexicano and 1 Peso and the date. They were struck from 1866 to 1867, the New Mexican republic continued to strike the 8 reales piece, but also began minting coins denominated in centavos and pesos. In addition to copper 1 centavo coins, silver coins of 5,10,25 and 50 centavos and 1 peso were introduced between 1867 and 1869, gold 1, 2½,5,10 and 20-peso coins were introduced in 1870. The obverses featured the Mexican eagle and the legend Republica Mexicana, the reverses of the larger coins showed a pair of scales, those of the smaller coins, the denomination. One-peso coins were made from 1865 to 1873, when 8 reales coins resumed production, in 1882, cupro-nickel 1,2 and 5 centavos coins were issued but they were only minted for two years
34.
Philippine peso
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The Philippine peso is the official currency of the Philippines. It is subdivided into 100 céntimos, as a former colony of the United States, the country used English on its currency, with the word peso appearing on notes and coinage until 1967. Since the adoption of Filipino language for banknotes and coins, the term piso is now used, the peso is usually denoted by the symbol ₱. Other ways of writing the Philippine peso sign are PHP, PhP, Php, P$, the ₱ symbol was added to the Unicode standard in version 3.2 and is assigned U+20B1. The symbol can be accessed through some word processors by typing in 20b1 and then pressing the Alt and this symbol is unique to the Philippines as the symbol used for the peso in countries like Mexico and other former colonies of Spain in Latin America is $. The Philippine coins and banknotes are minted and printed at the Security Plant Complex of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas in Quezon City, the inconvenience of barter however later led to the use of some objects as a medium of exchange. The teston became the de facto unit of trade between Spaniards and Filipinos before the founding of Manila in 1574, the native Tagalog name for the coin was salapi. The monetary situation in the Philippine Islands was chaotic due to the circulation of many types of coins, with differing purity and weights, value equivalents of the different monetary systems were usually difficult to comprehend and hindered trade and commerce. An attempt to remedy the confusion was made in 1848. Overseeing the conversion was Fernándo Norzagaray y Escudero, governor general in the period 1857-60, conversion to the decimal system with the peso fuerte as the unit of account solved the accounting problem, but did little to remedy the confusion of differing circulating coinage. The mint was inaugurated on March 19,1861, despite the mintage of gold and silver coins, Mexican and South and Central American silver still circulated widely. The Isabelline peso, more known as the peso fuerte, was a unit of account divided into 100 céntimos. Its introduction led to the Philippines brief experiment with the gold standard, the peso fuerte was also a unit of exchange equivalent to 1.69 grams of gold,0.875 fine, equivalent to ₱1,390.87. Coin production at the Casa de Moneda de Manila began in 1861 with gold coins of three denominations,4 pesos,2 pesos, and 1 peso. On March 5,1862, Isabel II granted the mint permission to produce silver fractional coinage in denominations of 10,20, minting of these coins started in 1864, with designs similar to the Spanish silver escudo. The coin, which was to be known as the Spanish-Filipino peso, was minted in Madrid in 1897. The specifications of the coin was 25 grams of silver.900 fine and this configuration was also used in the creation of the Puerto Rican provincial peso in 1895 giving both coins the equivalency of 5 pesetas. The new monetary standard finally established the peso as 25 grams silver,0.900 fine, the Spanish-Filipino peso remained in circulation and were legal tender in the islands until 1904, when the American authorities demonetized them in favor of the new US-Philippine peso
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Sahrawi peseta
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The Sahrawi peseta is the currency of the partially recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. It is divided in 100 céntimos, although coins with this denomination have never been minted, the official international currency code is EHP. The first Sahrawi pesetas were minted in 1990, but they were not adopted as the coin of Western Sahara until 1997. As it is not a currency and not circulating, the exchange rate is not really realistic. Despite this, the Sahrawi peseta was pegged at par to the Spanish peseta and, when the latter was phased out for the euro, non-commemorative coins are supposedly designated for circulation. The denominations are,1,2,5,50,100,200 and 500 pesetas, there have also been commemorative emissions in copper, silver and gold, as some of those shown here, Spanish peseta Moroccan dirham Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Uruguay
