1.
Tool
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A tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not consumed in the process. Tool use by humans dates back millions of years, and other animals are known to employ simple tools. Tools that are used in fields or activities may have different designations such as instrument, utensil, implement, machine, device. The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is equipment, the knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology. Anthropologists believe that the use of tools was an important step in the evolution of mankind, because tools are used extensively by both humans and wild chimpanzees, it is widely assumed that the first routine use of tools took place prior to the divergence between the two species. These early tools, however, were made of perishable materials such as sticks. Stone artifacts only date back to about 2.5 million years ago, however, a 2010 study suggests the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis ate meat by carving animal carcasses with stone implements. This finding pushes back the earliest known use of tools among hominins to about 3.4 million years ago. Finds of actual tools date back at least 2.6 million years in Ethiopia, one of the earliest distinguishable stone tool forms is the hand axe. Up until recently, weapons found in digs were the tools of “early man” that were studied. Now, more tools are recognized as culturally and historically relevant, as well as hunting, other activities required tools such as preparing food, “…nutting, leatherworking, grain harvesting and woodworking…” Included in this group are “flake stone tools. “Man the hunter” as the catalyst for Hominin change has been questioned, based on marks on the bones at archaeological sites, it is now more evident that pre-humans were scavenging off of other predators carcasses rather than killing their own food. Mechanical devices experienced an expansion in their use in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with the systematic employment of new energy sources. Their use expanded through the Dark Ages with the addition of windmills, machine tools occasioned a surge in producing new tools in the industrial revolution. Advocates of nanotechnology expect a similar surge as tools become microscopic in size, one can classify tools according to their basic functions, Cutting and edge tools, such as the knife, scythe or sickle, are wedge-shaped implements that produce a shearing force along a narrow face. Ideally, the edge of the needs to be harder than the material being cut or else the blade will become dulled with repeated use. But even resilient tools will require periodic sharpening, which is the process of removing deformation wear from the edge, other examples of cutting tools include gouges and drill bits. Moving tools move large and tiny items, many are levers which give the user a mechanical advantage
2.
Screwdriver
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A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, for turning screws. A typical simple screwdriver has a handle and a shaft, the shaft is usually made of tough steel to resist bending or twisting. The tip may be hardened to resist wear, treated with a dark tip coating for improved visual contrast between tip and screw—or ridged or treated for additional grip. Handles are typically wood, metal, or plastic and usually hexagonal, square, or oval in cross-section to improve grip, some manual screwdrivers have interchangeable tips that fit into a socket on the end of the shaft and are held in mechanically or magnetically. These often have a handle that contains various types and sizes of tips. A screwdriver is classified by its tip, which is shaped to fit the driving surfaces—slots, grooves, recesses, proper use requires that the screwdrivers tip engage the head of a screw of the same size and type designation as the screwdriver tip. Screwdriver tips are available in a variety of types and sizes. The two most common are the simple blade-type for slotted screws, and Phillips®, generically referred to as cross-recess and this is particularly useful as drilling a pilot hole before driving a screw is a common operation. Special combination drill-driver bits and adapters let an operator rapidly alternate between the two, variations include impact drivers, which provide two types of hammering force for improved performance in certain situations, and right-angle drivers for use in tight spaces. Many options and enhancements, such as built-in bubble levels, high/low gear selection, magnetic screw holders, adjustable-torque clutches, keyless chucks, gyroscopic control, the earliest documented screwdrivers were used in Europe in the late Middle Ages. They were probably invented in the late 15th century, either in Germany or France, the tools original names in German and French were Schraubendreher and tournevis, respectively. The first documentation of the tool is in the medieval Housebook of Wolfegg Castle and these earliest screwdrivers had pear-shaped handles and were made for slotted screws. The screwdriver remained inconspicuous, however, as evidence of its existence throughout the next 300 years is based primarily on the presence of screws, screws, hence screwdrivers, were not used in full combat armor, most likely to give the wearer freedom of movement. The jaws that hold the pyrites inside medieval guns were secured with screws, the tool is more documented in France, and took on many shapes and sizes, though all for slotted screws. There were large, heavy-duty screwdrivers for building and repairing large machines, the screwdriver depended entirely on the screw, and it took several advances to make the screw easy enough to produce to become popular and widespread. The most popular door hinge at the time was the butt-hinge, the butt-hinge was handmade, and its constant motion required the security of a screw. Screws were very hard to produce before the First Industrial Revolution, the brothers Job and William Wyatt found a way to produce a screw on a novel machine that first cut the slotted head, and then cut the helix. Though their business failed, their contribution to low-cost manufacturing of the screw ultimately led to a vast increase in the screw
3.
Software engineering
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Software engineering is the application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and came up with the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture, thus the division between hardware and software began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing. Programming languages started to appear in the early 1950s and this was another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, the conference was attended by international experts on software who agreed on defining best practices for software grounded in the application of engineering. The result of the conference is a report that defines how software should be developed, the original report is publicly available. Engineering already addresses all issues, hence the same principles used in engineering can be applied to software. The widespread lack of best practices for software at the time was perceived as a software crisis, barry W. Boehm documented several key advances to the field in his 1981 book, Software Engineering Economics. These include his Constructive Cost Model, which relates software development effort for a program, in man-years T, T = k ∗ The book analyzes sixty-three software projects and concludes the cost of fixing errors escalates as the project moves toward field use. The book also asserts that the key driver of software cost is the capability of the development team. Watts Humphrey founded the SEI Software Process Program, aimed at understanding and managing the software engineering process and his 1989 book, Managing the Software Process, asserts that the Software Development Process can and should be controlled, measured, and improved. Modern, generally accepted best-practices for software engineering have been collected by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC7 subcommittee, Software engineering can be divided into 15 sub-disciplines. They are, Software requirements, The elicitation, analysis, specification, Software design, The process of defining the architecture, components, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or component. It is also defined as the result of that process, Software construction, The detailed creation of working, meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. Software testing, An empirical, technical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, Software maintenance, The totality of activities required to provide cost-effective support to software. Software development process, The definition, implementation, assessment, measurement, management, change, many software engineers enter the profession by obtaining a university degree or training at a vocational school. One standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE, in addition to university education, many companies sponsor internships for students wishing to pursue careers in information technology. These internships can introduce the student to interesting real-world tasks that typical software engineers encounter every day, similar experience can be gained through military service in software engineering. Legal requirements for the licensing or certification of professional software engineers vary around the World, in Canada, there is a legal requirement to have P. Eng when one wants to use the title engineer or practice software engineering
4.
Application software
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An application program is a computer program designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application include a processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, a media player, an aeronautical flight simulator. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively and this contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with running the computer. Applications may be bundled with the computer and its software or published separately. Apps built for mobile platforms are called mobile apps, in information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An application thus differs from a system, a utility. Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, some application packages focus on a single task, such as word processing, others, called integrated software include several applications. User-written software tailors systems to meet the specific needs. User-written software includes templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics. Even email filters are a kind of user software, users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, the above definitions may exclude some applications that may exist on some computers in large organizations. For an alternative definition of an app, see Application Portfolio Management, the word application, once used as an adjective, is not restricted to the of or pertaining to application software meaning. Sometimes a new and popular application arises which only runs on one platform and this is called a killer application or killer app. There are many different ways to divide up different types of application software, web apps have indeed greatly increased in popularity for some uses, but the advantages of applications make them unlikely to disappear soon, if ever. Furthermore, the two can be complementary, and even integrated, Application software can also be seen as being either horizontal or vertical. Horizontal applications are more popular and widespread, because they are general purpose, vertical applications are niche products, designed for a particular type of industry or business, or department within an organization. Integrated suites of software will try to handle every aspect possible of, for example, manufacturing or banking systems, or accounting
5.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
6.
Machine
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A machine is a tool containing one or more parts that uses energy to perform an intended action. Machines are usually powered by chemical, thermal, or electrical means, historically, a power tool also required moving parts to classify as a machine. However, the advent of electronics has led to the development of power tools without moving parts that are considered machines, a simple machine is a device that simply transforms the direction or magnitude of a force, but a large number of more complex machines exist. Examples include vehicles, electronic systems, molecular machines, computers, television, the word machine derives from the Latin word machina, which in turn derives from the Greek. The word mechanical comes from the same Greek roots, however, the Ancient Greeks probably have borrowed the word mekhane from the ancient Hebrews. The ancient Greeks were familiar with the Hebrew Scriptures and language, a wider meaning of fabric, structure is found in classical Latin, but not in Greek usage. This meaning is found in late medieval French, and is adopted from the French into English in the mid-16th century, in the 17th century, the word could also mean a scheme or plot, a meaning now expressed by the derived machination. The modern meaning develops out of specialized application of the term to stage engines used in theater and to siege engines. Simple Machines are commonly reckoned to be Six in Number, viz. the Ballance, Leaver, Pulley, Wheel, Wedge, compound Machines, or Engines, are innumerable. The word engine used as a synonym both by Harris and in later language derives ultimately from Latin ingenium ingenuity, an invention, perhaps the first example of a human made device designed to manage power is the hand axe, made by chipping flint to form a wedge. A wedge is a machine that transforms lateral force and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting force. The idea of a simple machine originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd century BC, who studied the Archimedean simple machines, lever, pulley and he discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. Later Greek philosophers defined the five simple machines and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. Heron of Alexandria in his work Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can set a load in motion, lever, windlass, pulley, wedge, and screw, however the Greeks understanding was limited to statics and did not include dynamics or the concept of work. In 1586 Flemish engineer Simon Stevin derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, the complete dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche. He was the first to understand that simple machines do not create energy, the classic rules of sliding friction in machines were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci, but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons and were developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. The word mechanical refers to the work that has produced by machines or the machinery
7.
Vehicle
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
8.
Designer
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A designer is a person who designs. More formally, a designer is an agent that specifies the properties of a design object. In practice, anyone who creates tangible or intangible objects, products, processes, laws, games, graphics, services, classically, the main area of design was only architecture, which were understood as the major arts. The design of clothing, furniture, and other artifacts were left mostly to tradition or artisans specializing in hand making them. The classical areas are now subdivided into smaller and more specialized domains of design according to the designed or perhaps its means of production. When designers speak of graphic design they speak of it in terms of simplifying complexity so users do not feel overwhelmed when faced with complex systems, more information can lead to a better, simpler solution to whatever problem the designer is trying to solve. Using research methodology to solve problems is one of the most important aspects of design, it enables the designer to properly assess the clients and audience needs. Part of a job is to get to know the audience they intend on canvassing. The methods of teaching or the program and theories followed vary according to schools, for more complex products, the team will also be composed of professionals from other areas like engineers, advertising specialists, and others as required. Different types of designers include, Architect Design Design engineer Design firm Design thinking Visual arts
9.
Consumer electronics
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Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic or digital equipment intended for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for entertainment, communications, and home-office activities, in British English, they are often called brown goods by producers and sellers, to distinguish them from white goods such as washing machines and refrigerators. Radio broadcasting in the early 20th century brought the first major consumer product, later products included telephones, personal computers, MP3 players, audio equipment, televisions and calculators. In the 2010s, consumer electronics stores often sell GPS, automotive electronics, video game consoles, electronic instruments, karaoke machines, digital cameras. Stores also sell digital cameras, camcorders, cell phones, some consumer electronics stores, such as Best Buy have also begun selling office and baby furniture. Consumer electronics stores may be bricks and mortar retail stores, online stores. The CEA estimated the value of 2015 consumer electronics sales at US$220 billion, for its first fifty years the phonograph turntable did not use electronics, the needle and soundhorn were purely mechanical technologies. However, in the 1920s radio broadcasting became the basis of production of radio receivers. The vacuum tubes that had made radios practical were used with record players as well, television was soon invented, but remained insignificant in the consumer market until the 1950s. The transistor, invented in 1947 by Bell Laboratories, led to significant research in the field of semiconductors in the early 1950s. The transistors advantages revolutionized that industry along with other electronics, by 1959 Fairchild Semiconductor had introduced the first planar transistor from which come the origins of Moores Law. Integrated circuits followed when manufacturers built circuits on a substrate using electrical connections between circuits within the chip itself. One overriding characteristic of consumer products is the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and automation, lower costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries. Semiconductor components benefit from Moores Law, a principle which states that, for a given price. While consumer electronics continues in its trend of convergence, combining elements of many products, there is an ever increasing need to keep product information updated and comparable, for the consumer to make an informed choice. Style, price, specification, and performance are all relevant, there is a gradual shift towards e-commerce web-storefronts. Many products include Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, products not traditionally associated with computer use now provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content
10.
Communication
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Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are, The forming of communicative motivation or reason, transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium. Noise sources such as forces and in some cases human activity begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers. Reception of signals and reassemblying of the message from a sequence of received signals. Decoding of the encoded message. Interpretation and making sense of the original message. The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been linked with progress in telecommunication. Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the form of non-linguistic representations, examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a message, examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e. g. rhythm, intonation, tempo and it affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawicks laws, you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received, Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a role in communication. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes, e-mails and web chats allow individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium. Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the time in communication acts. “Non-verbal behaviours may form a language system. ”Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers, Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message
11.
Measurement
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Measurement is the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event, which can be compared with other objects or events. The scope and application of a measurement is dependent on the context, however, in other fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioral sciences, measurements can have multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Measurement is a cornerstone of trade, science, technology, historically, many measurement systems existed for the varied fields of human existence to facilitate comparisons in these fields. Often these were achieved by local agreements between trading partners or collaborators, since the 18th century, developments progressed towards unifying, widely accepted standards that resulted in the modern International System of Units. This system reduces all physical measurements to a combination of seven base units. The science of measurement is pursued in the field of metrology, the measurement of a property may be categorized by the following criteria, type, magnitude, unit, and uncertainty. They enable unambiguous comparisons between measurements, the type or level of measurement is a taxonomy for the methodological character of a comparison. For example, two states of a property may be compared by ratio, difference, or ordinal preference, the type is commonly not explicitly expressed, but implicit in the definition of a measurement procedure. The magnitude is the value of the characterization, usually obtained with a suitably chosen measuring instrument. A unit assigns a mathematical weighting factor to the magnitude that is derived as a ratio to the property of a used as standard or a natural physical quantity. An uncertainty represents the random and systemic errors of the measurement procedure, errors are evaluated by methodically repeating measurements and considering the accuracy and precision of the measuring instrument. Measurements most commonly use the International System of Units as a comparison framework, the system defines seven fundamental units, kilogram, metre, candela, second, ampere, kelvin, and mole. Instead, the measurement unit can only ever change through increased accuracy in determining the value of the constant it is tied to and this directly influenced the Michelson–Morley experiment, Michelson and Morley cite Peirce, and improve on his method. With the exception of a few fundamental quantum constants, units of measurement are derived from historical agreements, nothing inherent in nature dictates that an inch has to be a certain length, nor that a mile is a better measure of distance than a kilometre. Over the course of history, however, first for convenience and then for necessity. Laws regulating measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud in commerce.9144 metres, in the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, a division of the United States Department of Commerce, regulates commercial measurements. Before SI units were adopted around the world, the British systems of English units and later imperial units were used in Britain, the Commonwealth. The system came to be known as U. S. customary units in the United States and is still in use there and in a few Caribbean countries. S
12.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
13.
Interaction
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Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of an effect is essential in the concept of interaction. A closely related term is interconnectivity, which deals with the interactions of interactions within systems, interaction has different tailored meanings in various sciences. In physics, an interaction or fundamental force is a process by which elementary particles interact with each other. An interaction is described as a physical field, and is mediated by the exchange of gauge bosons between particles. For example, the interaction of charged particles takes place through the mediation of electromagnetic fields, an interaction is fundamental when it cannot be described in terms of other interactions. There are four fundamental interactions in Nature, The electromagnetic, strong, weak. The weak and electromagnetic interactions are unified in electroweak theory, which is unified with the force in the standard model. Interactions between atoms and molecules, In molecular biology, the knowledge on gene/protein interaction among themselves, in medicine, most medications can be safely used with other medicines, but particular combinations of medicines need to be monitored for interactions, often by the pharmacist. Interactions between medications fall generally into one of two categories, pharmacodynamic, Involving the actions of the two interacting drugs. Pharmacokinetic, Involving the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of one or both of the interacting drugs upon the other, in terms of efficacy, there can be three types of interactions between medications, additive, synergistic, and antagonistic. Additive interaction means the effect of two chemicals is equal to the sum of the effect of the two chemicals taken separately and this is usually due to the two chemicals acting on the body via same or similar mechanism. Examples are aspirin and motrin, alcohol and depressant, tranquilizer and painkiller, synergistic interaction means that the effect of two chemicals taken together is greater than the sum of their separate effect at the same doses. An example is pesticide and fertilizer, the effect is devastating. Antagonistic interaction means that the effect of two chemicals is actually less than the sum of the effect of the two drugs taken independently of each other and this is because the second chemical increases the excretion of the first, or even directly blocks its toxic actions. Antagonism forms the basis for antidotes of poisonings, further characterizations is enhancement interaction and nonadditive interaction. Biosemioticists investigate sign-mediated interactions within and between organisms that underlie syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules, the word epistasis is also used for genetic interaction in some contexts. In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of actions between individuals who modify their actions and reactions due to the actions by their interaction partner
14.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
15.
Physiology
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
16.
Brand
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A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others. Brands are used in business, marketing, and advertising, however, the term has been extended to mean a strategic personality for a product or company, so that ‘brand’ now suggests the values and promises that a consumer may perceive and buy into. Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company from competitors, the key components that form a brands toolbox include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies. Brand equity is the totality of a brands worth and is validated by assessing the effectiveness of these branding components. To reach such an invaluable brand prestige requires a commitment to a way of doing business. A corporation who exhibits a strong brand culture is dedicated on producing intangible outputs such as customer satisfaction, reduced price sensitivity and customer loyalty. A brand is in essence a promise to its customers that they can expect long-term security, when a customer is familiar with a brand or favours it incomparably to its competitors, this is when a corporation has reached a high level of brand equity. Many companies are beginning to understand there is often little to differentiate between products in the 21st century. Branding remains the last bastion for differentiation, in accounting, a brand defined as an intangible asset is often the most valuable asset on a corporation’s balance sheet. The word ‘brand’ is often used as a referring to the company that is strongly identified with a brand. Marque or make are often used to denote a brand of motor vehicle, a concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a associated with a commodity. The word, brand, derives from Dutch brand meaning to burn and this product was developed at Dhosi Hill, an extinct volcano in northern India. Roman glassmakers branded their works, with Ennion being the most prominent, the Italians used brands in the form of watermarks on paper in the 13th century. Blind Stamps, hallmarks, and silver-makers marks are all types of brand, industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red-triangle brand as the worlds first trademark. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, which has stamped or carved its bricks with the same proto-logo since 1731, cattle-branding has been used since Ancient Egypt. The term, maverick, originally meaning an un-branded calf, came from a Texas pioneer rancher, Sam Maverick, use of the word maverick spread among cowboys and came to apply to unbranded calves found wandering alone
17.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
18.
Market research
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Market research is any organized effort to gather information about target markets or customers. It is an important component of business strategy. Market research is one of the key used in maintaining competitiveness over competitors. Market research provides important information to identify and analyze the market need, market size, Market research began to be conceptualized and put into formal practice during the 1920s, as an offshoot of the advertising boom of the Golden Age of radio in the United States. Advertisers began to realize the significance of demographics revealed by sponsorship of different radio programs, Market research is a way of getting an overview of consumers wants, needs and beliefs. It can also involve discovering how they act, the research can be used to determine how a product could be marketed. Peter Drucker believed market research to be the quintessence of marketing, there are two major types of market research. Primary Research sub-divided into Quantitative and Qualitative research and Secondary research, Market researchers have a wider role than previously recognized by helping their clients to understand social, technical, and even legal aspects of markets. Market segmentation Market segmentation is the division of the market or population into subgroups with similar motivations, for B2B segmentation firmographics is commonly used. Market trends Market trends are the upward or downward movement of a market, determining the market size may be more difficult if one is starting with a new innovation. In this case, you will have to derive the figures from the number of potential customers, SWOT analysis SWOT is a written analysis of the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats to a business entity. Not only should a SWOT be used in the stage of the company. A SWOT may also be written up for the competition to understand how to develop the marketing, another factor that can be measured is marketing effectiveness. It reduces the risks involved in making decisions as well as strategies, some major benefits are - i. Marketing research assists in providing accurate and latest trends related to demand, consumer behavior, sales and it helps in better understanding of the market, thus helps in product design, features and demand forecasts iii. It assists in studying and understanding the competitors, thus identifying unique selling propositions for a business, Market research reaps many such benefits which are Industry and business specific and have high ROIs. It is important to test marketing material for films to see how an audience will receive it and this is stimulated by product-enhancing websites, graphics, and content designed to attract casual surfing shoppers, researching for their particular needs, competitive prices and quality. According to the Small Business Administration, a business is significantly contributed to by gaining knowledge about customers, competitors
19.
Paradigm
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Paradigm comes from Greek παράδειγμα, pattern, example, sample from the verb παραδείκνυμι, exhibit, represent, expose and that from παρά, beside, beyond and δείκνυμι, to show, to point out. In rhetoric, paradeigma is known as a type of proof, the purpose of paradeigma is to provide an audience with an illustration of similar occurrences. This illustration is not meant to take the audience to a conclusion, a personal accountant is a good comparison of paradeigma to explain how it is meant to guide the audience. Anaximenes defined paradeigma as, actions that have occurred previously and are similar to, or the opposite of, the original Greek term παράδειγμα was used in Greek texts such as Platos Timaeus as the model or the pattern that the Demiurge used to create the cosmos. In linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure used paradigm to refer to a class of elements with similarities, normal science proceeds within such a framework or paradigm. A paradigm does not impose a rigid or mechanical approach, the Oxford English Dictionary defines the basic meaning of the term paradigm as a typical example or pattern of something, a pattern or model. e. Firstly, within normal science, the term refers to the set of experiments that are likely to be copied or emulated. Secondly, underpinning this set of exemplars are shared preconceptions, made prior to – and these preconceptions embody both hidden assumptions and elements that he describes as quasi-metaphysical, the interpretations of the paradigm may vary among individual scientists. Kuhn was at pains to point out that the rationale for the choice of exemplars is a way of viewing reality, that view. For well-integrated members of a discipline, its paradigm is so convincing that it normally renders even the possibility of alternatives unconvincing. Such a paradigm is opaque, appearing to be a view of the bedrock of reality itself. The conviction that the current paradigm is reality tends to disqualify evidence that might undermine the paradigm itself and it is the latter that is responsible for the eventual revolutionary overthrow of the incumbent paradigm, and its replacement by a new one. Kuhn used the expression paradigm shift for this process, and likened it to the change that occurs when our interpretation of an ambiguous image flips over from one state to another. This is significant in relation to the issue of incommensurability, an example of a currently accepted paradigm would be the standard model of physics. Mechanisms similar to the original Kuhnian paradigm have been invoked in various disciplines other than the philosophy of science and these include, the idea of major cultural themes, worldviews, ideologies, and mindsets. They have somewhat similar meanings that apply to smaller and larger examples of disciplined thought. In addition, Michel Foucault used the terms episteme and discourse, mathesis and taxinomia, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn wrote that the successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science. New paradigms tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, at that time, a statement generally attributed to physicist Lord Kelvin famously claimed, There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now
20.
Participatory design
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Participatory design is an approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable. Participatory design is an approach which is focused on processes and procedures of design and is not a design style, the term is used in a variety of fields e. g. It is one approach to placemaking, recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own. Participatory design has been used in settings and at various scales. For some, this approach has a dimension of user empowerment. For others, it is seen as a way of abrogating design responsibility, in participatory design, participants are invited to cooperate with designers, researchers and developers during an innovation process. In contrast, Elizabeth Sanders and Pieter Stappers state that the terminology used until the recent obsession with what is now called co-creation/co-design was participatory design, from the 1960s onwards there was a growing demand for greater consideration of community opinions in major decision-making. In Australia many people believed that they were not being planned for, a lack of consultation made the planning system seem paternalistic and without proper consideration of how changes to the built environment affected its primary users. In Britain the idea that the public should participate was first raised in 1965, however the level of participation is an important issue. At a minimum public workshops and hearings have now included in almost every planning endeavour. Yet this level of consultation can simply mean information about change without detailed participation, involvement that recognises an active part in plan making has not always been straightforward to achieve. Participatory design has attempted to create a platform for active participation in the design process, Participatory design was actually born in Scandinavia and called cooperative design. Each group was participating in the process, not directly cooperating, in Scandinavia, research projects on user participation in systems development date back to the 1970s. The Scandinavian projects developed a research approach, emphasizing active co-operation between researchers and workers of the organization to help improve the latters work situation. While researchers got their results, the people whom they worked with were equally entitled to get something out of the project, the approach built on peoples own experiences, providing for them resources to be able to act in their current situation. The parallel Florence project started a line of Scandinavian research projects in the health sector. In particular, it worked with nurses and developed approaches for nurses to get a voice in the development of work, the Florence project put gender on the agenda with its starting point in a highly gendered work environment. The 1990s led to a number of projects including the AT project, at the dawn of the 21st century, we use technology at work, at home, in school, and while on the move
21.
Accessibility
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Accessibility refers to the design of products, devices, services, or environments for people who experience disabilities. The concept of design and practice of accessible development ensures both direct access and indirect access meaning compatibility with a persons assistive technology. Accessibility can be viewed as the ability to access and benefit from some system or entity and this is about making things accessible to all people. Article 9 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities commits signatories to provide for full accessibility in their countries. Accessible facilities therefore extend to such as Braille signage, elevators, audio signals at pedestrian crossings, walkway contours, website design. Government mandates including Section 508, WCAG, DDA are all enforcing practices to standardize accessibility testing engineering in product development, existing private businesses are required to increase the accessibility of their facilities when making any other renovations in proportion to the cost of the other renovations. The United States Access Board is A Federal Agency Committed to Accessible Design for People with Disabilities, the Job Accommodation Network discusses accommodations for people with disabilities in the workplace. Many states in the US have their own disability laws, in Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In South Africa the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 2000 has numerous provisions for accessibility, in the UK, the Equality Act 2010 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court, on 27 April 2011 gave an order to boost the inherent right of disabled persons to have unhindered access to public buildings. The Act refers to legislation regarding accessibility in e. g. ICT. In Canada, relevant federal legislation includes the Canadian Human Rights Act, the Employment Equity Act, legislation may also be enacted on a state, provincial or local level. In Ontario, Canada, the Ontarians with Disabilities Act of 2001 is meant to improve the identification, removal, the European Union, which has signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, also has adopted a European Disability Strategy for 2010-20. A European Accessibility Act was proposed in late 2012 and this Act would establish standards within member countries for accessible products, services, and public buildings. Assistive technology is the creation of a new device that assists a person in completing a task that would otherwise be impossible. Adaptive technology is the modification, or adaptation, of existing devices, methods, or the creation of new uses for existing devices, to enable a person to complete a task. Examples include the use of controls, and the autocomplete feature in computer word processing programs. Adaptations to wheelchair tires are another example, widening the tires enables wheelchair users to move over soft surfaces, such as snow on ski hills
22.
Human factors and ergonomics
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The field has seen some contributions from numerous disciplines, such as psychology, engineering, biomechanics, industrial design, physiology, and anthropometry. In essence, it is the study of designing equipment, devices and processes that fit the human body, the two terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous. HF&E is employed to fulfill the goals of health and safety and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines, proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability. Human factors and ergonomics is concerned with the fit between the user, equipment and their environments and it takes account of the users capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, functions, information and the environment suit each user. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had engaged during. The expression human factors is a predominantly North American term which has adopted to emphasise the application of the same methods to non work-related situations. A human factor is a physical or cognitive property of an individual or social behavior specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems, the terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous. Ergonomics comprise three main fields of research, Physical, cognitive and organisational ergonomics, there are many specializations within these broad categories. Specialisations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics, specialisations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability, human–computer interaction, and user experience engineering. New terms are being generated all the time, for instance, user trial engineer may refer to a human factors professional who specialises in user trials. Physical ergonomic principles have been used in the design of both consumer and industrial products. Physical ergonomics is important in the field, particularly to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis or carpal tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be painful, or render a device unusable. Many ergonomically designed products are used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders. One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder, every year,1.8 million U. S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work. Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions, frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts, awkward work positions, or use of vibrating equipment
23.
Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant)
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Jakob Nielsen is a Danish web usability consultant. He holds a Ph. D. in human–computer interaction from the Technical University of Denmark in Copenhagen, Nielsens earlier affiliations include Bellcore, the Technical University of Denmark, and the IBM User Interface Institute at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center. From 1994 to 1998, he was a Sun Microsystems Distinguished Engineer and he was hired to make heavy-duty enterprise software easier to use, since large-scale applications had been the focus of most of his projects at the phone company and IBM. Therefore, Dr. Nielsen ended up spending most of his time at Sun defining the field of web usability. He was the usability lead for several rounds of Suns website and intranet. Nielsen is on the board of Morgan Kaufmann Publishers book series in Interactive Technologies. Nielsen writes a fortnightly newsletter, Alertbox, on web design matters and has published books on the subject of web design. Nielsen founded the discount usability engineering movement for fast and cheap improvements of user interfaces and has invented several usability methods and he holds 79 United States patents, mainly on ways of making the Web easier to use. Nielsen gave his name to Nielsens Law, in which he stated that network connection speeds for high-end home users would increase 50% per year, or double every 21 months. As a corollary, he noted that, since this growth rate is slower than predicted by Moores Law of processor power, user experience would remain bandwidth-bound. Nielsen has been quoted in the computing and the press for his criticism of Windows 8s user interface. In an interview with. net magazine, Nielsen explained that he wrote his guidelines from a usability perspective, in 2010, Nielsen was listed by Bloomberg Businessweek among 28 Worlds Most Influential Designers. September 2000 Jakob Nielsen Profile/Criticism by Nico Macdonald, originally published in New Media Creative, March 2001, pp. 38–43 Danielle Dunne, Jakob Nielsen and Vincent Flanders Speak Up
24.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
25.
Ben Shneiderman
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He conducted fundamental research in the field of human–computer interaction, developing new ideas, methods, and tools such as the direct manipulation interface, and his eight rules of design. Born in New York, Shneiderman, attended the Bronx High School of Science and he then went on to study at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where he received an MS in Computer Science in 1972 and graduated with a PhD in 1973. Shneiderman started his career at the State University of New York at Farmingdale in 1968 as Instructor at the Department of Data Processing. In the last year before his graduation he was Instructor at the Department of Computer Science of Stony Brook University, in 1973 he was appointed Assistant Professor at the Indiana University, Department of Computer Science. In 1976 he moved to the University of Maryland and he started out as Assistant Professor in its Department of Information Systems Management, and became Associate Professor in 1979. In 1983 he moved to its Department of Computer Science as Associate Professor, in 1983 he was the Founding Director of its Human-Computer Interaction Lab, which he directed until 2000. He is a ACM CHI Academy Member and received their Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001 and he received the IEEE Visualization Career Award in 2012. In 2002 his book Leonardos Laptop, Human Needs and the New Computing Technologies was Winner of an IEEE-USA Award for Distinguished Contributions Furthering Public Understanding of the Profession. His 2016 book, The New ABCs of Research, Achieving Breakthrough Collaborations, encourages applied and he received Honorary Doctorates from the University of Guelph in 1995, the University of Castile-La Mancha in 2010, and the Stony Brook University in 2015. A model is needed which prevents unrestricted transfers of control and has a structure closer to languages amenable to structured programming. We present an attempt at such a model, the new model technique for structured programming they presented has become known as the Nassi–Shneiderman diagram, a graphical representation of the design of structured software. In the 1970s Shneiderman continued to study programmers, and the use of flow charts, in 1947 Goldstein and von Neumann presented a system of describing processes using operation, assertion, and alternative boxes. They felt that coding begins with the drawing of flow diagram, prior to coding, the algorithm had been identified and understood. The flowchart represented a high definition of the solution to be implemented on a machine. Although they were working only with numerical algorithms, they proposed a methodology which has since become standard practice in the computer programming field. Furthermore, Shneiderman had conducted experiments which suggested that flowcharts were not helpful for writing, understanding, at the end of their 1977 paper, Shneiderman et al. In some cases the mean scores for the non-flowchart groups even surpassed the means for the flowchart groups and we conjecture that detailed flowcharts are merely a redundant presentation of the information contained in the programming language statements. The flowcharts may even be at a disadvantage because they are not as complete and these insights led Shneiderman to the development of the principles of direct manipulation interface design in 1982
26.
Usability testing
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Usability testing is a technique used in user-centered interaction design to evaluate a product by testing it on users. This can be seen as an irreplaceable usability practice, since it gives direct input on how real users use the system and this is in contrast with usability inspection methods where experts use different methods to evaluate a user interface without involving users. Usability testing focuses on measuring a human-made products capacity to meet its intended purpose, examples of products that commonly benefit from usability testing are foods, consumer products, web sites or web applications, computer interfaces, documents, and devices. Usability testing measures the usability, or ease of use, of an object or set of objects. Simply gathering opinions on an object or document is market research or qualitative research rather than usability testing, usability testing usually involves systematic observation under controlled conditions to determine how well people can use the product. However, often both qualitative and usability testing are used in combination, to better understand users motivations/perceptions, in addition to their actions, rather than showing users a rough draft and asking, Do you understand this. Usability testing involves watching people trying to use something for its intended purpose, instruction phrasing, illustration quality, and the toys design all affect the assembly process. Several other test instruments such as scripted instructions, paper prototypes, for example, to test the attachment function of an e-mail program, a scenario would describe a situation where a person needs to send an e-mail attachment, and ask him or her to undertake this task. The aim is to observe how people function in a manner, so that developers can see problem areas. Techniques popularly used to gather data during a usability test include think aloud protocol, co-discovery learning, hallway testing is a quick, cheap method of usability testing in which randomly-selected people—e. g. Those passing by in the hallway—are asked to try using the product or service and this can help designers identify brick walls, problems so serious that users simply cannot advance, in the early stages of a new design. Anyone but project designers and engineers can be used and these concerns led to research on remote usability evaluation, with the user and the evaluators separated over space and time. Remote testing, which facilitates evaluations being done in the context of the other tasks and technology. The former involves real time one-on-one communication between the evaluator and the user, while the latter involves the evaluator and user working separately, numerous tools are available to address the needs of both these approaches. Synchronous usability testing methodologies involve video conferencing or employ remote application sharing tools such as WebEx, WebEx and GoToMeeting are the most commonly used technologies to conduct a synchronous remote usability test. However, synchronous remote testing may lack the immediacy and sense of presence desired to support a collaborative testing process, moreover, managing inter-personal dynamics across cultural and linguistic barriers may require approaches sensitive to the cultures involved. Other disadvantages include having reduced control over the environment and the distractions and interruptions experienced by the participants in their native environment. One of the methods developed for conducting a synchronous remote usability test is by using virtual worlds
27.
Natural user interface
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The word natural is used because most computer interfaces use artificial control devices whose operation has to be learned. A NUI relies on a user being able to transition from novice to expert. While the interface requires learning, that learning is eased through design which gives the user the feeling that they are instantly and continuously successful. Thus, natural refers to a goal in the user experience – that the interaction comes naturally, while interacting with the technology and this is contrasted with the idea of an intuitive interface, referring to one that can be used without previous learning. Several design strategies have been proposed which have met this goal to varying degrees of success, one strategy is the use of a reality user interface, also known as reality-based interfaces methods. Because the term natural is evocative of the world, RBI are often confused for NUI. One example of a strategy for designing a NUI not based in RBI is the limiting of functionality and customization. Provided that the default capabilities match the users goals, the interface is effortless to use and this is an overarching design strategy in Apples iOS. In the 1990s, Steve Mann developed a number of user-interface strategies using natural interaction with the world as an alternative to a command-line interface or graphical user interface. Mann referred to work as natural user interfaces, Direct User Interfaces. Manns EyeTap technology typically embodies an example of a user interface. Manns use of the word Natural refers to action that comes naturally to human users, as well as the use of nature itself, i. e. physics. A good example of an NUI in both these senses is the hydraulophone, especially when it is used as an input device, in which touching a natural element becomes a way of inputting data. More generally, a class of instruments called physiphones, so-named from the Greek words physika, physikos. In 2006, Christian Moore established a research community with the goal to expand discussion. Of course, this too is an over-simplification, since NUIs necessarily include visual elements – and thus, a more accurate description of this concept would be to describe it as a transition from WIMP to NUI. In the CLI, users had to learn an artificial means of input, the keyboard, and a series of codified inputs, that had a range of responses. Then, when the mouse enabled the GUI, users could easily learn the mouse movements and actions
28.
Intuition
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Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or conscious reasoning, or without understanding how the knowledge was acquired. The word intuition comes from the Latin verb intueri translated as consider or from late middle English word intuit, both Eastern and Western philosophers have studied the concept in great detail. Philosophy of mind deals with the concept of intuition, there are philosophers who contend that this concept is often confused with other concepts such as truth, belief, and meaning in philosophical discussion. In the East intuition is mostly intertwined with religion and spirituality, in Hinduism various attempts have been made to interpret the Vedic and other esoteric texts. However with knowledge by identity which we currently only gives the awareness of human existence can be extended further to outside of ourselves resulting in intuitive knowledge. He finds that this process seems to be a decent, is actual a circle of progress. As a lower faculty is being pushed to take up as much from a way of working. Advaita vedanta takes intuition to be an experience through which one can come in contact with, in Zen Buddhism various techniques have been developed to help develop ones intuitive capability, such as kó-an – the resolving of which leads to states of minor enlightenment. In parts of Zen Buddhism intuition is deemed a state between the Universal mind and ones individual, discriminating mind. In Islam there are scholars with varied interpretation of intuition. While Ibn Sīnā finds the ability of having intuition as a prophetic capacity terms it as a knowledge obtained without intentionally acquiring it and he finds regular knowledge is based on imitation while intuitive knowledge as based on intellectual certitude. In the West, intuition does not appear as a field of study. In his book Republic he tries to define intuition as a capacity of human reason to comprehend the true nature of reality. In his discussion with Meno & Phaedo, he describes intuition as a pre-existing knowledge residing in the soul of eternity, and he provides an example of mathematical truths, and posits that they are not arrived at by reason. He argues that these truths are accessed using an already present in a dormant form. This concept by Plato is also referred to as anamnesis. The study was continued by his followers. In his book Meditations on first philosophy, Descartes refers to an intuition as a pre-existing knowledge gained through rational reasoning or discovering truth through contemplation and this definition is commonly referred to as rational intuition
29.
Jef Raskin
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Jef Raskin was an American human–computer interface expert best known for conceiving and starting the Macintosh project for Apple in the late 1970s. Raskin was born in New York City to a secular Jewish family and he received a BA in mathematics and a BS in physics with minors in philosophy and music from the State University of New York at Stony Brook. In 1967, he received a degree in computer science from Pennsylvania State University. Even though he had completed work for his PhD, the university was not accredited for a PhD in computer science and his first computer program, a music program, was part of his masters thesis. Along with his undergraduate student Jonathan Collins, Jef developed the Flow Programming Language for use in teaching programming to the art, the language was first used at the Humanities Summer Training Institute held in 1970 at the University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kansas. The language had only 6 instructions and could not manipulate numbers, the language utilized typing amplification in which only the first letter was typed and the computer provided the balance of the instruction eliminating typing errors. It was also the basis for programming classes taught by Jef and he curated several art shows including one featuring his collection of unusual toys. It was during this period that Jef changed the spelling of his name from Jeff to Jef after meeting Jon and he occasionally wrote for computer publications, such as Dr. Dobbs Journal. Raskin first met Apple Computers Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak following the debut of their Apple II personal computer at the first West Coast Computer Faire. Steve Jobs hired his firm, Bannister and Crun, which was named for two characters in the BBC radio comedy The Goon Show, to write the Apple II BASIC Programming Manual, in January 1978 Raskin joined Apple as Manager of Publications, the companys 31st employee. For some time he continued as Director of Publications and New Product Review, from his responsibility for documentation and testing, Raskin had great influence on early engineering projects. His experiences testing Applesoft BASIC inspired him to design a product, called Notzo BASIC. Through this time Raskin continually wrote memos about how the computer could become a true consumer appliance. While the Apple III was under development in 1978 and 79, in Computers by the Millions, he stated that expandable computers like the Apple II were too complex, and development was difficult due to the unknown nature of the machine the program ran on. The machine he envisioned was different from the Macintosh that was eventually released and had much more in common with PDAs than modern desktop-based machines. Raskin started the Macintosh project in 1979 to implement some of these ideas, the machine was similar in power to the Apple II and included a small 9-inch black-and-white character display built into a small case with a floppy disk. A number of applications were built into the machine, selectable by pressing function keys. The machine also included logic that would understand user intentions and switch programs on the fly, for instance, if the user simply started typing text it would switch into editor mode, and if they typed numbers it would switch to calculator mode
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Project manager
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A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers have the responsibility of the planning, procurement and execution of a project, Project managers are first point of contact for any issues or discrepancies arising from within the heads of various departments in an organization before the problem escalates to higher authorities. Project management is the responsibility of a project manager, a project manager is the person responsible for accomplishing the project objectives. An expertise is required in the domain the Project Managers are working to efficiently handle all the aspects of the project, Project Tools The tools, knowledge and techniques for managing projects are often unique to Project Management. For example, work breakdown structures, critical analysis and earned value management. Understanding and applying the tools and techniques which are recognized as good practices are not sufficient alone for effective project management. Effective project management requires that the project manager understands and uses the knowledge, Project Teams When recruiting and building an effective team, the manager must consider not only the technical skills of each person, but also the critical roles and chemistry between workers. A project team has three separate components, Project Manager, Core Team and Contracted Team. Risk Most of the project management issues that influence a project arise from risk, until recently, the American construction industry lacked any level of standardization, with individual States determining the eligibility requirements within their jurisdiction. However, several Trade associations based in the United States have made strides in creating a commonly accepted set of qualifications, the Construction Management Association of America maintains the Certified Construction Manager designation. The purpose of the CCM is to standardize the education, experience, the Project Management Institute has made some headway into being a standardizing body with its creation of the Project Management Professional designation. The Constructor Certification Commission of the American Institute of Constructors holds semiannual nationwide tests, the Associated Colleges of Construction Education, and the Associated Schools of Construction have made considerable progress in developing national standards for construction education programs. The profession has grown to accommodate several dozen Construction Management Bachelor of Science programs. Many universities have begun offering a masters degree in Project Management. The United States Navy construction battalions, nicknamed the SeaBees, puts their command through strenuous training, to become a Chief Petty Officer in the SeaBees is equivalent to a BS in Construction Management with the added benefit of several years of experience to their credit. Architectural project manager are project managers in the field of architecture and they have many of the same skills as their counterpart in the construction industry. The issues of budget, scheduling, and quality-control are the responsibility of the Project Manager in an architects office, in the insurance industry project managers often oversee and manage the restoration of a clients home/office after a fire, flood. Covering the fields from electronics through to the demolition and constructions contractors, in Engineering project management is the term used to describe the task of seeing a product/device through the stages of R&D/design to manufacturing stages
