1.
Matter of Britain
–
It could be said that the legendary history of Britain was created in part to form a body of patriotic myth for the country. Several agendas thus can be seen in this body of literature, the Historia Brittonum, the earliest known source of the story of Brutus of Troy, may have been devised to create a distinguished genealogy for a number of Welsh princes in the 9th century. Traditionally attributed to Nennius, its actual compiler is unknown, it exists in several recensions, as such, this material could be used for patriotic mythmaking just as Virgil linked the founding of Rome to the Trojan War in The Æneid. Geoffrey of Monmouth also introduced the fanciful claim that the Trinovantes, reported by Tacitus as dwelling in the area of London, had a name he interpreted as Troi-novant, New Troy. More speculative claims link Welsh mythology with several of the rulers and it has been suggested, for instance, that Leir of Britain, who later became Shakespeares King Lear, was originally the Welsh sea-god Llŷr. Various Celtic deities have been identified with characters from Arthurian literature as well, many of these identifications come from the speculative comparative religion of the late 19th century, and have been questioned in more recent years. William Shakespeare was interested in the history of Britain, and was familiar with some of its more obscure byways. Shakespeares plays contain several tales relating to these kings, such as King Lear. It has been suggested that Shakespeares Welsh schoolmaster Thomas Jenkins introduced him to this material and these tales also figure in Raphael Holinsheds The Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, which also appears in Shakespeares sources for Macbeth. Other early authors also drew from the early Arthurian and pseudo-historical sources of the Matter of Britain, the Scots, for instance, formulated a mythical history in the Picts and the Dál Riata royal lines. While they do eventually become factual lines, unlike those of Geoffrey, their origins are vague, the story of Gabrán mac Domangairt especially incorporates elements of both those histories. The Arthurian literary cycle is the best known part of the Matter of Britain and it has succeeded largely because it tells two interlocking stories that have intrigued many later authors. One concerns Camelot, usually envisioned as a utopia of chivalric virtue, undone by the fatal flaws of Arthur. The other concerns the quests of the knights to achieve the Holy Grail, some succeed. Finally, the relationships between the characters invited treatment in the tradition of love, such as Lancelot and Guinevere, or Tristan. In more recent years, the trend has been to attempt to link the tales of King Arthur and his knights with Celtic mythology, usually in highly romanticized, early 20th century reconstructed versions. Additionally, it is possible to read the Arthurian literature in general, derek Pearsall, Arthurian Romance, a short introduction, Blackwell, Oxford,2005 D
Matter of Britain
2.
Howard Pyle
–
Howard Pyle was an American illustrator and author, primarily of books for young people. He was a native of Wilmington, Delaware, but he spent the last year of his life in Florence, in 1894, he began teaching illustration at the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry. After 1900, he founded his own school of art and illustration named the Howard Pyle School of Illustration Art, pitz later used the term Brandywine School for the illustration artists and Wyeth family artists of the Brandywine region, several of whom had studied with Pyle. Some of his notable students were N. C. Pyle taught his students at home and studio in Wilmington, which is standing and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. His 1883 classic publication The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood remains in print and he is also well known for his illustrations of pirates, and is credited with creating what has become the modern stereotype of pirate dress. He published his first novel Otto of the Silver Hand in 1888 and he also illustrated historical and adventure stories for periodicals such as Harpers Magazine and St. Nicholas Magazine. His novel Men of Iron was adapted as the movie The Black Shield of Falworth, Pyle travelled to Florence, Italy in 1910 to study mural painting. He died there in 1911 of a kidney infection. Pyle was the son of William Pyle and Margaret Churchman Painter, as a child, he attended private schools and was interested in drawing and writing from a very young age. He was an indifferent student, but his parents encouraged him to study art, in 1876, he visited the island of Chincoteague off Virginia and was inspired by what he saw. He wrote and illustrated an article about the island and submitted it to Scribners Monthly, one of the magazines owners was Roswell Smith, who encouraged him to move to New York and pursue illustration professionally. Pyle initially struggled in New York, his lack of experience made it difficult for him to translate his ideas into forms for publication. He was encouraged by several working artists, however, including Edwin Austin Abbey and he finally published a double-paged spread in the Harpers Weekly issue of March 9,1878 and was paid $75—five times what he had expected. He became increasingly successful and was an established artist by the time that he returned to Wilmington in 1880 and he also collaborated on several books, particularly in American history. He wrote and illustrated his own stories, beginning with The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood in 1883 and this book won international attention from critics such as William Morris. Over the following decades, he published many illustrated works for children. Pyle married singer Anne Poole on April 12,1881, in 1889, he and his wife sailed to Jamaica, leaving their children in the care of relatives
Howard Pyle
–
The Battle of Bunker Hill, Howard Pyle, 1897. Showing the second British charge up
Breed's hill
Howard Pyle
–
Howard Pyle
Howard Pyle
–
"
Sir Kay breaketh his sword at ye Tournament", one of Pyle's
Arthurian illustrations
Howard Pyle
–
Pirates fight in Who Shall Be Captain? by Howard Pyle
3.
Constantine III (usurper)
–
Flavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine III was a Roman general who declared himself Western Roman Emperor in Britannia in 407 and established himself in Gaul. Recognised by the Emperor Honorius in 409, Constantine suffered a collapse of support and he was captured and executed shortly afterwards. This was a blow to the Western Empire from which it never recovered, also, a contributing factor of major importance was the disunity among the Romans themselves. At the time of invasion, the provinces of Britain were in revolt, setting up and pulling down a series of usurpers. A common soldier, but one of some ability, Constantine moved quickly, Constantine secured the Rhine frontier, and garrisoned the passes that led from Gaul into Italy. By May 408 he had made Arles his capital, where he appointed Apollinaris, in the summer of 408, as the Roman forces in Italy assembled to counterattack, Constantine had other plans. He summoned his eldest son Constans from the monastery where he was dwelling, elevated him to Caesar, or co-emperor, the cousins of Honorius were defeated without much difficulty and two— Didymus and Verinianus — were captured, while two others — Lagodius and Theodosiolus — managed to escape. Lagodius escaped to Rome whereas Theodosiolus escaped to Constantinople, Constans left his wife and household at Saragossa under the care of Gerontius to return to report to Arles. Meanwhile, the loyalist Roman army mutinied at Ticinum on 13 August, so, when Constantines envoys arrived to parley at Ravenna, the fearful Honorius eagerly recognized Constantine as co-emperor, and the two were joint consuls for the year 409. That year was the mark of Constantines success. Despite Constantines best efforts, his fear of an attack from Hispania did come to pass the following year, about the same time Saxon pirates raided Britain, which Constantine had left defenseless. But this invasion ended in defeat, with Allobich losing his life, Constantines position grew even more untenable, his forces facing the rebel Gerontius were defeated at Vienne, where his son Constans was captured and executed. Constantines Praetorian prefect Decimus Rusticus, who had replaced Apollinaris a year earlier, abandoned Constantine, Gerontius trapped Constantine inside Arles and besieged him. At the same time a new general was found to support Honorius, the future Constantius III, who arrived at Arles, put Gerontius to flight and then took over the siege of Constantine in Arles. Constantine held out, hoping for the return of his general Edobichus who was raising troops in northern Gaul amongst the Franks, Constantines last slender hope faded when his last troops guarding the Rhine abandoned him to support Jovinus and he was forced to surrender. Constantine III is also known as Constantine II of Britain and this has led to much confusion among modern scholars, but beyond their names, Geoffreys fictional Constantine does not resemble the historical one. In some versions of the legend, Vortigern was Constantines seneschal. End of Roman rule in Britain Zosimus, Historia Nova, Books 5 &6 Historia Nova Orosius, Historiae adversum Paganos,7. I. R. ]Canduci, Alexander, Triumph & Tragedy, The Rise and Fall of Romes Immortal Emperors, Pier 9, ISBN 978-1-74196-598-8 C. E. Stevens, Marcus, Gratian, Constantine, Athenaeum,35, pp. 316–47 E. A
Constantine III (usurper)
–
Coin of Constantine III.
Constantine III (usurper)
–
Constantine III portrayed on a
siliqua. The reverse celebrates the victories of the
Augusti.
4.
Constans II (usurper)
–
Constans II was the eldest son of the Western Roman Emperor Constantine III and was appointed co-emperor by him from 409 to 411. He was killed during the revolts and fighting that ended his father’s reign, elder son of Claudius Constantine and brother of Julian, in his youth Constans was a monk. After some initial defeats, Constans captured two of his enemies, while the two fled to Constantinople. He left his wife and household at Zaragoza under the care of Gerontius to return to report to Arles, in Autumn 409, barbarian invaders plundered Gaul, reached the Pyrenees, swept away Roman defences and entered into Hispania. With the support of the barbarians, Gerontius took over Constantines territory, in 411, he captured the city of Vienne, whether Constans II was a usurper is open to debate, he was crowned after Constantine III had been recognised as co-emperor by Honorius. However, this recognition would not have included the right to extend the power to Constantines family. British legend, aided by Geoffrey of Monmouth, states that Constans was elected by the Britons as king after Constantines death and this contradicts the known history of Constans, as does the remainder of his British story. The legend claims Constans, older brother to Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon, during the succession crisis following Constantines murder, Vortigern, leader of the Gewissei tribe, convinced Constans to leave the religious life and become king. The weak and unpopular former monk became a puppet, putting all, Vortigern eventually disposed of him by tricking some Picts, liaisons in his employ, into murdering him in his sleep. The treacherous Vortigern took the throne for himself, zosimus, Historia Nova, Book 6 Historia Nova Orosius, Historiae adversum Paganos,7. I. R. Canduci, Alexander, Triumph & Tragedy, The Rise and Fall of Romes Immortal Emperors, Pier 9, ISBN 978-1-74196-598-8 Bury, a History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. I Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Constans II (usurper)
–
Siliqua of Constans II
5.
Igraine
–
In the Matter of Britain, Igraine /ɪˈɡreɪnˌ iːˈɡreɪn/ is the mother of King Arthur. She becomes the wife of Uther Pendragon, but her first husband was Gorlois, her daughters by Gorlois are Elaine, Morgause, in medieval Welsh literature and genealogical tracts Eigyr is one of several children of Amlawdd Wledig. Her siblings include Gwyar, the mother of Gwalchmai, who is mentioned in Culhwch, the same source mentions Gormant son of Rica, half-brother to Arthur on his fathers side, his father the chief elder of Cornwall. In the Historia Regum Britanniae, Igerna enters the story as the wife of Gorlois, King Uther Pendragon falls in love with her and attempts to force his attentions on her at his court. She informs her husband, who departs with her to Cornwall without asking leave and this sudden departure gives Uther Pendragon an excuse to make war on Gorlois. Gorlois conducts the war from the castle of Dimilioc but places his wife in safety in the castle of Tintagel, disguised as Gorlois by Merlin, Uther Pendragon is able to enter Tintagel to satisfy his lust. He manages to rape Igraine by deceit - she believes that she is lying with her husband and her husband Gorlois dies in battle that same night. Geoffrey does not say, and later accounts disagree, as to whether Gorlois died before or after Arthur was begotten, according to Geoffrey, Igraine also bore a daughter Anna to Uther Pendragon, and this Anna later becoming the mother of Gawain and Mordred. There is confusion here, especially as Welsh genealogies name an Anna as Hoels mother, in Robert de Borons later Merlin, Igraines previous husband is an unnamed Duke of Tintagel and it is by him that she becomes the mother of two unnamed daughters. One marries King Lot and by him becomes the mother of Gawain, Mordred, a second daughter, also unnamed in some variants but in some named Morgaine, is married to a certain King Nentres of Garlot, who is identified with Budic II of Brittany. A third illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Tintagel is sent to a school, Morgan and Morgaine are respectively the nominative and oblique forms of the same name. Indeed, no accounts outside of de Borons Merlin mentions that Morgan le Fay is illegitimate, according to Robert de Boron, Igraine died before her second husband. In the Post-Vulgate Cycle and Sir Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur, it is Morgan le Fay who becomes the wife of King Urien, in other accounts Ywain is not Arthurs nephew, although sometimes is Gawains cousin when their respective fathers are presented as brothers. In the Brut Tysilio, Duke Cador of Cornwall is the son of Gorlois, the same appears in Richard Hardyngs Chronicle where Cador is called Arthurs brother of his mothers syde. In the English Alliterative Morte Arthure Cador is continually called Arthurs cousin, Thomas Malorys Morte dArthur names the first daughter Margawse, the second Elayne and the third Morgan le Fay with no mention of Morgans illegitimacy. Arthurian tales are not consistent with one another and sisters of Arthur seem to have created at desire by any teller who wished to make a hero into Arthurs nephew. The Lancelot-Grail relates that when Igraine became Uthers wife she left behind in the dukedom of Tintagel a son of the Duke of Tintagel by a previous marriage, some romances show her alive after Uthers death. In Chrétien de Troyess Perceval, the Story of the Grail she, Gawain had thought both his mother and grandmother to be long dead
Igraine
–
Merlin taking away the infant
Arthur from Igraine. An illustration by
N. C. Wyeth for
The Boy's King Arthur (1922): "So the child was delivered unto Merlin, and so he bare it forth."
6.
King Arthur
–
King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD. The details of Arthurs story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, the sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthurs name also occurs in early sources such as Y Gododdin. Arthur is a figure in the legends making up the so-called Matter of Britain. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouths fanciful, how much of Geoffreys Historia was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot, in these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics. The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long debated by scholars. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men, recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthurs historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, the Annales date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often used to bolster confidence in the Historias account. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonums account, the latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at point in the 10th century. The Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum and this lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. These modern admissions of ignorance are a recent trend, earlier generations of historians were less sceptical
King Arthur
–
Tapestry showing Arthur as one of the
Nine Worthies, wearing a
coat of arms often attributed to him (c. 1385)
King Arthur
–
Statue of King Arthur at the
Hofkirche in
Innsbruck, designed by
Albrecht Dürer and cast by
Peter Vischer the Elder (1520s)
King Arthur
–
The 10th-century
Annales Cambriae (from a copy c. 1100)
King Arthur
–
A facsimile page of
Y Gododdin, one of the most famous early Welsh texts featuring Arthur (c. 1275)
7.
Welsh language
–
Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
Welsh language
–
This tattered
Welsh Bible of 1620, in
Llanwnda church, is said to have been rescued from the hands of French invaders in 1797.
Welsh language
–
The 1588 Welsh Bible
Welsh language
–
Trilingual (Spanish, Welsh and English) sign in Argentina
8.
Sub-Roman Britain
–
The term Post-Roman Britain is also used for the period, mainly in non-archaeological contexts. It is now often used to denote this period of history instead. Gradually the latter assumed more control, the Picts in northern Scotland were outside the applicable area. The period of sub-Roman Britain traditionally covers the history of the area subsequently became England from the end of Roman imperial rule in 410 to the arrival of Saint Augustine in 597. The date taken for the end of period is arbitrary in that the sub-Roman culture continued in the West of England. This period has attracted a deal of academic and popular debate. The term post-Roman Britain is also used for the period, mainly in non-archaeological contexts, Britain south of the Forth–Clyde line. The history of the area between Hadrians Wall and the Forth–Clyde line is unclear, North of the line lay an area inhabited by tribes about whom so little is known that we resort to calling them by a generic name, Picts. The period may also be considered as part of the early Middle Ages, popular works use a range of more dramatic names for the period, the Dark Ages, the Brythonic Age, the Age of Tyrants, or the Age of Arthur. There is very little extant written material available from this period, a lot of what is available deals with the first few decades of the 5th century only. The sources can usefully be classified into British and continental, two primary contemporary British sources exist, the Confessio of Saint Patrick and Gildas De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Patricks Confessio and his Letter to Coroticus reveal aspects of life in Britain and it is particularly useful in highlighting the state of Christianity at the time. Gildas is the nearest to a source of Sub-Roman history but there are problems in using it. The document represents British history as he and his audience understood it, though a few other documents of the period do exist, such as Gildas letters on monasticism, they are not directly relevant to British history. The historical section of De Excidio is short, and the material in it is selected with Gildas purpose in mind. There are no dates given, and some of the details, such as those regarding the Hadrians. There are more continental contemporary sources that mention Britain, though these are highly problematic, the most famous is the so-called Rescript of Honorius, in which the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British civitates to look to their own defence. The work of Procopius, another 6th century Byzantine writer, makes references to Britain
Sub-Roman Britain
–
Barbury Castle, 6th century hill fort, near
Swindon, in
South West England
Sub-Roman Britain
–
Roman coins findings clearly indicate the areas of biggest "romanization" and presence in Roman Britain
Sub-Roman Britain
9.
Geoffrey of Monmouth
–
Geoffrey of Monmouth was a British cleric and one of the major figures in the development of British historiography and the popularity of tales of King Arthur. He is best known for his chronicle The History of the Kings of Britain and it was credited, uncritically, well into the 16th century, but is now considered historically unreliable. Geoffrey was probably some time between 1100 and 1110 in Wales or the Welsh Marches. He must have reached the age of majority by 1129, when he is recorded as witnessing a charter. In his Historia, Geoffrey refers to himself as Galfridus Monemutensis, Geoffrey of Monmouth, which indicates a significant connection to Monmouth, Wales, Geoffreys works attest to some acquaintance with the place-names of the region. To contemporaries, Geoffrey was known as Galfridus Artur or variants thereof, the Arthur in these versions of his name may indicate the name of his father, or a nickname based on Geoffreys scholarly interests. Earlier scholars assumed that Geoffrey was Welsh or at least spoke Welsh and it has been argued, by Frank Stenton among others, that Geoffreys parents may have been among the many Bretons who took part in William Is Conquest and settled in the southeast of Wales. Monmouth had been in the hands of Breton lords since 1075 or 1086 and he may have served for a while in a Benedictine priory in Monmouth, but most of his adult life appears to have been spent outside Wales. Between 1129 and 1151 his name appears on six charters in the Oxford area and he was probably a secular canon of St. Georges college. All the charters signed by Geoffrey are also signed by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, another frequent co-signatory is Ralph of Monmouth, a canon of Lincoln. On 24 February 1152, at Lambeth, Archbishop Theobald consecrated Geoffrey as Bishop of St Asaph, there is no evidence that he ever visited his see, writes Lewis Thorpe, and indeed the wars of Owain Gwynedd make this most unlikely. He appears to have died between 25 December 1154 and 24 December 1155, in 1155 according to Welsh chronicles, when his apparent successor, Richard, Geoffrey wrote several works of interest, all in Latin, the language of learning and literature in Europe during the medieval period. His major work was The History of the Kings of Britain, modern historians have dismissed this claim. The History of the Kings of Britain is now acknowledged as a work of national myth containing little reliable history. Other contemporaries were similarly unconvinced by Geoffreys History, Geoffreys major work was nevertheless widely disseminated across the whole of Medieval Western Europe, Acton Griscom listed 186 extant manuscripts in 1929, and others have been identified since. Where it was accepted as a true account. It consists of a series of obscure prophetic utterances attributed to Merlin, the Historys effect on the legend of King Arthur was so vast that Arthurian works have been categorised as pre- or post-Galfridian depending on whether or not they were influenced by him. The third work attributed to Geoffrey is another hexameter poem Vita Merlini, the story is set long after the timeframe of the Historys Merlin, but the author tries to synchronise the works with references to the mad prophets previous dealings with Vortigern and Arthur
Geoffrey of Monmouth
–
Merlin prophesies for
Vortigern, from a manuscript of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
Historia Regum Britanniae.
10.
Historia Regum Britanniae
–
Historia regum Britanniae, originally called De gestis Britonum, is a pseudohistorical account of British history, written around 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It is one of the pieces of the Matter of Britain. Although credited uncritically well into the 16th century, it is now considered to have no value as history, when events described, such as Julius Caesars invasions of Britain, can be corroborated from contemporary histories, Geoffreys account can be seen to be wildly inaccurate. Yet the deeds of men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time. He also cites Gildas and Bede as sources, then follows a dedication to Robert, earl of Gloucester and Waleran, count of Meulan, whom he enjoins to use their knowledge and wisdom to improve his tale. The Historia itself begins with the Trojan Aeneas, who according to Roman legend settled in Italy after the Trojan War and his great-grandson Brutus is banished, and, after a period of wandering, is directed by the goddess Diana to settle on an island in the western ocean. Brutus lands at Totnes and names the island, then called Albion, Brutus defeats the giants who are the only inhabitants of the island, and establishes his capital, Troia Nova, on the banks of the Thames, after his time it is renamed London. When Brutus dies, his three sons, Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, divide the county between themselves, the three kingdoms are named Loegria, Kambria and Albany. The story then progresses rapidly through the reigns of the descendants of Locrinus, including Bladud, bladuds son Leir reigns for sixty years. He has no sons, so upon reaching old age he decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia, to decide who should get the largest share, he asks his daughters how much they love him. Goneril and Regan give extravagant answers, but Cordelia answers simply and sincerely, angered, Goneril and Regan are to share half the island with their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall. Cordelia marries Aganippus, King of the Franks, and departs for Gaul, soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take the whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia, Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises a Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law, Leir rules for three years and then dies, Cordelia inherits the throne and rules for five years before Marganus and Cunedagius, her sisters sons, rebel against her. They imprison Cordelia, grief-stricken, she kills herself, Marganus and Cunedagius divide the kingdom between themselves, but soon quarrel and go to war with each other. Cunedagius eventually kills Marganus in Wales and retains the whole kingdom and he is succeeded by his son. A later descendant of Cunedagius, King Gorboduc, has two sons called Ferreux and Porrex and they quarrel and both are eventually killed, sparking a civil war. This leads to Britain being ruled by five kings, who keep attacking each other, dunvallo Molmutius, the son of the King of Cornwall, becomes pre-eminent
Historia Regum Britanniae
–
Illumination of a 15th-century manuscript of Historia Regum Britanniae showing
Vortigern and
Ambros watching the fight between two dragons.
11.
Arthurian Legend
–
It could be said that the legendary history of Britain was created in part to form a body of patriotic myth for the country. Several agendas thus can be seen in this body of literature, the Historia Brittonum, the earliest known source of the story of Brutus of Troy, may have been devised to create a distinguished genealogy for a number of Welsh princes in the 9th century. Traditionally attributed to Nennius, its actual compiler is unknown, it exists in several recensions, as such, this material could be used for patriotic mythmaking just as Virgil linked the founding of Rome to the Trojan War in The Æneid. Geoffrey of Monmouth also introduced the fanciful claim that the Trinovantes, reported by Tacitus as dwelling in the area of London, had a name he interpreted as Troi-novant, New Troy. More speculative claims link Welsh mythology with several of the rulers and it has been suggested, for instance, that Leir of Britain, who later became Shakespeares King Lear, was originally the Welsh sea-god Llŷr. Various Celtic deities have been identified with characters from Arthurian literature as well, many of these identifications come from the speculative comparative religion of the late 19th century, and have been questioned in more recent years. William Shakespeare was interested in the history of Britain, and was familiar with some of its more obscure byways. Shakespeares plays contain several tales relating to these kings, such as King Lear. It has been suggested that Shakespeares Welsh schoolmaster Thomas Jenkins introduced him to this material and these tales also figure in Raphael Holinsheds The Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, which also appears in Shakespeares sources for Macbeth. Other early authors also drew from the early Arthurian and pseudo-historical sources of the Matter of Britain, the Scots, for instance, formulated a mythical history in the Picts and the Dál Riata royal lines. While they do eventually become factual lines, unlike those of Geoffrey, their origins are vague, the story of Gabrán mac Domangairt especially incorporates elements of both those histories. The Arthurian literary cycle is the best known part of the Matter of Britain and it has succeeded largely because it tells two interlocking stories that have intrigued many later authors. One concerns Camelot, usually envisioned as a utopia of chivalric virtue, undone by the fatal flaws of Arthur. The other concerns the quests of the knights to achieve the Holy Grail, some succeed. Finally, the relationships between the characters invited treatment in the tradition of love, such as Lancelot and Guinevere, or Tristan. In more recent years, the trend has been to attempt to link the tales of King Arthur and his knights with Celtic mythology, usually in highly romanticized, early 20th century reconstructed versions. Additionally, it is possible to read the Arthurian literature in general, derek Pearsall, Arthurian Romance, a short introduction, Blackwell, Oxford,2005 D
Arthurian Legend
–
Tapestry showing Arthur as one of the
Nine Worthies, wearing a
coat of arms often attributed to him (c. 1385)
Arthurian Legend
–
Statue of King Arthur at the
Hofkirche in
Innsbruck, designed by
Albrecht Dürer and cast by
Peter Vischer the Elder (1520s)
Arthurian Legend
–
The 10th-century
Annales Cambriae (from a copy c. 1100)
Arthurian Legend
–
A facsimile page of
Y Gododdin, one of the most famous early Welsh texts featuring Arthur (c. 1275)
12.
Merlin
–
Merlin is a legendary figure best known as the wizard featured in Arthurian legend and medieval Welsh poetry. The standard depiction of the character first appears in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae,1136, and is based on an amalgamation of previous historical and legendary figures. He is allegedly buried in the Broceliande forest, near Paimpont in Brittany, Geoffreys rendering of the character was immediately popular, especially in Wales. Later writers expanded the account to produce an image of the wizard. Merlins traditional biography casts him as a cambion, born of a woman, sired by an incubus. The name of Merlins mother is not usually stated, but is given as Adhan in the oldest version of the Prose Brut, Merlin matures to an ascendant sagehood and engineers the birth of Arthur through magic and intrigue. Later authors have Merlin serve as the kings advisor until he is bewitched and imprisoned by the Lady of the Lake, the name Merlin is derived from the Welsh Myrddin, the name of the bard Myrddin Wyllt, one of the chief sources for the later legendary figure. Geoffrey of Monmouth Latinised the name to Merlinus in his works, medievalist Gaston Paris suggests that Geoffrey chose the form Merlinus rather than the regular Merdinus to avoid a resemblance to the Anglo-Norman word merde for feces. Clas Myrddin or Merlins Enclosure is a name for Great Britain stated in the Third Series of Welsh Triads. Celticist A. O. H. Jarman suggests that the Welsh name Myrddin was derived from the toponym Caerfyrddin and this contrasts with the popular folk etymology that the town was named for the bard. The name Carmarthen is derived from the towns previous Roman name Moridunum, itself derived from Celtic Brittonic *moridunon, sea fortress. The former had nothing to do with Arthur, in British poetry he was a bard driven mad after witnessing the horrors of war, who fled civilization to become a wild man of the wood in the 6th century. Geoffrey had this individual in mind when he wrote his earliest surviving work, the Prophetiae Merlini, Geoffreys Prophetiae do not reveal much about Merlins background. He included the prophet in his next work Historia Regum Britanniae, supplementing the characterisation by attributing to him stories about Aurelius Ambrosius, according to Nennius, Ambrosius was discovered when the British king Vortigern was trying to erect a tower. The tower always collapsed before completion, and his men told him that the only solution was to sprinkle the foundation with the blood of a child born without a father. Geoffrey retells this story in Historia Regum Britanniæ with some embellishments and he goes on to add new episodes that tie Merlin into the story of King Arthur and his predecessors, such as bringing the stones for Stonehenge from Preseli Hills in south-west Wales and Ireland. Geoffrey dealt with Merlin again in his third work Vita Merlini and he based the Vita on stories of the original 6th-century Myrddin, set long after his time frame for the life of Merlin Ambrosius. He tries to assert that the characters are the same references to King Arthur and his death
Merlin
–
Merlin reciting his poem in a 13th-century illustration for Merlin by
Robert de Boron
Merlin
–
The Enchanter Merlin, by
Howard Pyle from
The Story of King Arthur and His Knights (1903)
Merlin
–
A giant helps Merlin build
Stonehenge. From a manuscript of the
Roman de Brut by
Wace (British Library, Egerton 3208)
Merlin
–
"Merlinus" in the
Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)
13.
Illegitimacy
–
Legitimacy, in traditional Western common law, is the status of a child born to parents who are legally married to each other, and of a child conceived before the parents obtain a legal divorce. Conversely, illegitimacy is the status of a child born outside marriage, depending on the cultural context, legitimacy can affect a childs rights of inheritance to the putative fathers estate and the childs right to bear the fathers surname or title. Illegitimacy has also had consequences for the mothers and childs right to support from the putative father, in medieval Wales, a bastard was defined simply as a child not acknowledged by its father. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, that were acknowledged by the father enjoyed the legal rights. Englands Statute of Merton stated, regarding illegitimacy, He is a bastard that is born before the marriage of his parents and this definition also applied to situations when a childs parents could not marry, as when one or both were already married or when the relationship was incestuous. The Poor Law of 1576 formed the basis of English bastardy law and its purpose was to punish a bastard childs mother and putative father, and to relieve the parish from the cost of supporting mother and child. By an act of 1576, it was ordered that bastards should be supported by their putative fathers, if the genitor could be found, then he was put under very great pressure to accept responsibility and to maintain the child. Under English law, a bastard was unable to be an heir to real property, in contrast to the situation under civil law, a younger non-bastard brother would have no claim to the land. The Legitimacy Act 1926 of England and Wales legitimized the birth of a if the parents subsequently married each other. The Legitimacy Act 1959 extended the legitimization even if the parents had married others in the meantime, neither the 1926 nor 1959 Acts changed the laws of succession to the British throne and succession to peerage titles. The Family Law Reform Act 1969 allowed a bastard to inherit on the intestacy of his parents, in canon and in civil law, the offspring of putative marriages have also been considered legitimate. Since 2003 in England and Wales,2002 in Northern Ireland and 2006 in Scotland, still, children born out of wedlock may not be eligible for certain federal benefits unless the child has been legitimized in the appropriate jurisdiction. Many other countries have abolished by any legal disabilities of a child born out of wedlock. In France, legal reforms regarding illegitimacy began in the 1970s, the European Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock came into force in 1978. Countries which ratify it must ensure that children born outside marriage are provided with legal rights as stipulated in the text of this Convention, the Convention was ratified by the UK in 1981 and by Ireland in 1988. Use of the illegitimate child is now rare, even in legal contexts. It has been stricken from passports and legal documents as needlessly insulting and stigmatizing to the child, terms such as extra-marital child, love child and child born out of wedlock are more commonly used. Also used in Britain and other English-speaking countries is bastard, though such as natural child are preferred in polite society
Illegitimacy
–
Elizabeth I of England
Illegitimacy
–
The Outcast, by
Richard Redgrave, 1851. A patriarch casts his daughter and her illegitimate baby out of the family home.
Illegitimacy
–
Magdalene laundries were institutions that existed from the 18th to the late 20th centuries, throughout Europe and North America, where "fallen women", including unmarried mothers, were detained. Photo: Magdalene laundry in
Ireland, ca. early twentieth century.
Illegitimacy
–
Edwin Booth
14.
Mordred
–
Mordred or Modred is a character in the Arthurian legend, known as a notorious traitor who fought King Arthur at the Battle of Camlann, where he was killed and Arthur fatally wounded. In earlier literature, he was considered the son of Morgause, also known as Anna. His brothers or half-brothers are Gawain, Agravain, Gaheris, the name is ultimately derived from Latin Moderātus. The first surviving mention of Mordred, occurs in the Annales Cambriae entry for the year 537, the strife of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell. The Annales themselves were completed between 960 and 970, though their authors drew on older material, the earliest full account of Mordred is found in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, where he, for the first time in literature, plays the role of traitor to Arthur. During Arthurs absence Mordred crowns himself king and marries Guinevere, forcing Arthur to return to Britain, the Battle of Camlann is fought, and Mordred dies while Arthur is taken to Avalon. A number of Welsh sources also refer to Medraut, usually in relation to Camlann, Medraut is never considered Arthurs son in Welsh texts, only his nephew, though The Dream of Rhonabwy mentions that the king had been his foster father. However, Mordreds later characterization as the kings villainous son has a precedent in the figure of Amr, what connection exists between the stories of Amr and Mordred, if there is one, has never been satisfactorily explained. In Geoffrey and certain other sources such as the Alliterative Morte Arthure, Mordred marries Guinevere, seemingly consensually, after he steals the throne. However, in later writings like the Lancelot-Grail Cycle and Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur, Guinevere is not treated as a traitor and she flees Mordreds proposal, adultery is still tied to her role in these later romances, however, but Mordred has been replaced with Lancelot. Geoffrey and the Lancelot-Grail Cycle have Mordred being succeeded by his sons, stories always number them as two, though they are usually not named, nor is their mother. The 18th century Welsh antiquarian Lewis Morris, based on statements made by the Scottish chronicler Hector Boece, suggested that Medrawd had a wife, Cwyllog, another late Welsh tradition was that Medrawds wife was Gwenhwyach, sister of Gwenhwyfar. In Geoffreys version, after the Battle of Camlann, Constantine is appointed Arthurs successor, however, Mordreds two sons and their Saxon allies rise against him. He defeats them, and one of them flees to sanctuary in the Church of Amphibalus in Winchester while the other hides in a London friary, Constantine tracks them down, and kills them before the altars in their respective hiding places. This act invokes the vengeance of God, and three years later Constantine is killed by his nephew Aurelius Conanus, Geoffreys account of the episode may be based on Constantines murder of two royal youths as mentioned by the 6th-century writer Gildas. The elder of Mordreds sons is named Melehan or some derivation in the Lancelot-Grail, in these texts, Lancelot and his men return to Britain to dispatch Melehan and his brother after receiving a letter from the dying Gawain. In the ensuing battle Melehan slays Sir Lionel, son of King Bors the Elder and brother to Sir Bors the Younger, Bors kills him to avenge his brothers death, while Lancelot slays the unnamed younger brother. Virtually everywhere Mordred appears, his name is synonymous with treachery and he appears in Dantes Inferno in the lowest circle of Hell, set apart for traitors, him who, at one blow, had chest and shadow / shattered by Arthurs hand
Mordred
–
"Sir Mordred" (1902) by
H. J. Ford
15.
Battle of Camlann
–
The Battle of Camlann is reputed to have been the final battle of King Arthur, in which he either died or was fatally wounded, fighting either with or against Mordred who is also said to have died. The earliest known reference to the battle of Camlann is an entry in the 10th-century Annales Cambriae and it mentions Mordred, but it does not specify that he and Arthur fought on opposite sides. Gueith camlann in qua Arthur et Medraut corruerunt, andrew Breeze writes, Last of all, what can we conclude about Camlan itself. Can we say anything at all on its location, significance, here we may recall the views expressed by Padel, Dark, Dumville, and Higham. The status of the entry for 537 is therefore now clear, on the one hand it is presented as sober fact and appears in the context of persons known to history. On the other, we cannot be certain that it is old, the historical Arthur thus becomes little more than a wisp of air. Unless unexpected evidence turns up, the only honest answer we can give here is that of Kenneth Jackson, that We do not know, the location described as Camlann is unknown. The name may derive from a Brittonic *Cambo-landa, or *Cambo-glanna, later accounts of the battle, much embroidered, appear in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae and the Alliterative Morte Arthure. Some sources state that the battle was caused by King Arthurs return to Camelot, King Arthur had learned of Guinevere and Sir Lancelots affair, and Sir Lancelot fled to France. Arthur pursued him in an effort to get revenge, and his enemy, Mordred, when Arthur returned and tried to take back his kingdom, Mordred refused. A battle erupted, and Arthur was severely wounded and he journeyed to the isle of Avalon, which is said to have magical properties, in hope that he could be healed. Some say he died there, and some say his wounds healed, welsh triads offer clues to the alleged cause of the Battle of Camlann. Triad 51 reflects Geoffrey of Monmouth, Medrawd rebels against Arthur while the latter is campaigning on the Continent and usurps the throne, instigating the battle of Camlann. Triad 53 lists a slap Gwenhwyvach gave to her sister Gwenhwyfar, wife of Arthur, as one of the Three Harmful Blows of the Island of Britain, calling Camlann one of Britains Three Futile Battles, Triad 84 also mentions this dispute between sisters. Triad 54 describes Medrawd raiding Arthurs court, throwing Gwenhwyfar to the ground, other Triads in which Camlann is mentioned include numbers 30,59,84. Battle of Badon Alistair Moffat, The Faded Map - Lost Kingdoms of Scotland
Battle of Camlann
–
"How Mordred was Slain by Arthur, and How by Him Arthur was Hurt to the Death", by
Arthur Rackham
16.
Dragon
–
A dragon is a legendary creature, typically scaled or fire-spewing and with serpentine, reptilian or avian traits, that features in the myths of many cultures around world. The two most well-known cultural traditions of dragon are The European dragon, derived from European folk traditions and ultimately related to Balkans, most are depicted as reptilian creatures with animal-level intelligence, and are uniquely six-limbed. The Chinese dragon, with counterparts in Japan, Korea and other East Asian, most are depicted as serpentine creatures with above-average intelligence, and are quadrupeds. The two traditions may have evolved separately, but have influenced each other to a certain extent, the English word dragon and Latin word draco derives from Greek δράκων, dragon, serpent of huge size, water-snake. The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological, a dragon is a mythological representation of a reptile. In antiquity, dragons were mostly envisaged as serpents, but since the Middle Ages, it has become common to them with legs. Dragons are usually shown in modern times with a body like a huge lizard, the European dragon has bat-like wings growing from its back. A dragon-like creature with wings but only a pair of legs is known as a wyvern. The association of the serpent with a monstrous opponent overcome by a deity has its roots in the mythology of the Ancient Near East, including Canaanite, Hittite. Humbaba, the fire-breathing dragon-fanged beast first described in the Epic of Gilgamesh, is described as a dragon with Gilgamesh playing the part of dragon-slayer. The folk-lore motif of the dragon guarding gold may have come from earlier Bronze Age customs of introducing serpents to village granaries to deter rats or mice. Although dragons occur in many legends around the world, different cultures have varying stories about monsters that have been grouped together under the dragon label, some dragons are said to breathe fire or to be poisonous, such as in the Old English poem Beowulf. They are commonly portrayed as serpentine or reptilian, hatching from eggs and they are sometimes portrayed as hoarding treasure. Some myths portray them with a row of dorsal spines, European dragons are more often winged, while Chinese dragons resemble large snakes. Dragons can have a number of legs, none, two, four, or more when it comes to early European literature. Dragons are often held to have spiritual significance in various religions. In many Asian cultures, dragons were, and in some still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of nature, religion. They are associated with wisdom—often said to be wiser than humans—and longevity and they are commonly said to possess some form of magic or other supernatural power, and are often associated with wells, rain, and rivers
Dragon
–
Sculpture of Mario the Magnificent, the dragon mascot of
Drexel University, by
Eric Berg
Dragon
–
Carved imperial Chinese dragons at
Nine-Dragon Wall,
Beihai Park,
Beijing
Dragon
–
Dragon
Dragon
–
Saint George Killing the Dragon, 1434/35, by
Martorell
17.
Flag
–
A flag is a piece of fabric with a distinctive design that is used as a symbol, as a signaling device, or as decoration. National flags are patriotic symbols with varied wide-ranging interpretations, often including strong military associations due to their original, flags are also used in messaging, advertising, or for other decorative purposes. The study of flags is known as vexillology, from the Latin word vexillum, due to the use of flags by military units, flag is also used as the name of some military units. A flag is equivalent to a brigade in Arab countries, and in Spain, in antiquity, field signs or standards were used in warfare that can be categorized as vexilloid or flag-like. During the High Middle Ages flags came to be used primarily as a device in battle. Already during the medieval period, and increasingly during the Late Middle Ages. Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the Early Modern period, flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals, see, International maritime signal flags. One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolize a nation or country, some national flags have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include, The flag of Denmark, the Dannebrog, is attested in 1478, the flag of the Netherlands is the oldest tricolour. Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to Charlemagnes time, the 9th century, the coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours. Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, a century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled. As state flag it first appeared around 1572 as the Princes Flag in orange–white–blue, soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630. Orange made a comeback during the war of the late 18th century. During World War II the pro-Nazi NSB used it, any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the House of Orange-Nassau. This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange-blue, not from Orange, however, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red-white-blue. It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired many flags but most notably those of Russia, New York City, the national flag of France was designed in 1794. As a forerunner of revolution, Frances tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations, examples, Italy, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ireland, Haiti, Romania and Mexico. The Union Flag of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used, british colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history
Flag
–
ASEAN members'
national flags in
Jakarta
Flag
–
Setting up a flag could also possess the meaning of conquering something.
Jaan Künnap with the
flag of Estonia in the top of
Lenin Peak (7134 m) in 1989.
Flag
–
Bronze flag found in
Iran, 3rd millennium BC
Flag
–
Sujagi of
Eo Jae-yeon, captured in 1871
18.
Mabon ap Modron
–
Mabon ap Modron is a prominent figure from Welsh literature and mythology, the son of Modron and a member of Arthurs war band. Both he and his mother were likely deities in origin, descending from a divine mother–son pair and his name is related to the Romano-British god Maponos, whose name means Great Son, Modron, in turn, is likely related to the Gaulish goddess Dea Matrona. He is often equated with the Demetian hero Pryderi fab Pwyll, the name Mabon is derived from the Common Brittonic and Gaulish deity name Maponos Great Son, from the Proto-Celtic root *makwo- son. Similarly, Modron is derived from the name of the Brittonic and Gaulish deity Mātronā, meaning Great Mother, culhwchs father, King Cilydd, the son of Celyddon, loses his wife Goleuddydd after a difficult childbirth. When he remarries, the young Culhwch rejects his stepmothers attempt to pair him with his new stepsister, offended, the new queen puts a curse on him so that he can marry no one besides the beautiful Olwen, daughter of the giant Ysbaddaden. Though he has never seen her, Culhwch becomes infatuated with her, the young man immediately sets off to seek his kinsman. He finds him at his court in Celliwig in Cornwall and asks for support, cai is the first knight to volunteer to assist Culhwch in his quest, promising to stand by his side until Olwen is found. A further five knights join them in their mission and they travel onwards until they come across the fairest of the castles of the world, and meet Ysbaddadens shepherd brother, Custennin. They learn that the belongs to Ysbaddaden, that he stripped Custennin of his lands. Custennin sets up a meeting between Culhwch and Olwen, and the maiden agrees to lead Culhwch and his companions to Ysbadaddens castle, cai pledges to protect the twenty-fourth son, Goreu, with his life. The knights attack the castle by stealth, killing the nine porters and the nine watchdogs, and enter the giants hall. Upon their arrival, Ysbaddaden attempts to kill Culhwch with a dart, but is outwitted and wounded, first by Bedwyr, then by the enchanter Menw. The enormous salmon carries Arthurs men Cei and Bedwyr downstream to Mabons prison in Gloucester, they hear him through the walls, the rest of Arthurs men launch an assault on the front of the prison, while Cei and Bedwyr sneak in the back and rescue Mabon. He subsequently plays a key role in the hunt for the Twrch Trwyth, the poem relates that Mabon fab Mydron is one of Arthurs followers, and is described as a servant to Uther Pendragon. A second figure, Mabon fab Mellt, is described as having stained the grass with blood and he further appears in the medieval tale The Dream of Rhonabwy, in which he fights alongside Arthur at the Battle of Badon and is described as one of the kings chief advisors. Mabon is almost certainly related to the continental Arthurian figures Mabonagrain, Mabuz, Nabon le Noir and Maboun
Mabon ap Modron
–
Arthur's court at
Celliwig, 1881
Mabon ap Modron
–
Culhwch and his companions at Ysbadadden's court. Image by
E. Wallcousins in "Celtic Myth & Legend", Charles Squire, 1920.
19.
Book of Taliesin
–
The volume contains some of the oldest poems in Welsh, possibly but not certainly dating back to the sixth century and to a real poet called Taliesin. The manuscript, known as Peniarth MS2 and kept at the National Library of Wales, is incomplete and it was named Llyfr Taliessin in the seventeenth century by Edward Lhuyd and hence is known in English as The Book of Taliesin. It appears that some marks presumably awarded for poems – measuring their value – are extant in the margin of the Book of Taliesin. I have been a sword, narrow, variegated, I have been a tear in the air, I have been a word among letters, I have been a book in the origin. A few are attributed internally to other poets, a full discussion of the provenance of each poem is included in the definitive editions of the books contents poems by Marged Haycock. These are, Poems 2,3,4,5,6,8, the closing tag runs The precise dating of these poems remains uncertain. It seems impossible to prove, however, that any poem must go back to the sixth century linguistically, scholarly English translations of all these are available in Poems from the book of Taliesin and the modern anthology The Triumph Tree. Several of these contain internal claims to be the work of Taliesin, evans, J. Gwenogvryn, The Book of Taliesin Haycock, Marged, ed. Legendary Poems from the Book of Taliesin. The New Companion to the Literature of Wales, the Poems of Taliesin, ed. by Ifor Williams, trans. by J. E. Caerwyn Williams, Medieval and Modern Welsh Series,3 The book of Taliesin at the National Library of Wales. Gives access to images of Peniarth MS2. The book of Taliesin, from the 19th century translation by W. F
Book of Taliesin
–
facsimile, folio 13
20.
Menw
–
Menw, son of Three-Cries, is a hero and shapeshifter in early Welsh literature, an Enchanted Knight of King Arthur at his court at Celliwig. He appears most prominently in the early Arthurian tale Culhwch and Olwen, an Enchanter Knight of Arthurs court, he learned one of the Three Enchantments from Uther Pendragon. He is ascribed a son named Anynnawg, after being cursed by his stepmother so that he marry no one but Olwen, daughter of the giant Ysbaddaden, Culhwch ap Cilydd seeks assistance from his cousin Arthur to win her hand in marriage. Arthur agrees to him, sending six of his many warriors to assist him on his quest. Each warrior has his own skill, Menw is a skilled magician, able to place he. Prior to the Hunting of Twrch Trwyth, Menw is sent in the form of a bird to spy on Twrch Trwyth and his piglets, Menw attempts to retrieve one of the boars trinkets but is poisoned in the process and was thereafter never completely without injury. He also plays a part in the hunt proper, chasing the boar into the Severn alongside Mabon ap Modron and Goreu fab Custennin
Menw
–
Culhwch entering Arthur's Court in the Welsh tale
Culhwch and Olwen, 1881
21.
Culhwch and Olwen
–
Culhwch and Olwen is a Welsh tale that survives in only two manuscripts about a hero connected with Arthur and his warriors, a complete version in the Red Book of Hergest, ca. 1400, and a version in the White Book of Rhydderch. It is the longest of the surviving Welsh prose tales, certain linguistic evidence indicates it took its present form by the 11th century, making it perhaps the earliest Arthurian tale and one of Wales earliest extant prose texts. The title is an invention and does not occur in early manuscripts. Lady Charlotte Guest included this tale among those she collected under the title The Mabinogion, Culhwchs father, King Cilydd son of Celyddon, loses his wife Goleuddydd after a difficult childbirth. When he remarries, the young Culhwch rejects his stepmothers attempt to pair him with his new stepsister, offended, the new queen puts a curse on him so that he can marry no one besides the beautiful Olwen, daughter of the giant Ysbaddaden Pencawr. Though he has never seen her, Culhwch becomes infatuated with her, the young man immediately sets off to seek his kinsman. Arthur agrees to help, and sends six of his finest warriors to join Culhwch in his search for Olwen, the group meets some relatives of Culhwchs that know Olwen and agree to arrange a meeting. Fortunately for Culhwch, the completion of only a few of these tasks is recorded, the story is on one level a typical folktale, in which a young hero sets out to wed a giants daughter, and many of the accompanying motifs reinforce this. However, for most of the narrative the title characters go unmentioned, Culhwch and Olwen is much more than a simple folktale. In fact, the majority of the writing is taken up by two lists and the adventures of King Arthur and his men. The first of these occurs when Arthur welcomes his young kinsman to his court and offers to give him whatever he wishes. Culhwch, of course, asks that Arthur help him get Olwen, included in the list are names taken from Irish legend, hagiography, and sometimes actual history. The second list includes the tasks Culhwch must complete before Ysbaddaden will allow him to marry Olwen, only a fraction are recounted, but several that are disclosed, are of great significance. A version of the longest episode, the hunt for the boar Twrch Trwyth, is referenced in Historia Brittonum, the British painter/poet David Jones wrote a poem called The Hunt based on the tale of Culwhch ac Olwen. A fragment of a work, The Hunt takes place during the pursuit of the boar Twrch Trwyth by Arthur. In 1988 Gwyn Thomas released a retelling of the story, Culhwch ac Olwen, Culhwch ac Olwen won the annual Tir na n-Og Award for Welsh language nonfiction in 1989. A shadow play adaptation of Culhwch and Olwen toured schools in Ceredigion during 2003, the show was created by Jim Williams and was supported by Theatr Felinfach
Culhwch and Olwen
–
Culhwch at Ysbadadden's court. Image by
E. Wallcousins in "Celtic Myth & Legend", Charles Squire, 1920
22.
Vortigern
–
Vortigern, also spelled Vortiger and Vortigen, was possibly a 5th-century warlord in Britain, known perhaps as a king of the Britons. His existence is contested, and information about him is obscure and he may have been the superbus tyrannus said to have invited Hengist and Horsa to aid him in fighting the Picts and the Scots. However, they revolted, killing his son in the process and it is said that he took refuge in North Wales, and that his grave was in Dyfed or the Llŷn Peninsula. He is cited at the beginning of the genealogy of the early Kings of Powys, the 6th century historian Gildas wrote De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae in the first decades of the 6th century. In Chapter 23, he tells how all the councillors, together with that proud usurper made the mistake of inviting the fierce and impious Saxons to settle in Britain. According to Gildas, apparently, a group came at first and was settled on the eastern side of the island. This small group invited more of their countrymen to join them, eventually the Saxons demanded that their monthly allotments be increased and, when their demands were eventually refused, broke their treaty and plundered the lands of the Romano-British. It is not clear whether Gildas used the name Vortigern, most editions published presently omit the name. A, refers to Uortigerno, and Mommsens MS, Gildas adds several small details that suggest either he or his source received at least part of the story from the Anglo-Saxons. The first is when he describes the size of the party of Saxons. This may be the earliest recovered word of English, both of these details are unlikely to have been invented by a Roman or Celtic source. Gildas never addresses Vortigern as the king of Britain and he is termed an usurper, but not solely responsible for inviting the Saxons. To the contrary, he is portrayed as being aided by or aiding a Council, Gildas also does not consider Vortigern as bad, he just qualifies him as unlucky and lacking judgement, which is understandable, as these mercenaries proved to be faithless. Modern scholars have debated the various details of Gildas story and it is not known whether private individuals imitated this practice. It is also not known whether Gildas reference to the side of the island refers to Kent. Apparently, even the close to Gildas in time struggled with the gaps in his account. The first extant text considering Gildas account is Bede, writing in the early- to mid-8th century, the Vertigernus form may reflect an earlier Celtic source or a lost version of Gildas. Bede also gives names in the Historia to the leaders of the Saxons, Hengest and Horsa, specifically identifying their tribes as the Saxons, another significant detail that Bede adds to Gildas account is calling Vortigern the king of the British people
Vortigern
–
Detail from
Lambeth Palace Library MS 6 folio 43v illustrating an episode in Geoffrey of Monmouth's
Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) in which Vortigern meets the young Merlin, who explains that an underground fight between red and white dragons is causing Vortigern's fortress to collapse.
Vortigern
–
Replica Viking ship "Hugin". In 1949 the 'Hugin' sailed from Denmark to Thanet to celebrate the 1,500th anniversary of the traditional landing of Hengist and Horsa and the betrothal of Hengist's daughter,
Rowena, to king Vortigern of Kent. It has since been on display at
Pegwell Bay
Vortigern
–
The First Meeting of Vortigern and Rowena painted by
William Hamilton
23.
Brittany
–
Brittany is a cultural region in the north-west of France. Brittany has also referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain. It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its land area is 34,023 km². Since reorganisation in 1956, the administrative region of Brittany comprises only four of the five Breton departments. The remaining area of old Brittany, the Loire-Atlantique department around Nantes, at the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. Of these, 71% lived in the region of Brittany, while 29% lived in the Loire-Atlantique department, in 2012, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes, Rennes, and Brest. Brittany is the homeland of the Breton people and is recognised by the Celtic League as one of the six Celtic nations. A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic, the word Brittany, along with its French, Breton and Gallo equivalents Bretagne, Breizh and Bertaèyn, derive from the Latin Britannia, which means Britons land. This word had been used by the Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain and this word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανικη or Βρεττανίαι, used by Pytheas, an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Islands around 320 BC. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, aremorica, which close to the sea. Another name, Letauia, was used until the 12th century and it possibly means wide and flat or to expand and it gave the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw. Later, authors like Geoffrey of Monmouth used the terms Britannia minor, breton-speaking people may pronounce the word Breizh in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two dialects, the KLT and the dialect of Vannes. KLT speakers pronounce it and would write it Breiz, while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it, the official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a z and an h together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called Breton zh, on its side, Gallo language has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written Bertaèyn in ELG script, or Bertègn in MOGA, Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic. This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe and their only original feature was a distinct culture, called Colombanian. One of the oldest hearths in the world has found in Plouhinec
Brittany
–
The
Carnac stones.
Brittany
Brittany
–
The five Gallic tribes of Brittany.
Brittany
–
The temple of Mars in
Corseul.
24.
Anglo-Saxons
–
The Anglo-Saxons are a people who have inhabited Great Britain from the 5th century. Historically, the Anglo-Saxon period denotes the period in Britain between about 450 and 1066, after their settlement and up until the Norman conquest. The early Anglo-Saxon period includes the creation of an English nation, with many of the aspects that survive today, including government of shires. During this period, Christianity was re-established and there was a flowering of literature, charters and law were also established. The term Anglo-Saxon is popularly used for the language that was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxons in England, in scholarly use, it is more commonly called Old English. The history of the Anglo-Saxons is the history of a cultural identity and it developed from divergent groups in association with the peoples adoption of Christianity, and was integral to the establishment of various kingdoms. Threatened by extended Danish invasions and occupation of eastern England, this identity was re-established, the visible Anglo-Saxon culture can be seen in the material culture of buildings, dress styles, illuminated texts and grave goods. Behind the symbolic nature of these emblems, there are strong elements of tribal. The elite declared themselves as kings who developed burhs, and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms, above all, as Helena Hamerow has observed, local and extended kin groups remained. the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo-Saxon period. Use of the term Anglo-Saxon assumes that the words Angles, Saxons or Anglo-Saxon have the meaning in all the sources. Assigning ethnic labels such as Anglo-Saxon is fraught with difficulties and this term began to be used only in the 8th century to distinguish the Germanic groups in Britain from those on the continent. The Old English ethnonym Angul-Seaxan comes from the Latin Angli-Saxones and became the name of the peoples Bede calls Anglorum, Anglo-Saxon is a term that was rarely used by Anglo-Saxons themselves, it is not an autonym. It is likely they identified as ængli, Seaxe or, more probably, also, the use of Anglo-Saxon disguises the extent to which people identified as Anglo-Scandinavian after the Viking age or the conquest of 1016, or as Anglo-Norman after the Norman conquest. The earliest historical references using this term are from outside Britain, referring to piratical Germanic raiders, Saxones who attacked the shores of Britain, procopius states that Britain was settled by three races, the Angiloi, Frisones, and Britons. The term Angli Saxones seems to have first been used in writing of the 8th century. The name therefore seemed to mean English Saxons, the Christian church seems to have used the word Angli, for example in the story of Pope Gregory I and his remark, Non Angli sed angeli. The terms ænglisc and Angelcynn were also used by West Saxon King Alfred to refer to the people, at other times he uses the term rex Anglorum, which presumably meant both Anglo-Saxons and Danes. Alfred the Great used Anglosaxonum Rex, the term Engla cyningc is used by Æthelred
Anglo-Saxons
–
Page with
Chi Rho monogram from the Gospel of Matthew in the
Lindisfarne Gospels c. 700, possibly created by
Eadfrith of Lindisfarne in memory of
Cuthbert
Anglo-Saxons
–
The migrations according to Bede who wrote some 300 years after the event, however there is evidence that the original settlers came from many of these continental locations
Anglo-Saxons
–
Æthelstan presenting a
gospel book to (the long-dead) St
Cuthbert (934); Corpus Christi College Cambridge MS 183, fol. 1v
Anglo-Saxons
–
The
Oseberg ship prow,
Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway.
25.
Hengest
–
Hengist and Horsa are legendary brothers said to have led the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in their invasion of Britain in the 5th century. Tradition lists Hengist as the first of the Jutish kings of Kent, according to early sources Hengist and Horsa arrived in Britain at Ebbsfleet on the Isle of Thanet. For a time served as mercenaries for Vortigern, King of the Britons. Horsa was killed fighting the Britons, but Hengist successfully conquered Kent, a figure named Hengest, who may be identifiable with the leader of British legend, appears in the Finnsburg Fragment and in Beowulf. Legends of horse-associated founding brothers are attested among other Germanic peoples, as a result, scholars have theorized a pan-Germanic mythological origin for Hengist and Horsa, stemming originally from divine twins found in Proto-Indo-European religion. Other scholars, including J. R. R. Tolkien, have argued for a basis for Hengist. The Old English names Hengest and Horsa mean stallion and horse respectively, the original Old English word for a horse was eoh. Eoh derives from the Proto-Indo-European base *ekwo, hence Latin equus which gave rise to the modern English words equine, Hors is derived from the Proto-Indo-European base *kurs, to run, which also gave rise to hurry, carry, harry, hurrah, and current. Hors eventually replaced eoh, fitting a pattern elsewhere in Germanic languages where the names of sacred animals are abandoned in favour of adjectives, for example. While the Ecclesiastical History and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle refer to the brother as Horsa and it has been suggested that Horsa may be a pet form of a compound name with the first element horse. In his 8th century Ecclesiastical History, Bede records that the first chieftains among the Angles, Saxons and he relates that Horsa was killed in battle against the Britons and was thereafter buried in East Kent, where at the time of writing a monument still stood to him. According to Bede, Hengist and Horsa were the sons of Wictgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, the 9th century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in the year 449 Hengist and Horsa were invited to Britain by Vortigern to assist his forces in fighting the Picts. They landed at Eopwinesfleot, and went on to defeat the Picts wherever they fought them, Hengist and Horsa sent word home to Germany describing the worthlessness of the Britons, and the richness of the land and asked for assistance. Their request was granted and support arrived, afterward, more people arrived in Britain from the three powers of Germany, the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes. The Saxons populated Essex, Sussex, and Wessex, the Jutes Kent, the Isle of Wight, and part of Hampshire, and the Angles East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. These forces were led by the brothers Hengist and Horsa, sons of Wihtgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, in the entry for the year 455 the Chronicle details that Hengist and Horsa fought with Vortigern at Aylesford and that Horsa died there. Hengist took control of the kingdom with his son Esc, in 457, Hengist and Esc fought against British forces in Crayford and there slew four thousand men. The Britons left the land of Kent and fled to London, in 465, Hengest and Esc fought again at the Battle of Wippedesfleot, probably near Ebbsfleet, and slew twelve British leaders
Hengest
–
Hengest and Horsa, from A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence by
Richard Verstegan (1605)
Hengest
–
A page from
Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum
Hengest
–
Hengist (1611) depicted by
John Speed
Hengest
–
Horse head gables in
Wedemark,
Hannover, Northern Germany
26.
Celtic Ireland
–
Gaelic Ireland was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the prehistoric era until the early 17th century. Before the Norman invasion of 1169, Gaelic Ireland comprised the whole island, thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time. For most of its history, Gaelic Ireland was a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs. Warfare between these territories was common, occasionally, a powerful ruler was acknowledged as High King of Ireland. Society was made up of clans and, like the rest of Europe, was structured according to class. Throughout this period, the economy was mainly pastoral and money not used. A Gaelic Irish style of dress, music, dance, sport, architecture, Gaelic Ireland was initially pagan and had an oral culture. Inscription in the alphabet began in the protohistoric period, perhaps as early as the 1st century. The conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of literature, and much of Irelands rich pre-Christian mythology and sophisticated law code were preserved, in the Early Middle Ages, Ireland was an important centre of learning. Irish missionaries and scholars were influential in western Europe, and helped to spread Christianity to much of Britain, in the 9th century, Vikings began raiding and founding settlements along Irelands coasts and waterways, which became its first large towns. Over time, these settlers were assimilated and became the Norse-Gaels, after the Norman invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the control of Norman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with the native Irish. The King of England claimed sovereignty over this territory – the Lordship of Ireland –, however, the Gaelic system continued in areas outside Anglo-Norman control. The territory under English control gradually shrank to a known as the Pale and, outside this. In 1542, Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship a Kingdom, the English then began to conquer the island. By 1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the old Gaelic political and social order to an end, Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Filí and draoithe were held in high regard during Pagan times and orally passed down the history, later, many of their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the 5th century onwards. However, the continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland, hospitality, bonds of kinship and the fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important
Celtic Ireland
–
An Irish bronze
reliquary from the 7th or 8th century
Celtic Ireland
–
A bronze disc from the pre-Christian era, found near
Derry – the triple spiral symbol is often associated with Gaelic pagan holy sites
Celtic Ireland
–
A reconstruction of an early Irish Christian chapel and
high cross at the Irish National Heritage Park in County Wexford
27.
Merlin (wizard)
–
Merlin is a legendary figure best known as the wizard featured in Arthurian legend and medieval Welsh poetry. The standard depiction of the character first appears in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae,1136, and is based on an amalgamation of previous historical and legendary figures. He is allegedly buried in the Broceliande forest, near Paimpont in Brittany, Geoffreys rendering of the character was immediately popular, especially in Wales. Later writers expanded the account to produce an image of the wizard. Merlins traditional biography casts him as a cambion, born of a woman, sired by an incubus. The name of Merlins mother is not usually stated, but is given as Adhan in the oldest version of the Prose Brut, Merlin matures to an ascendant sagehood and engineers the birth of Arthur through magic and intrigue. Later authors have Merlin serve as the kings advisor until he is bewitched and imprisoned by the Lady of the Lake, the name Merlin is derived from the Welsh Myrddin, the name of the bard Myrddin Wyllt, one of the chief sources for the later legendary figure. Geoffrey of Monmouth Latinised the name to Merlinus in his works, medievalist Gaston Paris suggests that Geoffrey chose the form Merlinus rather than the regular Merdinus to avoid a resemblance to the Anglo-Norman word merde for feces. Clas Myrddin or Merlins Enclosure is a name for Great Britain stated in the Third Series of Welsh Triads. Celticist A. O. H. Jarman suggests that the Welsh name Myrddin was derived from the toponym Caerfyrddin and this contrasts with the popular folk etymology that the town was named for the bard. The name Carmarthen is derived from the towns previous Roman name Moridunum, itself derived from Celtic Brittonic *moridunon, sea fortress. The former had nothing to do with Arthur, in British poetry he was a bard driven mad after witnessing the horrors of war, who fled civilization to become a wild man of the wood in the 6th century. Geoffrey had this individual in mind when he wrote his earliest surviving work, the Prophetiae Merlini, Geoffreys Prophetiae do not reveal much about Merlins background. He included the prophet in his next work Historia Regum Britanniae, supplementing the characterisation by attributing to him stories about Aurelius Ambrosius, according to Nennius, Ambrosius was discovered when the British king Vortigern was trying to erect a tower. The tower always collapsed before completion, and his men told him that the only solution was to sprinkle the foundation with the blood of a child born without a father. Geoffrey retells this story in Historia Regum Britanniæ with some embellishments and he goes on to add new episodes that tie Merlin into the story of King Arthur and his predecessors, such as bringing the stones for Stonehenge from Preseli Hills in south-west Wales and Ireland. Geoffrey dealt with Merlin again in his third work Vita Merlini and he based the Vita on stories of the original 6th-century Myrddin, set long after his time frame for the life of Merlin Ambrosius. He tries to assert that the characters are the same references to King Arthur and his death
Merlin (wizard)
–
Merlin reciting his poem in a 13th-century illustration for Merlin by
Robert de Boron
Merlin (wizard)
–
The Enchanter Merlin, by
Howard Pyle from
The Story of King Arthur and His Knights (1903)
Merlin (wizard)
–
A giant helps Merlin build
Stonehenge. From a manuscript of the
Roman de Brut by
Wace (British Library, Egerton 3208)
Merlin (wizard)
–
"Merlinus" in the
Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)
28.
Stonehenge
–
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, England,2 miles west of Amesbury and 8 miles north of Salisbury. Stonehenges ring of standing stones are set within earthworks in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, archaeologists believe it was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. Radiocarbon dating suggests that the first bluestones were raised between 2400 and 2200 BC, although they may have been at the site as early as 3000 BC, one of the most famous landmarks in the UK, Stonehenge is regarded as a British cultural icon. It has been a legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument since 1882 when legislation to protect historic monuments was first successfully introduced in Britain, the site and its surroundings were added to UNESCOs list of World Heritage Sites in 1986. Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage, Stonehenge could have been a burial ground from its earliest beginnings. Deposits containing human bone date from as early as 3000 BC, when the ditch and bank were first dug, William Stukeley in 1740 notes, Pendulous rocks are now called henges in Yorkshire. I doubt not, Stonehenge in Saxon signifies the hanging stones. Like Stonehenges trilithons, medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, rather than the inverted L-shape more familiar today, the henge portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as henges. Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a banked enclosure with an internal ditch. As often happens in archaeological terminology, this is a holdover from antiquarian use, Stonehenge evolved in several construction phases spanning at least 1500 years. There is evidence of construction on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscapes time frame to 6500 years. The modern phasing most generally agreed to by archaeologists is detailed below, features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right. Archaeologists have found four, or possibly five, large Mesolithic postholes and these held pine posts around 0.75 metres in diameter, which were erected and eventually rotted in situ. Three of the posts were in an east-west alignment which may have had significance, no parallels are known from Britain at the time. A settlement that may have been contemporaneous with the posts has been found at Blick Mead, a reliable year round spring 1 mile from Stonehenge. Salisbury Plain was then still wooded but 4,000 years later, during the earlier Neolithic, people built an enclosure at Robin Hoods Ball. In approximately 3500 BC, a Stonehenge Cursus was built 700 metres north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the trees, a number of other adjacent stone and wooden structures and burial mounds, previously overlooked, may date as far back as 4000 BC. Charcoal from the ‘Blick Mead’ camp 2.4 kilometres from Stonehenge has been dated to 4000 BC and it stood in open grassland on a slightly sloping spot
Stonehenge
–
Stonehenge in August 2014
Stonehenge
–
Plan of Stonehenge in 2004. After Cleal et al. and Pitts. Italicised numbers in the text refer to the labels on this plan. Trilithon lintels omitted for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles. Stones visible today are shown coloured
Stonehenge
–
Stonehenge 1. After Cleal et al.
29.
Duke of Cornwall
–
Duke of Cornwall is a title in the Peerage of England, traditionally held by the eldest son of the reigning British monarch, previously the English monarch. The Duchy of Cornwall was the first duchy created in England and was established by charter in 1337. The present duke is the Prince of Wales, the eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and his wife, Camilla, is the current Duchess. According to legend, Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall under King Uther Pendragon, Uther killed Gorlois and took Igraine, the result of their union was the future King Arthur. Edward, the Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward III, was made the first Duke of Cornwall in 1337, after Edward predeceased the King, the duchy was recreated for his son, the future Richard II. Under a charter of 1421, the passes to the sovereigns eldest son. Cornwall was the first dukedom conferred within the Kingdom of England, the dukedom of Cornwall can only be held by the oldest living son of the monarch who is also heir apparent. In the event of a Duke of Cornwalls death, the title merges in the Crown even if he left surviving descendants, the monarchs grandson, even if he is the heir apparent, does not succeed to the dukedom. Similarly, no female may ever be Duke of Cornwall, even if she is heir presumptive or heir apparent to the throne. However, if a Duke of Cornwall should die without descendants and has no sister, his next brother obtains the duchy. It is possible for an individual to be Prince of Wales, the title Prince of Wales is the traditional title of the heir apparent to the throne, granted at the discretion of the Sovereign, and is not restricted to the eldest son. For example, King George IIs heir apparent, the future George III, was Prince of Wales, James Francis Edward Stuart, son of James II, was born Duke of Cornwall in 1688. Although his father lost the throne, James Francis Edward was not deprived of his own honours, on a Jacobite perspective, on his fathers death in 1701 the duchy of Cornwall was merged in the Crown. On a Hanoverian perspective, it was as a result of his claiming his fathers lost thrones that James was attainted for treason on 2 March 1702, the current Duke of Cornwall is Charles, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II, the reigning monarch. Charles was officially proclaimed Duke of Cornwall at Launceston Castle in 1973. As part of his feudal dues there was a pair of gloves, gilt spurs and greyhounds, a pound of pepper and cumin, a bow, one hundred silver shillings, wood for his fires. The Dukes second wife, Camilla, whom he married on 9 April 2005 at the Guildhall in Windsor, is the current Duchess of Cornwall and she is also Princess of Wales but does not use that title. Should there be no Duke of Cornwall at any time, the income of the Duchy goes to the Crown, the Duchy includes over 570 square kilometres of land, more than half of which lies in Devon
Duke of Cornwall
–
HRH The Prince of Wales, the current Duke of Cornwall
30.
Tintagel
–
Tintagel /tɪnˈtædʒəl/ or Trevena is a civil parish and village situated on the Atlantic coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The population of the parish was 1,820 people, the parish population decreased to 1,727 at the 2011 census. An electoral ward also exists extending inland to Otterham, the population of this ward at the same census was 3,990. The village and nearby Tintagel Castle are associated with the legends surrounding King Arthur, the village has, in recent times, become attractive to day-trippers and tourists, and is one of the most-visited places in Britain. Toponymists have had difficulty explaining the origin of Tintagel, the probability is that it is Norman French as the Cornish of the 13th century would have lacked the soft g, if it is Cornish then Dun would mean Fort. Oliver Padel proposes Dun -tagell meaning narrow place in his book on place names, There is a possible cognate in the Channel Islands named Tente dAgel, but that still leaves the question subject to doubt. The name first occurs in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae as Tintagol, but in Layamons Brut, in early Middle English, the name is rendered as Tintaieol. The letter i in this spelling implies a soft consonant like modern English j, the modern-day village of Tintagel was always known as Trevena until the Post Office started using Tintagel as the name in the mid-19th century. The village also features the Old Post Office, which dates from the 14th century and it became a post office during the 19th century, and is now listed Grade I and owned by the National Trust. In Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, merlin disguised Uther Pendragon as Gorlois so that Uther could enter Tintagel and impregnate Igraine while pretending to be Gorlois. Uther and Igraines child was King Arthur, Tintagel is also used as a locus for the Arthurian mythos by the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson in the poem Idylls of the King. Algernon Charles Swinburnes Tristram of Lyonesse is a version of the Tristan. Thomas Hardys The Famous Tragedy of the Queen of Cornwall at Tintagel in Lyonnesse, in Norman times a small castle was established at Bossiney, probably before the Domesday Survey of 1086, Bossiney and Trevena were established as a borough in 1253 by Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall. In Domesday Book there are two manors in this parish. Bossiney was held from the monks of Bodmin by the Earl of Cornwall, the monks of Bodmin held Treknow themselves, there was land for 8 ploughs and 100 acres of pasture. Tintagel was one of the 17 Antiqua maneria of the Duchy of Cornwall, the parish feast traditionally celebrated at Tintagel was 19 October, the feast day of St Denys, patron of the chapel at Trevena. The market hall and the site of the fair were near the chapel, the borough of Bossiney was given the right to send two MPs to Parliament c.1552 and continued to do so until 1832 when its status as a borough was abolished. The villages of Trevena and Bossiney were until the early 20th century separated by fields along Bossiney Road
Tintagel
–
View of Fore Street, Trevena
Tintagel
–
The Old Post Office, a historic building run by
The National Trust
Tintagel
–
View of Treknow, Tintagel and Bossiney from
King's Down
31.
Gawain
–
Gawain is King Arthurs nephew and a Knight of the Round Table in the Arthurian legend. Under the name Gwalchmei, he very early in the legends development. He is one of a number of Round Table members to be referred to as one of the greatest knights, most notably in Sir Gawain. He is almost always portrayed as the son of Arthurs sister Morgause and King Lot of Orkney and Lothian, and his brothers are Agravain, Gaheris, Gareth and he was well known to be the most trustworthy friend of Sir Lancelot. In some works, Sir Gawain has sisters as well, according to some legends, he would have been the true and rightful heir to the throne of Camelot, after the reign of King Arthur. Gawain is often portrayed as a formidable, courteous, and also a warrior, fiercely loyal to his king. He is a friend to young knights, a defender of the poor, and as the Maidens Knight, a defender of women as well. In some works, his strength waxes and wanes with the sun, in the most common form of this motif, his might triples by noon, but fades as the sun sets. Gawain appears in English, French and Celtic literature as well as in Italy where he appears in the architecture of the portal in the cathedral of Modena. Gawain is known by different names and variants in different languages, the character corresponds to the Welsh Gwalchmei ap Gwyar, and is known in Latin as Walwen, Gualguanus, Waluanus, etc. in French as Gauvain, and in English as Gawain. The later forms are generally assumed to derive from the Welsh Gwalchmei, the element Gwalch means hawk, and is a typical epithet in medieval Welsh poetry. The meaning of mei is uncertain and it has been suggested that it refers to the month of May, rendering Hawk of May, though scholar Rachel Bromwich considers this unlikely. Kenneth Jackson suggests the name evolved from an early Common Brittonic name *Ualcos Magesos, not all scholars accept the gwalch derivation. Celticist John Koch suggests the name could be derived from a Brythonic original *Wolcos Magesos, others argue that the continental forms do not ultimately derive from Gwalchmei. Medievalist Roger Sherman Loomis suggests a derivation from the epithet Gwallt Avwyn, found in the list of heroes in Culhwch and Olwen, which he translates as hair like reins or bright hair. Dutch scholar Lauran Toorians proposes that the Dutch name Walewein was earliest, however, most scholarship supports a derivation from Gwalchmei, variants of which are well attested in Wales and Brittany. Scholars such as Bromwich, Joseph Loth, and Heinrich Zimmer trace the etymology of the versions to a corruption of the Breton form of the name. Unlike the other helpers he takes no part in the action, suggesting he was added to the romance later
Gawain
–
Sir Gawaine the Son of Lot, King of Orkney, by
Howard Pyle from The Story of King Arthur and His Knights (1903)
Gawain
–
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
Gawain
–
Gawain unwittingly fights
Ywain, from Chrétien's
Knight of the Lion
Gawain
–
Sir Gawaine finds the beautiful Lady, by Howard Pyle from The Story of King Arthur and His Knights (1903)
32.
Verulamium
–
Verulamium was a town in Roman Britain. It was sited in the southwest of the city of St Albans in Hertfordshire. A large portion of the Roman city remains unexcavated, being now park and agricultural land, the ancient Watling Street passed through the city. Much of the site and its environs is now classed as an ancient monument. Before the Romans established their settlement, there was already a centre in the area which belonged to the Catuvellauni. This settlement is usually called Verlamion, the etymology is uncertain but the name has been reconstructed as *Uerulāmion, which would have a meaning like of the broad hand in Brittonic. In this pre-Roman form, it was among the first places in Britain recorded by name, the settlement was established by Tasciovanus, who minted coins there. The Roman settlement was granted the rank of municipium around AD50, meaning its citizens had what were known as Latin Rights and it grew steadily, by the early 3rd century, it covered an area of about 125 acres, behind a deep ditch and wall. It is the location of the martyrdom of the first British martyr saint, Saint Alban, Verulamium contained a forum, basilica and a theatre, much of which were damaged during two fires, one in 155 and the other in around 250. One of the few extant Roman inscriptions in Britain is found on the remnants of the forum, the town was rebuilt in stone rather than timber at least twice over the next 150 years. Occupation by the Romans ended between 400 and 450, more remains under the nearby agricultural land which have never been excavated were for a while seriously threatened by deep ploughing. St Albans Abbey and the associated Anglo-Saxon settlement were founded on a hill outside the Roman city, the site of the abbey may have been a location where there was reason to believe that St Alban was executed or buried. More certainly, the abbey is near the site of a Roman cemetery and it is unknown whether there are Roman remains under the medieval abbey. An archaeological excavation in 1978, directed by Martin Biddle, failed to find Roman remains on the site of the chapter house. David Nash Ford identifies the community as the Cair Mincip listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his History of the Britains. The modern city takes its name from Alban, either a citizen of Verulamium or a Roman soldier, who was condemned to death in the 3rd century for sheltering Amphibalus, a Christian. Alban was converted by him to Christianity, and by virtue of his death, since much of the modern city and its environs is built over Roman remains, it is still common to unearth Roman artefacts several miles away. A complete tile kiln was found in Park Street some six miles from Verulamium in the 1970s, no trace of it is left, but Aubrey noted, At Verulam is to be seen, in some few places, some remains of the wall of this Citie
Verulamium
–
Remains of the city walls
Verulamium
–
Roman theatre
Verulamium
–
Another stretch of Roman wall
33.
St Albans
–
St Albans /sənt ˈɔːlbənz/, /seɪn. / is a city in Hertfordshire, England, and the major urban area in the City and District of St Albans. It lies east of Hemel Hempstead and west of Hatfield, about 19 miles north-northwest of London,8 miles southwest of Welwyn Garden City and 11 miles south-southeast of Luton. St Albans was the first major town on the old Roman road of Watling Street for travellers heading north and it is a historic market town and is now a dormitory town within the London commuter belt and the Greater London Built-up Area. St Albans takes its name from the first British saint, Alban, Alban met a Christian priest fleeing from his persecutors and sheltered him in his house, where he became so impressed with the priests piety that he converted to Christianity. When the authorities searched Albans house, he put on the priests cloak, consequently, he was sentenced to endure the punishments that were to be inflicted upon the priest, unless he renounced Christianity. Alban refused and was taken for execution, in later legends, his head rolled downhill after execution and a well sprang up where it stopped. The name Verulamium is Celtic, meaning settlement over or by the marsh, the town was on Prae Hill,2 km to the west of modern St Albans, now covered by the village of St. Michaels, Verulamium Park and the Gorhambury Estate. It is believed that the capital was moved to the site by Tasciovanus. Cunobelinus may have constructed Beech Bottom Dyke, an earthwork near the settlement whose significance is uncertain. It grew steadily, by the early 3rd century, it covered an area of about 125 acres, behind a deep ditch and wall. Verulamium contained a forum, basilica and a theatre, much of which were damaged during two fires, one in 155 and the other in around 250, one of the few extant Roman inscriptions in Britain is found on the remnants of the forum. The town was rebuilt in stone rather than timber at least twice over the next 150 years, occupation by the Romans ended between 400 and 450. St Alban was probably buried outside the city walls in a Roman cemetery near the present Cathedral and his hillside grave became a place of pilgrimage. Recent investigation has uncovered a basilica there, indicating the oldest continuous site of Christian worship in Great Britain, in 429 Germanus of Auxerre visited the church and subsequently promoted the cult of St Alban. More remains under the agricultural land which have never been excavated were for a while seriously threatened by deep ploughing. After the Roman withdrawal the town, became the centre of the territory or regio of the Anglo-Saxon Waeclingas tribe, St Albans Abbey and the associated Anglo-Saxon settlement were founded on the hill outside the Roman city where it was believed St Alban was buried. An archaeological excavation in 1978, directed by Martin Biddle, failed to find Roman remains on the site of the chapter house. The medieval town grew on the hill to the east of Wæclingacaester where the Benedictine Abbey of St Albans was founded by Ulsinus in 793, there is some evidence that the original site was higher up the hill than the present building, which was begun in 1077
St Albans
–
View of the west end of St Albans Abbey Church
St Albans
–
The early 15th century Clock Tower
St Albans
–
St Albans: French Row (to the left), Market Place (to the right), St Peter's Street and the tower of St Peter's Church (centre)
St Albans
–
Remains of Roman wall
34.
Gildas
–
He is one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sub-Roman period, and was renowned for his Biblical knowledge and literary style. In his later life, he emigrated to Brittany where he founded a monastery known as St. Gildas de Rhuys. Differing versions of the Life of Saint Gildas exist, but both agree that he was born in what is now Scotland on the banks of the River Clyde, and these works were written in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and are regarded by scholars as unhistorical. He is now thought to have his origins further south, in his own work, he claims to have been born the same year as the Battle of Mount Badon. He was educated at a center, possibly Cor Tewdws under St. Illtud. He became a teacher, converting many to Christianity and founding numerous churches and monasteries throughout Britain. He is thought to have made a pilgrimage to Rome before emigrating to Brittany, however, his life of solitude was short-lived, and pupils soon sought him out and begged him to teach them. He is thought to have died at Rhuys, and was buried there, the 9th century Rhuys Life is generally accepted as being more accurate. The First Life of St. Gildas was written by a monk at the monastery which Gildas founded in Rhuys. According to this tradition, Gildas is the son of Caunus, king of Alt Clut in the Hen Ogledd and he had four brothers, his brother Cuillum ascended to the throne on the death of his father, but the rest became monks in their own right. Gildas was sent as a child to the College of Theodosius in Glamorgan, under the care of St. Illtud and his master St. Illtud loved him tenderly and taught him with special zeal. He was supposed to be educated in arts and divine scripture, but elected to study only holy doctrine. After completing his studies under St. Illtud, Gildas went to Ireland where he was ordained as a priest and he returned to his native lands in northern Britain where he acted as a missionary, preaching to the pagan people and converting many of them to Christianity. He was then asked by Ainmericus, high king of Ireland, to order to the church in Ireland. Gildas obeyed the summons and travelled all over the island, converting the inhabitants, building churches. He then travelled to Rome and Ravenna where he performed many miracles, intending to return to Britain, he instead settled on the Isle of Houat off Brittany where he led a solitary, austere life. At around this time, he preached to Nonnita, the mother of Saint David. He was eventually sought out by those who wished to study under him and he built an oratory on the bank of the River Blavetum, today known as St. Gildas de Rhuys
Gildas
–
Statue of Saint Gildas near the village of
Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys (France).
Gildas
–
The spring of St. Gildas in
Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys, Morbihan
Gildas
–
Spring of St Gildas,
Magoar, Brittany
35.
Round Table (Camelot)
–
The Round Table is King Arthurs famed table in the Arthurian legend, around which he and his Knights congregate. As its name suggests, it has no head, implying that everyone who sits there has equal status, the table was first described in 1155 by Wace, who relied on previous depictions of Arthurs fabulous retinue. The symbolism of the Round Table developed over time, by the close of the 12th century it had come to represent the order associated with Arthurs court. The Round Table first appears in Waces Roman de Brut, a Norman language adaptation of Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae finished in 1155, Wace says Arthur created the Round Table to prevent quarrels among his barons, none of whom would accept a lower place than the others. Layamon added to the story when he adapted Waces work into the Middle English Brut in the early 13th century, in response a Cornish carpenter built an enormous but easily transportable Round Table to prevent further dispute. Wace claims he was not the source of the Round Table, some scholars have doubted this claim, while others believe it may be true. Though the Round Table itself is not mentioned until Wace, the concept of Arthur having a court made up of many prominent warriors is much older. Geoffrey of Monmouth says that after establishing peace throughout Britain, Arthur increased his personal entourage by inviting very distinguished men from far-distant kingdoms to join it, though no Round Table appears in the early Welsh texts, Arthur is associated with various items of household furniture. A henge at Eamont Bridge near Penrith, Cumbria is known as King Arthurs Round Table, the still-visible Roman amphitheatre at Caerleon has been associated with the Round Table. and has been suggested as a possible source for the legend. The Round Table takes on new dimensions in the romances of the late 12th and early 13th century, where it becomes a symbol of the famed order of chivalry which flourishes under Arthur. In Robert de Borons Merlin, written around the 1190s, the wizard Merlin creates the Round Table in imitation of the table of the Last Supper and of Joseph of Arimatheas Holy Grail table. This table, here made for Arthurs father Uther Pendragon rather than Arthur himself, has twelve seats and this seat must remain empty until the coming of the knight who will achieve the Grail. The Didot Perceval, a continuation of Roberts work, takes up the story. The prose cycles of the 13th century, the Lancelot-Grail cycle, here it is the perfect knight Galahad, rather than Percival, who assumes the empty seat, now called the Siege Perilous. Galahads arrival marks the start of the Grail quest as well as the end of the Arthurian era, in these works the Round Table is kept by King Leodegrance of Cameliard after Uthers death, Arthur inherits it when he marries Leodegrances daughter Guinevere. Other versions treat the Round Table differently, for instance Italian Arthurian works often distinguish between the Old Table of Uthers time and Arthurs New Table, during the Middle Ages, festivals called Round Tables were celebrated throughout Europe in imitation of Arthurs court. These events featured jousting, dancing, and feasting, and in some cases attending knights assumed the identities of Arthurs entourage, the earliest of these was held in Cyprus in 1223 to celebrate a knighting. Round Tables were popular in various European countries through the rest of the Middle Ages and were at times very elaborate, René of Anjou even erected an Arthurian castle for his 1446 Round Table
Round Table (Camelot)
–
King Arthur presides at the Round Table with all of his Knights.
Round Table (Camelot)
–
Sir Galahad takes the "
Siege Perilous "
Round Table (Camelot)
–
Winchester Round Table
36.
Bourges
–
Bourges is a city in central France on the Yèvre river. It is the capital of the department of Cher and also was the capital of the province of Berry. The name of the city derives either from the Bituriges, the name of the inhabitants, or from the Germanic Burg. The Celts called it Avaricon, Latin-speakers, Avaricum, following the siege of Avaricum in the winter of 52 BC, Julius Caesars forces destroyed the city and killed all but 800 of its inhabitants. Rome reconstructed Avaricum as a Roman city, with a gate, aqueducts, thermae. The massive walls surrounding the late Roman city, enclosing 40 hectares, were built in part with stone re-used from earlier public buildings, the third-century AD Saint Ursinus, also known as Saint Ursin, is considered the first bishop of the city. Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, during the 8th century Bourges lay on the northern fringes of the Duchy of Aquitaine and was therefore the first town to come under Frankish attacks when the Franks crossed the Loire. The Frankish Charles Martel captured the town in 731, but Duke Odo the Great of Aquitaine immediately re-took it, the Gothic Cathedral of Saint Etienne, begun at the end of the twelfth century, ranks as a World Heritage Site. It is considered as one of the earliest examples of the High Gothic style of the thirteenth century, during the Middle Ages, Bourges served as the capital of the Viscounty of Bourges until 1101. In the fourteenth century it became the capital of the Duchy of Berry, the future king of France, Charles VII, sought refuge there in the 1420s during the Hundred Years War. His son, Louis XI, was there in 1423. In 1438, Charles VII decreed the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, during this period, Bourges was also a major capital of alchemy. The city has a tradition of art and history. Apart from the cathedral, other sites of importance include the 15th-century Palace of Jacques Cœur, Bourges sits at the river junction where the Auron flows into the Yèvre. The disused Canal de Berry follows alongside the course of the Auron through Bourges, the A71 motorway connects Bourges with Orléans and Clermont-Ferrand. Bourges Airport is a regional airport. Bourges principal football team are Bourges Football 18 and it is also home to the womens basketball club CJM Bourges Basket, which has won multiple titles in domestic and European basketball. Bourges XV is the rugby team in the region, currently playing in French National Division
Bourges
–
Bourges Cathedral
Bourges
–
Floorplan of the cathedral of Bourges
Bourges
–
Half-timbered houses in Place Gordaine
37.
Wolfram von Eschenbach
–
Wolfram von Eschenbach was a German knight and poet, regarded as one of the greatest epic poets of medieval German literature. As a Minnesinger, he also wrote lyric poetry, little is known of Wolframs life. There are no documents which mention him, and his works are the sole source of evidence. In Parzival he talks of wir Beier, the dialect of his works is East Franconian, the arms shown in the Manesse manuscript come from the imagination of a 14th-century artist, drawing on the figure of the Red Knight in Parzival, and have no heraldic connection with Wolfram. Wolframs work indicates a number of patrons, which suggests that he served at a number of courts during his life. In his Parzival he claims he is illiterate and recorded the work by dictation, Wolfram is best known today for his Parzival, sometimes regarded as the greatest of all German epics from that time. Based on Chrétien de Troyes Perceval, le Conte du Graal, in the poem, Wolframs narrator expresses disdain for Chrétiens version of the tale, and states that his source was a poet from Provence called Kyot. Some scholars believe Wolfram might have meant Guiot de Provins, however others believe Kyot was simply a device invented by Wolfram to explain his deviations from Chrétiens version. Wolfram is the author of two other works, the fragmentary Titurel and the unfinished Willehalm. These were both composed after Parzival, and Titurel mentions the death of Hermann I, which dates it firmly after 1217, Titurel consists of two fragments, which tell us the story of Schionatulander and Sigune. First fragment deals with the birth of love between main characters, the second one is quite different. Schionatulander and Sigune spend some time in the forest, when all of a sudden their peace is disturbed by the mysterious dog. Siguna eagers to read the story, but dog runs away from them, Schionatulander sets off to find him, but, as we already know from Parzival, he dies trying. Willehalm — the unfinished poem based on Old French chanson de geste Aliscans, Willehalm was quite a significant work, as survived 16 manuscripts in total. The plot goes like that, main character kidnaps a princess and, after turning her into christianity. Pegan king gathers an army to fight his daughter back, Wolframs nine surviving songs, five of which are dawn-songs, are regarded as masterpieces of Minnesang. Dawn-songs recount the story of a knight who spends the night with his beloved lady, mostly its the lady who wakes the knight up in the morning, but sometimes this mission is made by the watchman. The 84 surviving manuscripts of Parzival, both complete and fragmentary, indicate the popularity of Wolframs major work in the following two centuries
Wolfram von Eschenbach
–
Portrait of Wolfram from the
Codex Manesse, c. 1300
Wolfram von Eschenbach
Wolfram von Eschenbach
–
Statue of Wolfram at Burg Abenberg
38.
Parzival
–
Parzival is a medieval German romance written by the poet Wolfram von Eschenbach in Middle High German. The poem, commonly dated to the first quarter of the 13th century, centers on the Arthurian hero Parzival, Parzival begins with the knightly adventures of Parzivals father, Gahmuret, his marriage to Herzeloyde, and the birth of Parzival. The story continues as Parzival meets three elegant knights, decides to seek King Arthur, and continues a spiritual and physical search for the Grail. A long section is devoted to Parzivals friend Gawan and his adventures defending himself from a murder charge. Among the most striking elements of the work are its emphasis on the importance of humility, compassion, sympathy, a major theme in Parzival is love, heroic acts of chivalry are inspired by true love, which is ultimately fulfilled in marriage. The romance was the most popular vernacular verse narrative in medieval Germany, Wolfram began a prequel, Titurel, which was later continued by another writer, while two full romances were written adapting Wolframs story of Loherangrin. Richard Wagner based his famous opera Parsifal, finished in 1882, Parzival is divided into sixteen books, each composed of several thirty-line stanzas of rhyming couplets. The stanza lengths fit perfectly onto a manuscript page, for the subject matter Wolfram von Eschenbach largely adapted the Grail romance, Perceval, the Story of the Grail, left incomplete by Chrétien de Troyes. Book I opens with the death of King Gandin, Parzivals grandfather and his oldest son, Galoes, receives the kingdom but offers his brother Gahmuret the land of Anjou in fief. However, Gahmuret departs to gain renown and he travels to the African kingdom of Zazamanc, whose capital is besieged by two different armies. Gahmuret offers his services to the city, and his offer is accepted by Queen Belacane and he conquers the invaders, marries Queen Belacane, and becomes king of Zazamanc and Azagouc. Growing bored with peace, Gahmuret steals away on a ship, Belacane later gives birth to a son, Feirefiz. In Book II, Gahmuret returns to the West, where he meets, ever restless, however, he soon returns to fight for the Baruch in the Far East, where he is later killed by a treacherous acquaintance. His seclusion is shattered by three knights passing who tell him of King Arthurs court at Camelot, enamored, he decides to go join Arthurs court. His mother is heartbroken at the news of his decision but allows him to depart, soon after his departure she dies, utterly bereft. The first part of the takes place completely in the world of King Arthur. After becoming entangled in courtly intrigue between Duke Orilus and his wife Jeschute he meets his cousin Sigune who reveals to him his true name, Parzival also fights and kills Ither, the red knight of Kukumerlant. Putting on the red armor he rides away from the court and meets Gurnemanz, from whom he learns the duties of a knight, especially self-control
Parzival
–
Illuminated manuscript page of Parzival
39.
Morgan the Fay
–
Early works featuring Morgan do not elaborate her character beyond her role as a fay or sorceress. To the former, in early chivalric romances by Chrétien de Troyes and her character may be partially derived from that of the Welsh goddess Modron and other myths. She is often said to be the daughter of Arthurs mother Lady Igraine and her first husband Gorlois, so that Arthur, the son of Igraine and Uther Pendragon, is her half-brother. She becomes an apprentice of Merlin and an adversary of Arthur. In Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur and elsewhere, she is married to King Urien, with whom she has the son Ywain. She is also wanton and sexually aggressive, with many lovers including Merlin and Accolon, the earliest spelling of the name is Morgen, which is likely derived from Old Welsh or Old Breton Morgen, meaning Sea-born. The name is not to be confused with the Modern Welsh masculine name Morgan, while later works make her specifically human, she retains her magical powers. Inspiration for her character came from earlier Welsh mythology and literature. Additional speculation sometimes connects Morgan with the Irish goddess Morrígan, though there are few similarities between the two beyond the spelling of their names. Morgan has been more substantially linked with the goddess Modron, a derived from the continental Dea Matrona. Arthurian legends version of Urien is Morgan le Fays husband in the continental romances, the hystorical Urien had a treacherous ally named Morcant Bulc who plotted to assassinate him, similar to how Morgan attempts to kill Urien in the later version of Arthurian myth. This is similar to Avalon, the Isle of Apples with which Morgan le Fay has been associated since her earliest appearances. According to the chronicler Gerald of Wales, Morganis was a cousin of King Arthur who carried him to her island of Avalon. Writing in his Latin encyclopedic work Otia Imperialia, around the time and with similar derision for this belief. Morgan first appears by name in Vita Merlini, written by Norman-Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth about 1150, purportedly an account of the wizard Merlins later adventures, it elaborates some episodes from Geoffreys more famous earlier work, Historia Regum Britanniae. In Historia, Geoffrey relates how King Arthur, seriously wounded by Mordred at the Battle of Camlann, is taken off to the blessed Isle of Apple Trees, Avalon and her sisters names are Moronoe, Mazoe, Gliten, Glitonea, Gliton, Tyronoe, Thiten and Thiton. Prior to the cyclical Old French prose, the appearances of Morgan are few, the 12th-century French poet Chrétien de Troyes mentions her in his first romance Erec and Enide, completed around 1170. In it, a love of Morgan is Guinguemar, the Lord of the Isle of Avalon and a nephew of King Arthur and she is later mentioned in the same poem when Arthur provides the wounded hero Erec with a healing balm made by his sister Morgan
Morgan the Fay
–
Morgan le Fay by
Frederick Sandys (1864)
Morgan the Fay
–
Voyage of King Arthur and Morgan le Fay to the Isle of Avalon by Frank William Warwick (1888)
Morgan the Fay
–
A detail of
The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon by
Edward Burne-Jones (1898)
Morgan the Fay
–
Morgan le Fay by Edward Burne-Jones (1862)
40.
Anjou
–
Anjou is an historical and cultural region of France, a former French county, duchy, and province. Its capital was the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley, the territory has no very clear geographical borders but instead owes its territory and prominence to the fortunes of its various rulers. Henry Curtmantle, count of Anjou, inherited the kingdom of England on October 25,1154, the resulting Angevin Empire would, at its peak, spread from Ulster to the Pyrenees. Count Arthur was taken prisoner by his uncle the king in 1203, in 1205, the county was seized by Philip II Augustus of France. Its status was elevated to that of a duchy for Prince Louis, Anjou corresponds largely to the present-day department of Maine-et-Loire. It occupied the part of what is now the department of Maine-et-Loire. Anjous political origin is traced to the ancient Gallic state of the Andes, after the conquest by Julius Caesar, the area was organized around the Roman civitas of the Andecavi. The Roman civitas was afterward preserved as a district under the Franks with the name first of pagus—then of comitatus or countship—of Anjou. At the beginning of the reign of Charles the Bald, the integrity of Anjou was seriously menaced by a danger, from Brittany to the west. Lambert, a count of Nantes, devastated Anjou in concert with Nominoé. By the end of the year 851, he had succeeded in occupying all the part as far as the Mayenne. The principality which he carved out for himself was occupied on his death by Erispoé. By him, it was handed down to his successors, in whose hands it remained until the beginning of the 10th century, the Normans raided the country continuously as well. A brave man was needed to defend it, the chroniclers of Anjou named a Tertullus as the first count, elevated from obscurity by Charles the Bald. A figure by that name seems to have been the father of the later count Ingelger but his dynasty seems to have preceded by Robert the Strong. Robert met his death in 866 in a battle at Brissarthe against the Normans, hugh the Abbot succeeded him in the countship of Anjou as in most of his other duties, on his death in 886, it passed to Odo, Roberts eldest son. His descendants continued to bear that rank for three centuries and he was succeeded by his son Fulk II the Good, author of the proverb that an unlettered king is a wise ass, in 938. He was succeeded in turn by his son Geoffrey I Grisegonelle around 958, Geoffrey Greytunic succeeded in making the Count of Nantes his vassal and in obtaining from the Duke of Aquitaine the concession in fief of the district of Loudun
Anjou
–
Remains of the fortress of Langeais, built by Fulk III
Anjou
–
Anjou
Anjou
–
Flag of Anjou in
Champtoceaux, facing
Brittany
Anjou
–
Graves of
Eleanor of Aquitaine and
Henry II of England in
Fontevraud-l'Abbaye
41.
Percival
–
Percival is one of King Arthurs legendary Knights of the Round Table. He is most well known for being the hero in the quest for the Grail before being replaced in later literature by Galahad. Chrétien de Troyes wrote the first story of Perceval, le Conte du Graal, wolfram von Eschenbachs Parzival, Sir Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur, and the now lost Perceval of Robert de Boron are other famous accounts of his adventures. There are many versions of Percevals birth, in Robert de Borons account Saint Graal, he is of noble birth, his father is stated to be either Alain le Gros, King Pellinore or another worthy knight. His mother is unnamed but plays a significant role in the stories. His sister is the bearer of the Holy Grail, she is sometimes named Dindrane. In tales where he is Pellinores son, his brothers are Sir Aglovale, Sir Lamorak and Sir Dornar, after the death of his father, Percevals mother takes him to the forests where she raises him ignorant to the ways of men until the age of 15. Eventually, however, a group of knights passes through his wood, wanting to be a knight himself, the boy leaves home to travel to King Arthurs court. In some versions his mother faints in shock upon seeing her son leave, after proving his worthiness as a warrior, he is knighted and invited to join the Knights of the Round Table. In the earliest story about him he is connected to the grail, upon learning of his mistake he vows to find the Grail castle again and fulfill his quest but Chretiens story breaks off soon after, to be continued in a number of different ways by various authors. In later accounts, the true Grail hero is Galahad, Lancelots son, in early versions, Percevals sweetheart was Blanchefleur and he became the King of Carbonek after healing the Fisher King, but in later versions he was a virgin who died after achieving the Grail. In Wolframs version, Percevals son is Lohengrin, the Knight of the Swan, the 1991 movie The Fisher King is, in ways, a modern retelling in which the parallels shift between characters, who themselves discuss the legend. Éric Rohmers 1978 film Perceval le Gallois is a staged interpretation of Chrétien de Troyess original poem. Parsival or a Knights Tale, by Richard Monaco, is a re-telling of the Percival legend, the book Parzival by Katherine Patterson is a retelling of the story. On the BBC television series Merlin, Percival is a large and he is also one of the few Round Table knights to survive Arthurs death. In the comic based on the television series Gargoyles, Peredur fab Ragnal achieves the Holy Grail. To honor his mentor, Arthur, he establishes a secret order who will guide the world to greater prosperity and progress, which eventually becomes the Illuminati. He is still alive and even appears young by 1996, when his organization comes into conflict with the re-awakened Arthur, a version of Percival appears in Season 5 of the American TV series Once Upon A Time
Percival
–
How Sir Galahad, Sir Bors and Sir Percival were Fed with the Sanc Grael; But Sir Percival's Sister Died by the Way, an 1864 watercolour by
Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
Percival
–
Scenes from Perceval, from a medieval illumination.
Percival
–
Galahad, Bors, and Percival achieve the Grail, a tapestry with figures by
Edward Burne-Jones.
42.
Chivalric romance
–
As a literary genre of high culture, romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but with ironic, satiric or burlesque intent. Still, the image of medieval is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the word medieval evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons. Originally, romance literature was written in Old French, Anglo-Norman, Occitan, and Provençal, during the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love. Unlike the later form of the novel and like the chansons de geste, the earliest forms were invariably in verse, but the 15th century saw many in prose, often retelling the old, rhymed versions. Many influences are clear in the forms of chivalric romance, the epics of Charlemagne, unlike such ones as Beowulf, already had feudalism rather than the tribal loyalties, this was to continue in romances. The romance form is distinguished from the epics of the Middle Ages by the changes of the 12th century. This occurred regardless of congruity to the material, Alexander the Great featured as a fully feudal king. Chivalry was treated as continuous from Roman times, historical figures reappeared, reworked, in romance. The entire Matter of France derived from known figures, and suffered somewhat because their descendents had an interest in the tales that were told of their ancestors, unlike the Matter of Britain. Hereward the Wakes early life appeared in chronicles as the embellished, romantic adventures of an exile, complete with rescuing princess, fulk Fitzwarin, an outlaw in King Johns day, has his historical background a minor thread in the episodic stream of romantic adventures. The earliest medieval romances dealt heavily with themes from folklore, which diminished over time, morgan le Fay never loses her name, but in Le Morte dArthur, she studies magic rather than being inherently magical. Still, fairies never completely vanished from the tradition, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a late tale, but the Green Knight himself is an otherworldly being. In Italy there is the story called Il Bel Gherardino and it is the most ancient prototype of an Italian singing fairy tale by an anonymous Tuscan author. It tells the story of a young Italian knight, depleted for its magnanimitas, other examples of Italian poetry tales are Antonio Puccis literature, Gismirante, Il Brutto di Bretagna or Brito di Bretagna and Madonna Lionessa. Another work of a second anonymous Italian author that is worth mentioning is Istoria di Tre Giovani Disperati e di Tre Fate, some romances, such as Apollonius of Tyre, show classical pagan origins. Tales of the Matter of Rome in particular may be derived from such works as the Alexander Romance
Chivalric romance
–
Yvain fighting
Gawain. Medieval illumination from
Chrétien de Troyes 's romance,
Yvain, le Chevalier au Lion
Chivalric romance
–
Holger Danske, or Ogier the Dane, from the Matter of France
Chivalric romance
–
A knight rescues a lady from a dragon.
43.
T.H. White
–
Terence Hanbury Tim White was an English author best known for his sequence of Arthurian novels, The Once and Future King, first published together in 1958. One of his most memorable stories is the first of series, The Sword in the Stone. White was born in Bombay in British India, to English parents Garrick Hanbury White, a superintendent in the Indian police, Terence White had a troubled childhood, with an alcoholic father and an emotionally cold mother, and his parents separated when Terence was fourteen. White went to Cheltenham College in Gloucestershire, a school, and Queens College, Cambridge. Potts became a friend and correspondent, and White later referred to him as the great literary influence in my life. While at Queens College, White wrote a thesis on Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur, White then taught at Stowe School in Buckinghamshire, for four years. In 1936 he published England Have My Bones, a memoir about a year spent in England. The same year, he left Stowe School and lived in a cottage nearby, where he wrote and revert to a feral state, engaging in falconry, hunting. White also became interested in aviation, partly to conquer his fear of heights, Whites novel Earth Stopped and its sequel Gone to Ground are science fiction novels about a disaster which devastates the world. Gone to Ground contains several stories told by the survivors. White wrote to a friend that in autumn 1937, I got desperate among my books, the novel, which White described as a preface to Malory, was titled The Sword in the Stone. Published in 1938 it told the story of the boyhood of King Arthur, White was also influenced by Freudian psychology and his lifelong involvement in natural history. The Sword in the Stone was well-reviewed and was a Book of the Month Club selection in 1939, in February 1939, White moved to Doolistown in County Meath, Ireland, where he lived out the Second World War as a de facto conscientious objector. The version of The Sword in the Stone included in The Once and it is darker, and some critics prefer the earlier version. Whites indirect experience of the war had an effect on these tales of King Arthur. In 1946, White settled in Alderney, the third largest of the Channel Islands, the same year, White published Mistress Mashams Repose, a childrens book in which a young girl discovers a group of Lilliputians living near her house. Mistress Mashams Repose was influenced by John Masefields book The Midnight Folk, in 1947, he published The Elephant and the Kangaroo, in which a repetition of Noahs Flood occurs in Ireland. Written while at his cottage in the mid-1930s, it was published after its chance discovery by
T.H. White
–
Photograph of White lecturing on his Arthurian fiction
44.
The Once and Future King
–
The Once and Future King is an Arthurian fantasy novel written by Terence Hanbury White. It was first published in 1958, and is mostly a composite of earlier works written between 1938 and 1941. Though Arthur, if he existed at all, would have ruled some time around the 6th century, the book is set around the 14th century, the book ends immediately before Arthurs final battle against his illegitimate son Mordred. Though White admits his books source material is derived from Le Morte dArthur, he reinterprets the epic events. It chronicles Arthurs final lessons from Merlyn before his death, although parts of it were incorporated into the final editions of the previous books. The story starts in the last years of the rule of King Uther Pendragon, Merlyn, knowing the boys destiny, teaches Arthur what it means to be a good king by turning him into various kinds of animals, fish, hawk, ant, goose, and badger. Each of the transformations is meant to teach Wart a lesson, neither the ant nor goose episodes were in the original Sword in the Stone when it was published as a stand-alone book. The original novel contains a battle between Merlyn and sorceress Madam Mim that was not included in The Once and Future King but was included in the Disney film. In part two, The Queen of Air and Darkness, White sets the stage for Arthurs demise by introducing the Orkney clan and detailing Arthurs seduction by their mother, his half-sister Queen Morgause. While the young king suppresses initial rebellions, Merlyn leads him to envision a means of harnessing potentially destructive Might for the cause of Right, the book begins as a quite light-hearted account of the young Arthurs adventures, and King Pellinores interminable search for the Questing Beast. Parts of The Sword in the Stone read almost as a parody of the traditional Arthurian legend by virtue of Whites prose style, however, the tale gradually changes tone until Ill-Made Knight becomes more meditative and The Candle in the Wind finds Arthur brooding over death and his legacy. For example, Arthur evolves from a fallible but inquisitive and enthusiastic youth to an individualized, lancelot is no longer the handsome knight typical in the romantic legends but is instead portrayed as the ugliest of Arthurs knights. He is also a sadist, a trait he represses, and he seeks to overcome his flaws through full devotion towards becoming Arthurs greatest knight. Merlyn lives through time backwards, making him a bumbling yet wise old man who is getting younger, Sir Galahad is not well liked by many of the knights as he is truly perfect – to the point of being inhuman. White allows Sir Thomas Malory, in the form of a page named Tom. A veiled reference to Nazism also occurs when Sir Agravaine suggests setting up an organisation of National Communists who use Jews as a scapegoat and have the fylfot as their badge. Floyd C. Gale praised The Sword in the Stone as blithely comic and entirely delightful, stating that it was in utter contrast to the mounting tragedy of the other three volumes of the series. The single finest fantasy novel written in our time, or for that matter, ever written, is, must be, by any standard, T. H. Whites The Once
The Once and Future King
–
First edition cover
45.
The Crystal Cave
–
The Crystal Cave is a 1970 fantasy novel by Mary Stewart. The first in a quintet of novels covering the Arthurian legend, the protagonist of this story is a boy named Myrddin Emrys, also known as Merlin, which is the Welsh form of the word falcon. This story is told in narrative and includes his journey to find a home as he travels through Wales, Brittany. Emrys is also known as Ambrosius, or Prince of Light and this novel covers the time from Merlins sixth year until he becomes a young man. The Romans have recently left Britain, which is now divided into a number of kingdoms loosely united under a High King, Merlin is the illegitimate son of a Welsh princess, who refuses to name his father. Small for his age and often abused or neglected, Merlin occasionally has clairvoyant visions and these visions and his unknown parentage cause him to be referred to as the son of a devil and bastard child. Educated by a hermit, Galapas, who teaches him to use his powers as well as his earthly gifts. There, he assists in Ambrosiuss preparations to invade and unify Britain, defeat Vortigern, the Saxon usurper, also exiled in Brittany is Uther, Ambrosiuss brother, heir and supporter. It is revealed that Merlin is Ambrosiuss son, the result of a relationship between Ambrosius and Merlins mother. Merlin returns to Britain but finds Galapas killed and he is captured by Vortigern who is attempting to build a fortress at Dinas Emrys - but each night the newly built walls collapse. The kings mystics say the fort will only be built when a child with no father is sacrificed, Vortigern plans to use Merlin as the sacrifice. Merlin realises that the foundation is unstable due to the caves below ground. As a result of this, Merlin briefly becomes known as Vortigerns prophet, days later, Ambrosius invades and defeats Vortigern. Merlin uses his skills to rebuild Stonehenge, but has visions of Ambrosiuss death. Uther, Ambrosiuss younger brother, becomes King Uther Pendragon, however, Britain is thrown into chaos when Uther, besotted with Duchess Ygraine, goes to war with her husband, Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall. Merlin helps Uther to enter Tintagel Castle by stealth, knowing the tryst will lead to the birth of King Arthur, Merlin, known also as Myrddin, with Emrys as a sort of patronym. The stories explore his learning to use magic and his centrality in the Matter of Britain, Niniane, his mother, a Christian who joins the local nunnery when he is 12. King of Maridunum, a king of South Wales, grandfather of Merlin, father of Camlach and Niniane
The Crystal Cave
–
First UK edition
46.
The Hollow Hills
–
The Hollow Hills is a novel by Mary Stewart. It is the second in a quintet of novels covering the Arthurian Legends and this book is preceded by The Crystal Cave and succeeded by The Last Enchantment. The Hollow Hills was written in 1970 and published in 1973, the protagonist and narrator is Merlin, who supervises the birth and raising of King Arthur. In later chapters, Merlin gives the child to his own nurse Moravik, inspired by a dream which he believes prophetic, Merlin finds the sword in a deserted temple of Mithras. There, Merlin becomes a hermit in a shrine, providing healing to the injured. Later, Merlin becomes Arthurs tutor and that of two boys, Arthurs foster-brother Cei and his friend Bedwyr. One day, Arthur discovers the sword of Maximus — his ancestor and Merlins — hidden in a cave on an island in the centre of a lake, and names it Caliburn. Later he wins his first battle in a victory against invading Saxons, whereupon his parentage is revealed. Shortly before he learns his identity, he mistakenly commits incest with his half-sister Morgause, when challenged to prove his birthright, he reveals Caliburn to the assembled kings
The Hollow Hills
–
First edition
47.
Dumnonia
–
Dumnonia is the Latinised name for the Brythonic kingdom in Sub-Roman Britain between the late 4th and late 8th centuries, in what is now the more westerly parts of South West England. The spelling Damnonia is sometimes encountered, but is used for the land of the Damnonii, later part of the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Domnonia also occurs and shares a relationship with the Breton region of Domnonée, Breton. The kingdom is named after the Dumnonii, a British Celtic tribe living in the southwest at the time of the Roman invasion of Britain, according to Ptolemys Geography. Variants of the name Dumnonia include Domnonia and Damnonia, the latter being used by Gildas in the 6th century as a pun on damnation to deprecate the areas contemporary ruler Constantine, the name has etymological origins in the proto-Celtic root word *dubno-, meaning both deep and world. Groups with similar names existed in Scotland and Ireland, later, the area became known to the English of neighbouring Wessex as the kingdom of West Wales, and its inhabitants were also known to them as Defnas. In Welsh, and similarly in the Southwestern Brythonic languages, it was Dyfneint, historian Barbara Yorke has speculated that the Dumnonii may have seen the end of the Roman empire as an opportunity to establish control in new areas. In the Roman period there was a boundary between the area governed from Exeter and those governed from Dorchester and Ilchester. Julius Caesars Comentarii de Bello Gallico, Book III notes the close trading, in the post Roman period the eastern boundary of Dumnonia is unclear. The boundary may have formed by the West Wansdyke, Selwood Forest. Thus Dumnonia would have included later Cornwall, Devon, west Somerset, if so Dumnonia would have included places such as Glastonbury and South Cadbury and may have included continental holdings in Armorica. The people of Dumnonia would have spoken a Brythonic dialect, the ancestor of modern Cornish, apart from fishing and agriculture, the main economic resource of the Dumnonii was tin mining, the tin having been exported since ancient times from the port of Ictis. Tin working continued throughout Roman occupation and appears to have reached a peak during the 3rd century AD, the area maintained trade links with Gaul and the Mediterranean after the Roman withdrawal, and it is likely that tin played an important part in this trade. Post-Roman imported pottery has been excavated from sites across the region. An apparent surge in late 5th century Mediterranean imports is thought to be related to the trade in metals from Cornwall, christianity seems to have survived in Dumnonia after the Roman departure from Britain, with a number of late Roman Christian cemeteries extending into the post-Roman period. In the 5th and 6th centuries the area was evangelised by the children of Brychan and saints from Ireland, like Saint Piran. Sporadically, Cornish bishops are named in records until they submitted to the See of Canterbury in the mid-9th century. Parish organisation was a development of fully Normanised times
Dumnonia
–
This article is about the kingdom in Southwestern Britain. For Brythonic colony of the same name in Brittany, see
Domnonée. For the kingdom in northern Britain, see
Damnonii.
Dumnonia
–
Dumnonia
Dumnonia
Dumnonia
–
Cadbury Castle, Somerset, a possible early Dumnonian defensive site
48.
Marion Zimmer Bradley
–
Zimmer Bradleys first child, David R. Bradley, and her brother, Paul Edwin Zimmer, also became published science fiction and fantasy authors. Born on a farm in Albany, New York, during the Great Depression and she was married to Robert Alden Bradley from October 26,1949 until their divorce on May 19,1964. They had a son, David Robert Bradley, during the 1950s she was introduced to the cultural and campaigning lesbian group the Daughters of Bilitis. After her divorce, Bradley married numismatist Walter H. Breen on June 3,1964 and they had a daughter, Moira Greyland, who is a professional harpist and singer, and a son, Mark Greyland. In 1965, Bradley graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene, afterward, she moved to Berkeley, California, to pursue graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley between 1965 and 1967. In 1966, she helped found and named the Society for Creative Anachronism and was involved in developing several local groups, Bradley and Breen separated in 1979 but remained married, and continued a business relationship and lived on the same street for over a decade. They officially divorced on May 9,1990, the year Breen was arrested on child molestation charges after a 13-year-old boy reported that Breen had been molesting him for four years and she had known about Breens sexual interests and previously accepted his sexual abuse of a 14-year-old boy. While she was attending the College for Teachers in Albany, Bradley became involved in Western esoteric tradition and she later completed the Rosicrucian correspondence course. In the late 1950s or early 1960s, Bradley and Walter H. Breen founded the Aquarian Order of the Restoration based on the work of Dion Fortune, by 1961 she was formally initiating others, including Ramfis S. Firethorn. Bradley was active in Darkmoon Circle, which was founded in 1978 by several women who were members of her Aquarian Order of the Restoration, Bradley renovated her garage to provide a meeting room for Darkmoon Circle as well as for other local Pagan groups. In 1981 Bradley, Diana L. Paxson, and Elisabeth Waters incorporated the Center for Non-Traditional Religion, in the 1990s Bradley said she would return to Christianity, telling an interviewer, I just go regularly to the Episcopalian church. I feel that Ive gotten past it, I would like people to explore the possibilities. After suffering declining health for years, Bradley died at Alta Bates Medical Center in Berkeley on September 25,1999 and her ashes were later scattered at Glastonbury Tor in Somerset, England. In 2014, her daughter, Moira Greyland, accused her of abuse from the age of 3 to 12. I didnt want to hurt anyone she had helped, so I just kept my mouth shut. Greyland also claimed that she was not the victim and that she was one of the people who reported her father, Walter H. Breen, for child molestation. By her own admission Bradley was aware of her husbands behavior although she chose not to report him, among the first was John Scalzi, who within a day of the allegations being made public, described the allegations as horrific. Hugo Award winner Jim C. Hines wrote All of which makes the revelations about Marion Zimmer Bradley protecting a child rapist and molesting her own daughter
Marion Zimmer Bradley
–
Marion Zimmer Bradley
_Uthr_Bendragon.jpg)
