1.
Tashkent
–
Tashkent is the capital and largest city of Uzbekistan. The officially registered population of the city in 2012 was about 2,309,300, due to its position in Central Asia, Tashkent came under Sogdian and Turkic influence early in its history, before Islam in the 8th century AD. After its destruction by Genghis Khan in 1219, the city was rebuilt, in 1865 it was conquered by the Russian Empire, and in Soviet times witnessed major growth and demographic changes due to forced deportations from throughout the Soviet Union. Today, as the capital of an independent Uzbekistan, Tashkent retains a multi-ethnic population with ethnic Uzbeks as the majority, during its long history, Tashkent has had various changes in names and political and religious affiliations. Tashkent was settled by ancient people as an oasis on the Chirchik River, in ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer capital of the Kangju confederacy. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the town and the province were known as Chach, the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi also refers to the city as Chach. Later the town came to be known as Chachkand/Chashkand, meaning Chach City, the principality of Chach had a square citadel built around the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, some 8 kilometres south of the Syr Darya River. By the 7th century AD, Chach had more than 30 towns, the Buddhist monk Xuánzàng 玄奘, who travelled from China to India through Central Asia, mentioned the name of the city as Zhěshí 赭時. The Chinese chronicles Suí shū 隋書, Běi shǐ 北史 and Táng shū 唐書, in the early 8th century, the region was conquered by Muslim Arabs. The modern Turkic name of Tashkent comes from Kara-Khanid rule in the 10th century, after the 16th century, the name evolved from Chachkand/Chashkand to Tashkand. The modern spelling of Tashkent reflects Russian orthography and 20th-century Soviet influence, the city was destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1219 and lost much of its population as a result of the Mongols destruction of the Khwarezmid Empire in 1220. Under the Timurid and subsequent Shaybanid dynasties the citys population and culture gradually revived as a prominent strategic center of scholarship, commerce, in 1809, Tashkent was annexed to the Khanate of Kokand. At the time, Tashkent had a population of around 100,000 and was considered the richest city in Central Asia and it prospered greatly through trade with Russia, but chafed under Kokand’s high taxes. The Tashkent clergy also favored the clergy of Bukhara over that of Kokand, however, before the Emir of Bukhara could capitalize on this discontent, the Russian army arrived. While a small contingent staged an attack, the main force penetrated the walls. Although defense was stiff, the Russians captured the city two days of heavy fighting and the loss of only 25 dead as opposed to several thousand of the defenders. Chernyayev, dubbed the Lion of Tashkent by city elders, staged a campaign to win the population over. The Tsar liberally rewarded Chernyayev and his men with medals and bonuses, but regarded the general as a loose cannon
Tashkent
–
Tashkent
Uzbek: Toshkent, Тошкент, تاشکنت
Tashkent
–
Seal
Tashkent
–
Tashkent ca.1910
Tashkent
–
Tashkent, 1917
2.
Uzbek language
–
Uzbek is a Turkic language and the official language of Uzbekistan. It has 27 million native speakers and is spoken by the Uzbeks in Uzbekistan, Uzbek belongs to the Eastern Turkic, or Karluk, branch of the Turkic language family. External influences include Persian, Arabic and Russian, one of the most noticeable distinctions of Uzbek from other Turkic languages is the rounding of the vowel /a/ to /ɒ/ or /ɔ/, a feature that was influenced by Persian. In the language itself, Uzbek is oʻzbek tili or oʻzbekcha, in Cyrillic, the same names are written ўзбек тили and ўзбекча, in Arabic script, ازبېک تیلی and ازبېجه. The first Turkic dynasty in the region was that of the Kara-Khanid Khanate in the 9th–12th centuries, the language was championed by Ali-Shir Navai in the 15th and 16th centuries. Navai was the greatest representative of Chagatai language literature and he significantly contributed to the development of the Chagatay language and its direct descendant Uzbek and is widely considered to be the founder of Uzbek literature. Ultimately based on the Karluk variant of the Turkic languages, Chagatay contained large numbers of Persian, by the 19th century it was rarely used for literary composition, but disappeared only in the early 20th century. The term Uzbek as applied to language has meant different things at different times, all three dialects continue to exist within modern spoken Uzbek. Edward A. Allworth argued that this badly distorted the history of the region and was used to give authors such as the 15th century author Ali-Shir Navai an Uzbek identity. Estimates of the number of speakers of Uzbek vary widely, the Swedish encyclopedia Nationalencyklopedin estimates the number of native speakers to be 26 million, and the CIA World Factbook estimates 25 million. The influence of Islam, and by extension, Arabic, is evident in Uzbek loanwords, there is also a residual influence of Russian, from the time when Uzbeks were under the rule of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. Uzbek vocabulary has also heavily influenced by Persian through its historic roots. The Uzbek language has many dialects, varying widely from region to region, however, there is a commonly understood dialect which is used in mass media and in most printed materials. Among the most-widespread dialects are the Tashkent dialect, Afghan dialect, the Ferghana dialect, the Khorezm dialect, the Chimkent-Turkestan dialect, 1928–1940, the Latin-based Yañalif used officially. 1940–1992, the Cyrillic script used officially, since 1992, Yañalif is official in Uzbekistan, although the Cyrillic script is still widely used. Despite the official status of the Latin script in Uzbekistan, the use of Cyrillic is still widespread, especially in advertisements, in newspapers, scripts may be mixed, with headlines in Latin and articles in Cyrillic. The Arabic script is no longer used in Uzbekistan except symbolically in limited texts or for the studies of Chagatai. In the western Chinese region of Xinjiang, where there is an Uzbek minority, however, the Uyghur Arabic alphabet is sometimes used
Uzbek language
–
A 1911 Uzbek text in the Arabic script
Uzbek language
–
Dark blue = majority; light blue = minority
3.
Arabic script
–
The Arabic script is a writing system used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa, such as Arabic, dialects of Mandinka, Central Kurdish, Luri, Persian, Urdu, Pashto, and others. Until the 16th century, it was used to write some texts in Spanish. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by the number of countries using it, the Arabic script is written from right to left in a cursive style. In most cases the letters transcribe consonants, or consonants and a few vowels, the script was first used to write texts in Arabic, most notably the Qurʼān, the holy book of Islam. It is also the basis for the tradition of Arabic calligraphy, the Arabic script has been adopted for use in a wide variety of languages besides Arabic, including Persian, Malay and Urdu which are not Semitic. Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent phonemes that do not appear in Arabic phonology, the modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the Perso-Arabic script by scholars. In the cases of Bosnian, Kurdish, Kashmiri, and Uyghur writing systems, the Arabic script can therefore be used in both abugida and abjad, although it is often strongly, erroneously connected to the latter. Use of the Arabic script in West African languages, especially in the Sahel, to a certain degree the style and usage tends to follow those of the Maghreb. Additional diacritics have come into use to facilitate writing of sounds not represented in the Arabic language, the term ʻAjamī, which comes from the Arabic root for foreign, has been applied to Arabic-based orthographies of African languages. There is evidence that writing Arabic in this set of letters influenced the style of modern Arabic script. After this initial period, Garshuni writing has continued to the present day among some Syriac Christian communities in the Arabic-speaking regions of the Levant, Kazakh in China Kurdish in Northern Iraq and Northwest Iran. It is mainly used in Sri Lanka and the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu for religious purposes, arwi language is the language of Tamil Nadu Muslims. Malayalam language represented by Arabic script variant is known as Arabi Malayalam, the script has particular letters to represent the peculiar sounds of Malayalam. This script is used in madrasas of the South Indian state of Kerala. It is similar to Chittagonian language in neighboring Bangladesh and sometimes using the Roman script. Malay in the Arabic script known as Jawi, in some cases it can be seen in the signboards of shops or market stalls. In addition, some television programming uses Jawi, such as announcements, advertisements, news, social programs, Berber languages have often been written in an adaptation of the Arabic alphabet. The use of the Arabic alphabet, as well as the competing Latin, West Africa Zarma language of the Songhay family
Arabic script
–
Basic Arabic alphabet
Arabic script
–
Calligraphy
4.
Cyrillic script
–
The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the alphabet for their national languages. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the official script of the European Union, following the Latin script. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet and these additional letters were used for Old Church Slavonic sounds not found in Greek. The script is named in honor of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on, modern scholars believe that Cyrillic was developed and formalized by early disciples of Cyril and Methodius. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, the new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great. West European typography culture was also adopted, Cyrillic script spread throughout the East and South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri was originally a ligature of Yer and I, iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І, Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ю, Ѩ, Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї, there were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ. The letters also had values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers, many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet, the Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improves computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, Segoe UI is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8, the development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters show a tendency to be very tall and narrow. Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early 18th century, over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type, Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography
Cyrillic script
–
Cyrillic
5.
Latin script
–
Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
Latin script
–
Latin Roman
6.
Uzbekistan
–
Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, is one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world. Located in Central Asia, it is a unitary, constitutional, presidential republic, comprising twelve provinces, one autonomous republic and a capital city. Uzbekistan is bordered by five landlocked countries, Kazakhstan to the north, Tajikistan to the southeast, Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southwest. Once part of the Turkic Khaganate and later Timurid Empires, the region that includes the Republic of Uzbekistan was conquered in the early 16th century by Eastern Turkic-speaking nomads. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, it declared independence as the Republic of Uzbekistan on 31 August 1991, Uzbekistan is officially a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. The countrys official language is Uzbek, a Turkic language written in the Latin alphabet and spoken natively by approximately 85% of the population, however, Uzbeks constitute 81% of the population, followed by Russians, Tajiks, Kazakhs, and others. A majority of Uzbeks are non-denominational Muslims, Uzbekistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, UN, and the SCO. While officially a republic, non-governmental human rights organizations define Uzbekistan as an authoritarian state with limited civil rights. Uzbekistans economy relies mainly on commodity production, including cotton, gold, uranium, despite the declared objective of transition to a market economy, its government continues to maintain economic controls which imports in favour of domestic import substitution. Uzbekistan has an area of 447,400 square kilometres and it is the 56th largest country in the world by area and the 42nd by population. Among the CIS countries, it is the 4th largest by area, Uzbekistan lies between latitudes 37° and 46° N, and longitudes 56° and 74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometres from west to east and 930 kilometres from north to south, Uzbekistan also shares a short border with Afghanistan to the south. Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country and it is one of two doubly landlocked countries in the world, the other being Liechtenstein. In addition, due to its location within a series of endorheic basins, less than 10% of its territory is intensively cultivated irrigated land in river valleys and oases. The rest is vast desert and mountains, the climate in the Republic of Uzbekistan is continental, with little precipitation expected annually. The average summer high temperature tends to be 40 °C, while the winter low temperature is around −23 °C. Uzbekistan has a rich and diverse natural environment, the Aral Sea used to be the fourth-largest inland sea on Earth, acting as an influencing factor in the air moisture and arid land use. Since the 1960s, the decade when the misuse of the Aral Sea water began, it has shrunk to less than 50% of its former area, reliable, or even approximate data, have not been collected, stored or provided by any organization or official agency
Uzbekistan
–
Comparison of the
Aral Sea between 1989 and 2014.
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan
–
Female statuette wearing the
kaunakes. Chlorite and limestone,
Bactria, beginning of the 2nd millennium BC.
Uzbekistan
–
Alexander the Great at the
Battle of Issus.
7.
Uyghur Arabic script
–
The Uyghur Perso-Arabic alphabet is an Arabic alphabet used for writing the Uyghur language, primarily by Uyghurs living in China. It is one of several Uyghur alphabets, and it is the alphabet of Uyghur language since 1982. The first Perso-Arabic derived alphabet for Uyghur was developed in the 10th century, the version used for writing the Chagatai language. It became the literary language, now known as the Chagatay alphabet. It was used nearly exclusively up to the early 1920s, between 1937 and 1954 the Perso-Arabic alphabet used to write Uyghur was modified by removing redundant letters and adding markings for vowels. A Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in the 1950s and a Latin alphabet in 1958, the modern Uyghur Perso-Arabic alphabet was made official in 1978 and reinstituted by the Chinese government in 1983, with modifications for representing Uyghur vowels. The pre-modification alphabet used Arabic diacritics to mark short vowels, several of these alternatives were influenced by security-policy considerations of the Soviet Union or the Peoples Republic of China. A Pinyin-derived Latin-based alphabet, then called “New script” or Uyghur Yëngi Yëziq or UYY, was for a time the only officially approved alphabet used for Uyghur in Xinjiang
Uyghur Arabic script
8.
Afghanistan
–
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
Afghanistan
–
History of Afghanistan
Afghanistan
–
Flag
Afghanistan
–
Bilingual (
Greek and
Aramaic)
edict by Emperor
Ashoka from the 3rd century BCE discovered in the southern city of
Kandahar
Afghanistan
–
One of the
Buddhas of Bamiyan.
Buddhism was widespread in the region before the
Islamic conquest of Afghanistan.
9.
Turkic languages
–
The Turkic languages are a language family of at least thirty-five languages, spoken by Turkic peoples from Southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China. Turkic languages are spoken as a language by some 170 million people. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans, characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family. Apparent similarities with the Uralic languages family even caused these families to be regarded as one for a time under the hypothesis of Ural-Altaic languages. Turkic languages are languages, have vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family, the geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West, since the Ottoman era. The two groups shared a religion, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages, although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. The most famous of these loanwords include lion, gold, the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects, written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and it mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to todays Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD. With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages, Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese, and to a lesser extent, Arabic. This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, the modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich. It is not clear when two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged. With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages, Rhoticisation, e. g. in the last consonant of the word for nine *toqqız. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, in this case, rhoticisation refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/, *-/k/, *-/kh/ in this branch. See Antonov and Jacques on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic and this separates Khalaj as a peripheral language. The following table is based upon the classification presented by Lars Johanson The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, in some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common
Turkic languages
–
Turkic languages
10.
Central Asia
–
Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north. It is also referred to as the -stans as the five countries generally considered to be within the region all have names ending with the Persian suffix -stan. Central Asias five former Soviet republics are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. It has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, the Silk Road connected Muslim lands with the people of Europe, India, and China. This crossroads position has intensified the conflict between tribalism and traditionalism and modernization, in pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was predominantly Iranian, peopled by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians and Chorasmians and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Parthians. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan, the idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions, historically built political geography and geoculture are two significant parameters widely used in the scholarly literature about the definitions of the Central Asia. The most limited definition was the one of the Soviet Union. This definition was also used outside the USSR during this period. However, the Russian culture has two terms, Средняя Азия and Центральная Азия. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia, the UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity and these areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan, the Tibetans and Ladakhi are also included. Insofar, most of the peoples are considered the indigenous peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is a large region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains, vast deserts. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming, the Gobi desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77° E, to the Great Khingan Mountains, 116°–118° E. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes, The worlds northernmost desert, at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, the Northern Hemispheres southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17′ N
Central Asia
–
On the southern shore of Issyk Kul lake,
Issyk Kul Region.
Central Asia
–
Central Asia
Central Asia
–
Uzbek men from
Khiva, ca. 1861–1880
Central Asia
–
Kazakh man on a horse with golden eagle
11.
Uzbeks
–
The Uzbeks are a Turkic ethnic group, the largest Turkic ethnic group in Central Asia. They comprise the majority population of Uzbekistan but are found as a minority group in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Russia. Uzbek diaspora communities also exist in Turkey, Saudi Arabia, the origin of the word Uzbek remains disputed. One view holds that it is named after Oghuz Khagan, also known as Oghuz Beg. Another states that the name means independent or the lord itself, from Oʻz, before, 5th century, what is todays Uzbekistan was part of Sogdia, mainly inhabited by Sogdians, an Indo-Iranian people. It was part of the Achaemenid Empire and later part of Sasanian Empire, from 5th to 6th century, what is todays Uzbekistan was part of the Hephthalite Empire. From 6th to 8th century, what is todays Uzbekistan was under the rule of Göktürk Khanate, Turkic and Chinese migration into central Asia occurred during the Chinese Tang Dynasty, and Chinese armies commanded by Turkic generals stationed in large parts of central Asia. But Chinese influence ended with the An Lushan rebellion, from the 9th century on, Transoxania was under the rule of Turkic Kara-Khanid Khanate, their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia. Kara-Khanid ruler Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan was the first Turkic ruler to convert Islam, in the 12th century, Transoxania was conquered by Qara Khitai, a sinicized Khitan dynasty, they brought to Central Asia the Chinese system of government. In the 13th century, Kara-Khanid Khanate was destroyed by the Turkic Khwarazmian dynasty, the language-shift from Middle Iranian to Turkic and New Persian was predominantly the result of an elite dominance process. This process was boosted during the Mongol conquest when millions were either killed or pushed further south to the Pamir region. The modern Uzbek language is derived from the Chagatai language which gained prominence in the Timurid Empire. The modern Uzbek population represents varying degrees of diversity derived from the high traffic routes through Central Asia. Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European people, Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Mongolia that would affect the region. According to recent genetic genealogy testing from a University of Oxford study, high levels of haplogroup 10 and its derivative, haplogroup 36, are found in most of the Altaic-speaking populations and are a good indicator of the genetic impact of these nomadic groups. The difference could be due to the density of the different geographical areas. Eastern regions of Central Asia must have had a low density at the time. Thus, the estimate from North-East Asia is high in the east
Uzbeks
–
Genetic origins of Uzbeks from various parts of Uzbekistan. East Asian (e.g. Mongol) ancestry is prominent in the west, Central Asian prominent in the centre, and a roughly even mix of East, Central Asian, Mideast and European in the eastern projections.
Uzbeks
–
Female statuette bearing the kaunakes. Chlorite and limestone,
Bactria, beginning of the 2nd millennium BC.
Uzbeks
–
Alexander at the
Battle of Issus.
Uzbeks
–
Clothing of Uzbek men,
Khiva
12.
Yanalif
–
Jaꞑalif, Janalif or Yañalif was the first Latin alphabet used during the Soviet epoch for the Tatar language in the 1930s. It replaced the Yaña imlâ Arabic script-based alphabet in 1928 and was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1939, there were 33 letters in Jaꞑalif, nine were for vowels. The apostrophe was used for the stop and was sometimes sorted as a letter. Other characters were also in use for foreign names, the small letter B looks like ʙ, and the capital letter Y looks like У. The letter Ꞑ ꞑ looks like N n/ŋ which has a descender as in Cyrillic letters Щ, Җ, Ң, the letter no.33 isnt represented in Unicode, but it looks exactly like Cyrillic soft sign. Capital Ə also looks like Russian Э in some fonts, the earliest example of the Kipchak language, specifically the Cuman language, the main ancestor of the modern Tatar language and written with Latin characters, is the Codex Cumanicus. These letters could be used for Catholic devotions among Turkic Catholics within the Golden Horde, nevertheless, the culture of Catholic Hordians disappeared and this alphabet was lost. For centuries the Tatar language as well as other Turkic languages used a modified Arabic alphabet, the alphabet was far from perfect, both technically and logically. Because of this some Turkic intelligentsia tended to use the Latin or even Cyrillic script, the first attempts appeared in the mid-19th century among Azerbaijanis. At the same period the Russian missionary Ilminski, along with followers, nevertheless, modern alphabet uses other glyphs, the principles of the modern Cyrillic Tatar alphabet was first invented then. But Ilmiskis alphabet were used for the purpose of Christianization and Muslim Tatars didnt use his alphabet, ilminskis alphabet is still used among Keräşen Tatars. Interestingly, this alphabet still uses pre-revolutionary Russian spelling of Orthodox names, using Fita, in 1908–1909 the Tatar poet Säğit Rämiev started to use the Latin script in his own works. He offered the use of digraphs, ea for ä, eu for ü, eo for ö, but Arabists turned down his project. In the early 1920s Azerbaijanis devised their own Latin alphabet, but Tatarstan scholars set a little store to this project, the simplified Iske imla, known as Yaña imlâ was used from 1920–1927. But Latinization was adopted by the Soviet officials and the special Central Committee for a New Alphabet was established in Moscow, the first project of the Tatar-Bashkir Latin alphabet was published in Eşçe gazette in 1924. The pronunciation of the alphabet was similar to English, unlike the following, specific Bashkir sounds were written with digraphs. In 1926 the Congress of Turkologists in Baku recommended to switch all Turkic languages to the Latin script, in April 1926 the Jaꞑa tatar əlifʙasь/Yaña tatar älifbası/Яңа татар әлифбасы society started its work at Kazan. On July 3,1927, Tatarstan officials declared Jaꞑalif the official script of the Tatar language, the first variant of Jaꞑalif is shown in the second table below
Yanalif
–
Cyrillic
Ь -like letter, in some fonts also looks like
Ƅ, and is not currently represented in
Unicode. Only some Tatar
fonts use this
glyph.
Yanalif
–
Tatar Latin Janalif
Arabic script 1927
Yanalif
–
N-descender, a variant of
Ŋ, that was used in Jaꞑalif and is represented in
Unicode since 6.0. Only some Tatar
fonts use this
glyph at the position of
Ñ.
13.
Joseph Stalin
–
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and he managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenins criticisms and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–33, major figures in the Communist Party and government, and many Red Army high commanders, were arrested and shot after being convicted of treason in show trials. Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis, Germany ended the pact when Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles of Moscow, after defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies. The Soviet Union subsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States, Communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were established in most countries freed from German occupation by the Red Army, which later constituted the Eastern Bloc. Stalin also had relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea. On February 9,1946, Stalin delivered a public speech in which he explained the fundamental incompatibility of communism and capitalism. He stressed that the system needed war for raw materials. The Second World War was but the latest in a chain of conflicts which could be broken only when the economy made the transformation into communism. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War, Stalin remains a controversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant. However, popular opinion within the Russian Federation is mixed, the exact number of deaths caused by Stalins regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions. Joseph Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, the Russian-language version of his birth name is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili. Ioseb was born on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Georgia and his father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was Ekaterine Keke Geladze, a housemaid. As a child, Ioseb was plagued with health issues
Joseph Stalin
–
Stalin at the
Tehran Conference in 1943.
Joseph Stalin
–
Prior to the revolution of 1917, Stalin played an active role in fighting the Russian government. Here he is shown on a 1911 information card from the files of the Russian police in Saint Petersburg.
Joseph Stalin
–
A group of participants in the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party, 1919. In the middle are Stalin,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Mikhail Kalinin.
14.
Cyrillic alphabets
–
Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School by the disciples of the Byzantine theologians Cyril, as of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia, Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. Some of these are illustrated below, for others, and for more detail, sounds are transcribed in the IPA. Spellings of names transliterated into the Roman alphabet may vary, especially й, non-Slavic alphabets are generally modelled after Russian, but often bear striking differences, particularly when adapted for Caucasian languages. The first few of these alphabets were developed by Orthodox missionaries for the Finnic and Turkic peoples of Idel-Ural in the 1870s, later, such alphabets were created for some of the Siberian and Caucasus peoples who had recently converted to Christianity. In the 1930s, some of those languages were switched to the Uniform Turkic Alphabet, the Abkhazian and Ossetian languages were switched to Georgian script, but after the death of Joseph Stalin, both also adopted Cyrillic. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the Gagauz language, which had used Greek script before, some of Russias peoples such as the Tatars have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law. A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to other orthographies—either Roman‐based or returning to a former script, while English mainly uses the Latin alphabet, there is a small minority who use the Cyrillic, mainly Russian and other Slavic immigrants to English speaking countries. This system of Cyrillic English is commonly called Renglish, in some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as Mari, Udmurt and Chuvash, umlauts and breves also were used. Bulgarian and Bosnian Sephardim lacking Hebrew typefaces occasionally printed Judeo-Spanish in Cyrillic, the following table lists the Cyrillic letters which are used in the alphabets of most of the national languages which use a Cyrillic alphabet. Exceptions and additions for particular languages are noted below, historically, the hard sign takes the place of a now-absent vowel, which is still preserved as a distinct vowel in Bulgarian and Slovene, but only in some places in the word. When an iotated vowel follows a consonant, the consonant is palatalized, the Hard Sign indicates that this does not happen, and the sound will appear only in front of the vowel. The Soft Sign indicates that the consonant should be palatalized in addition to a preceding the vowel, the Soft Sign also indicates that a consonant before another consonant or at the end of a word is palatalized. Examples, та, тя, тья, тъя, т, before 1918, there were four extra letters in use, Іі, Ѳѳ, Ѣѣ, and Ѵѵ, these were eliminated by reforms of Russian orthography. The Belarusian alphabet displays the following features, Ge represents a glottal fricative /ɦ/. Yo /jo/ I, also known as the dotted I or decimal I, unlike Russian and Ukrainian, И is not used. Short I, however, uses the base И glyph, Short U is the letter У with a breve and represents /w/, or like the u part of the diphthong in loud
Cyrillic alphabets
–
The keyboard layout for Polish Cyrillic, developed by Michał Szewczuk.
Cyrillic alphabets
–
Distribution of the Cyrillic script worldwide. The dark green shows the countries that use Cyrillic as the one main script; the lighter green those that use Cyrillic alongside another official script.
Cyrillic alphabets
Cyrillic alphabets
–
The first lines of the Book of Matthew in Karelian using the Cyrillic script, 1820
15.
Uzbekistan Som
–
For earlier currencies used in Uzbekistan, see Bukharan tenga, Kokand tenga and Khwarazmi tenga. The som is the currency of Uzbekistan in Central Asia, the ISO4217 currency code is UZS. The word som means pure in Kyrgyz, Uyghur and Uzbek, like other republics of the former Soviet Union, Uzbekistan continued using the Soviet/Russian ruble after independence. On July 26,1993, a new series of Russian ruble was issued, tables of modern monetary history, Asia implies that both old and new rubles were used in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan replaced the ruble with som at par in on November 15,1993. No subdivisions of this som were issued and only banknotes were produced, in denominations of 1,3,5,10,25,50,100,200,500,1000,5000, and 10,000 som. Because it was meant to be a currency, the design was rather simplistic. All notes had the Coat of arms on obverse, and Sher-Dor Madrasah of the Registan in Samarkand on reverse, on July 1,1994, a second som was introduced at a rate of 1 new som =1000 old som. This som is subdivided into 100 tiyin, at its introduction,1 U. S. dollar was equal to 25 som. Consequently, the smallest denomination, the 1 tiyin, is only worth 1/2900 cent U. S. making it the worlds most worthless coin, however, coins and banknotes smaller than 25 som are rare now. As a result, the current highest coin denomination in circulation is the 500 som while the highest banknote denomination is the 10,000 som, official state figures put inflation as of the first half of 2011 at 3. 6%, however accurate numbers are pinned far higher. Coins and banknotes below 25 som are practically worthless now,2 series of coins have been issued for the second som. They can be distinguished by the script used for the Uzbek language. The first series was written in Cyrillic script, while the series is written in Latin script. The first banknotes were issued by the State Bank of Uzbekistan in 1993, all of the denominations share the same designs, the Coat of arms of Uzbekistan on the front and the Medressa on Reghistan Square in Samarkand. The second and current series, issued by the Central Bank of the Republic of Uzberkistan, were released in 1994 in denominations of 1,3,5,10,25,50 and 100 som. A200 som banknote was issued in 1997, the 500 som in 1999, the 1,000 som in 2001, economy of Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstani som Coins of Uzbekistan at CISCoins. net Catalog of paper money of Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan Som
–
25 som
Uzbekistan Som
–
500 Som
Uzbekistan Som
–
10 som
Uzbekistan Som
16.
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
The official chart of the IPA as of 2005. Click to enlarge. The proper symbols for upstep and downstep are not available in this font, and have been substituted.
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
X-ray photos show the sounds [i, u, a, ɑ]
17.
Voiceless bilabial fricative
–
The voiceless bilabial fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɸ⟩, for English-speakers, it is easiest to think of the sound as an f-sound made only with the lips, instead of the upper teeth and lower lip, or a blowing sound. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
Voiceless bilabial fricative
18.
Open back rounded vowel
–
The open back rounded vowel, or low back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. Acoustically, it is a near-open or near-low back rounded vowel, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɒ⟩. It is called turned script a, being a version of script a. Turned script a ⟨ɒ⟩ has its linear stroke on the left, a well-rounded is rare, but it is found in some varieties of English. In most languages with vowel, such as English and Persian, the rounding of is slight. However, Assamese has an over-rounded, with rounding as strong as that for and he also writes that the contemporary Standard Southern British accent lacks, having replaced it with the more common, and advocates for transcribing this vowel with the symbol ⟨ɔ⟩ in SSB. This is not to be understood as /ɒ/ having the quality as /ɔː/, as the latter vowel is true-mid in SSB. According to him, the repetition of the symbol ⟨ɒ⟩ in publications on BrE has given this vowel a familiarity out of all proportion to its scarcity in the world’s languages. The IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, as does the name of the article, however, a large number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high and low. Its vowel height is open, also known as low, which means the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth – that is, as low as possible in the mouth. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. It is rounded, which means that the lips are rounded rather than spread or relaxed, turned a Index of phonetics articles
Open back rounded vowel
19.
Received Pronunciation
–
Peter Trudgill estimated in 1974 that 3% of people in Britain were RP speakers, but this rough estimate has been questioned by the phonetician J. Windsor Lewis. Since the 1960s, a greater permissiveness towards regional English varieties has taken hold in education, an individual using RP will typically speak Standard English, although the converse or inverse is not necessarily true. The standard language may be pronounced with an accent and the contrapositive is usually correct. It is very unlikely that someone speaking RP would use it to speak a regional dialect, the introduction of the term Received Pronunciation is usually credited to Daniel Jones. However, the term had actually been used earlier by Alexander Ellis in 1869 and P. S. Du Ponceau in 1818 According to Fowlers Modern English Usage. The word received conveys its meaning of accepted or approved. RP is often believed to be based on the accents of southern England and this was the most populated and most prosperous area of England during the 14th and 15th centuries. By the end of the 15th century, Standard English was established in the City of London, some linguists have used the term RP while expressing reservations about its suitability. Other writers have used the name BBC Pronunciation. He used the term General British in his 1970s publication of A Concise Pronouncing Dictionary of American and British English, Received Pronunciation has sometimes been called Oxford English, as it used to be the accent of most members of the University of Oxford. The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association uses the name Standard Southern British, page 4 reads, Standard Southern British is the modern equivalent of what has been called Received Pronunciation. It is an accent of the south east of England which operates as a prestige norm there and in parts of the British Isles. Faced with the difficulty of defining RP, many writers have tried to distinguish between different sub-varieties, later editions use the terms General, Refined and Regional. Wells refers to mainstream RP and U-RP, he suggests that Gimsons categories of Conservative and Advanced RP referred to the U-RP of the old, however, Wells stated, It is difficult to separate stereotype from reality with U-RP. Upton distinguishes between RP, Traditional RP, and an older version which he identifies with Cruttendens Refined RP. An article on the website of the British Library refers to Conservative, Mainstream, the modern style of RP is an accent often taught to non-native speakers learning British English. Non-RP Britons abroad may modify their pronunciation to something closer to Received Pronunciation to be understood by people unfamiliar with the diversity of British accents. They may also modify their vocabulary and grammar to be closer to those of Standard English for the same reason
Received Pronunciation
–
Transcriptions
Received Pronunciation
–
Monophthongs of RP. From Roach (2004, p. 242)
20.
Voiceless uvular stop
–
The voiceless uvular stop or voiceless uvular plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is pronounced like a velar stop, except that the tongue makes contact not on the soft palate. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨q⟩, the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨q̟⟩ or ⟨q˖⟩ or ⟨k̠⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are q_+ and k_-, respectively, features of the voiceless uvular stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the uvula and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, guttural Index of phonetics articles Qoph Voiced uvular stop
Voiceless uvular stop
21.
Voiceless uvular fricative
–
The voiceless uvular fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The sound is represented by ⟨x̣⟩ in Americanist phonetic notation, for a voiceless pre-uvular fricative, see voiceless velar fricative. Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the uvula and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, ladefoged & Maddieson note that there is a complication in the case of uvular fricatives in that the shape of the vocal tract may be such that the uvula vibrates. See voiceless uvular raised non-sonorant trill for more information, index of phonetics articles Voiced uvular fricative
Voiceless uvular fricative
22.
Voiced uvular fricative
–
The voiced uvular fricative or approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʁ⟩ and this consonant is one of several collectively called guttural R when found in European languages. Because the IPA symbol stands for both the uvular fricative and the approximant, the fricative nature of this sound may be specified by adding the uptack to the letter. The approximant can be specified by adding the downtack, ⟨ʁ̞⟩, though some use a superscript ⟨ʶ⟩. For a voiced fricative, see voiced velar fricative. In many languages it is closer to an approximant, however and its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the uvula. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, however, not all of these remain a uvular trill today. Because such uvular rhotics often do not contrast with alveolar ones, for more information, see guttural R. Ladefoged & Maddieson note that There is a complication in the case of uvular fricatives in that the shape of the vocal tract may be such that the uvula vibrates. See voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill for more information
Voiced uvular fricative
23.
Glottal stop
–
The glottal stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʔ⟩, using IPA, this sound is known as a glottal plosive. In English, the glottal stop occurs as an open juncture, for most US English speakers, a glottal stop is used as an allophone of /t/ between a vowel and m or a syllabic n except in slow speech. In British English, the stop is most familiar in the Cockney pronunciation of butter as buer. The non-phonemic glottal stop always occurs before isolated or initial vowels, features of the glottal stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibration of the cords, necessarily so, because the vocal cords are held tightly together. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Although this segment is not a phoneme in English, it is present phonetically in nearly all dialects of English as an allophone of /t/ in the syllable coda. Speakers of Cockney, Scottish English and several other British dialects also pronounce an intervocalic /t/ between vowels as in city. In Received Pronunciation, a stop is inserted before a tautosyllabic voiceless stop, e. g. sto’p, tha’t, kno’ck, wa’tch, also lea’p, soa’k, hel’p. In many languages that do not allow a sequence of vowels, such as Persian, there are intricate interactions between falling tone and the glottal stop in the histories of such languages as Danish, Chinese and Thai. In many languages, the intervocalic allophone of the glottal stop is a creaky-voiced glottal approximant. These are only known to be contrastive in one language, Gimi, in the traditional Romanization of many languages, such as Arabic, the glottal stop is transcribed with an apostrophe, ⟨’⟩, and this is the source of the IPA character ⟨ʔ⟩. In Malay the glottal stop is represented by the letter ⟨k⟩, in Võro, other scripts also have letters used for representing the glottal stop, such as the Hebrew letter aleph ⟨א⟩, and the Cyrillic letter palochka ⟨Ӏ⟩ used in several Caucasian languages. In Tundra Nenets it is represented by the letters apostrophe ⟨ʼ⟩, in Japanese, glottal stops occur at the end of interjections of surprise or anger, and are represented by the character ⟨っ⟩. In the graphic representation of most Philippine languages, the stop has no consistent symbolization
Glottal stop
–
Road sign in
British Columbia showing the use of 7 instead of ʔ in the
Squamish language.
Glottal stop
24.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
–
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris. The full text is available on the United Nations website, in 1966, the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights. In 1976, after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, during World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms—freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want—as their basic war aims. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to effect to the Charters provisions on human rights. In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, the Commission on Human Rights, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights. The commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, the committee met in two sessions over the course of two years. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, other well-known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, P. C. Chang of the Republic of China, Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission. According to Allan Carlson in Globalizing Family Values, the Declarations pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movements influence on Cassin, during these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States. British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation, a On 10 December 1948, the Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly by a vote of 48 in favor, none against, and eight abstentions. Honduras and Yemen—both members of UN at the time—failed to vote or abstain, south Africas position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated any number of articles in the Declaration. The six communist nations abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism, Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of the Soviet bloc nations to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries. 48 countries voted in favour of the Declaration, a.8 countries abstained, Later on, the underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey, the structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles. Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, articles 1 and 2 are the foundation blocks, with their principles of dignity, liberty, equality, and brotherhood. The seven paragraphs of the out the reasons for the Declaration—represent the steps. The main body of the Declaration forms the four columns, the first column constitutes rights of the individual such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery. Articles 6 through 11 refer to the legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defense when violated
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
–
State of the Union (Four Freedoms) (6 January 1941)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
–
Eleanor Roosevelt with the
Spanish version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
25.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
26.
Aljamiado
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Aljamiado or Aljamía texts are manuscripts that use the Arabic script for transcribing European languages, especially Romance languages such as Mozarabic, Portuguese, Spanish or Ladino. A key aljamiado text was the mufti of Segovias compilation Suma de los principales mandamientos y devediamentos de nuestra santa ley y sunna, in later times, Moriscos were banned from using Arabic as a religious language, and wrote in Spanish on Islamic subjects. Examples are the Coplas del alhichante de Puey Monzón, narrating a Hajj, Aljamiado played a very important role in preserving Islam and the Arabic language in the life of the Moriscos. After the fall of the last Muslim kingdom on the Iberian peninsula and they were forced to adopt Christian customs and traditions and to attend church services on Sundays. Nevertheless, some of the Moriscos kept their Islamic belief and traditions secretly through the usage of Aljamiado, in 1567, Philip II of Spain issued a royal decree in Spain, which forced Moriscos to abandon using Arabic on all occasions, formal and informal, speaking and writing. Using Arabic in any sense of the word would be regarded as a crime and they were given three years to learn the language of the Christian Spanish, after which they would have to get rid of all Arabic written material. Moriscos translated all prayers and the sayings of their prophet Mohammed into Aljamiado transcriptions of the Spanish language, Aljamiado scrolls were circulated amongst the Moriscos. Historians came to know about Aljamiado literature only in the nineteenth century. Some of the Aljamiado scrolls are kept in the Spanish National Library in Madrid, the word aljamiado is sometimes used for other non-Semitic language written in Arabic letters. For example, Bosnian and Albanian texts written in Arabic script during the Ottoman period have been referred to as aljamiado, however, many linguists prefer to limit the term to Romance languages, instead using arebica to refer to the use of Arabic script for Slavic languages. The word Aljamiado is also used to refer to Greek written in the Arabic/Ottoman alphabet
Aljamiado
–
Poema de Yuçuf.
Aljamiado
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Aljamiado text by Mancebo de Arévalo. c. 16th century
Aljamiado
–
Aljamiado letters
27.
Belarusian Arabic alphabet
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The Belarusian Arabic alphabet was based on the Arabic script and was developed in the 16th century. It consisted of twenty-eight graphemes, including additions to represent Belarusian sounds not found in Arabic. The Belarusian Arabic alphabet was used by the Lipka Tatars, who had invited to settle in Belarusian territory. During the 14th–16th centuries they gradually stopped using their own language, books of that literary tradition are known as Kitab, which is the Arabic word for book. Some Polish texts were written in the Arabic script, dated not earlier than 17th century. The sounds /w/ and /v/ were both represented by the symbol, Vowels are not listed as they were marked with diacritical marks. Source, be-x-old, Беларускі арабскі альфабэт Д-р Я, Беларускія мусульмане і беларуская літаратура арабскім пісьмом. Левіна,1933, Менск, Беларускае коопэрацыйна-выдавецкае таварыства ″Адраджэньне″,1991, kitabs, the unique highlight of the Belarusian language at pravapis. org Belarusian Latin alphabet Arebica – modified Arabic script used for the Bosnian language
Belarusian Arabic alphabet
–
Belarusian Arabic alphabet-Zh
28.
Kazakh alphabets
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The Kazakh alphabets are the alphabets used to write the Kazakh language. The Kazakh language uses the following alphabets, The Cyrillic script is used in the Republic of Kazakhstan. It is also used by native Kazakh populations belonging to the areas of Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan and it was introduced by the Soviet Union in 1940. The Arabic script is used in Peoples Republic of China in the Altay Prefecture. It is also used in Iran and Afghanistan and this is a modified script based on the alphabet used for Kazakh before 1927. A Latin alphabet based on the Turkish alphabet is used by the Kazakh diaspora in Turkey. The Kazakh diaspora also uses a surrogate Latin alphabet in Germany, as with other Central Asian Turkic languages, a Latin alphabet was introduced by the Soviets and used from 1927 to 1940 when it was replaced with Cyrillic. Kazakh Braille The Kazakh Cyrillic alphabet is used in Kazakhstan and Mongolia, in the nineteenth century, Ibrahim Altynsarin, a prominent Kazakh educator, first introduced a Cyrillic alphabet for transcribing Kazakh. Russian missionary activity, as well as Russian-sponsored schools, further encouraged the use of Cyrillic in the nineteenth, the alphabet was reworked by Sarsen Amanzholov and accepted in its current form in 1940. It contains 42 letters,33 from the Russian alphabet with 9 additional letters for sounds of the Kazakh language, initially, Kazakh letters came after letters from the Russian alphabet, but now they are placed after Russian letters similar in sound or shape. The letters В, Ё, Ф, Х, Һ, Ц, Ч, Щ, Ъ, Ь and Э are not used in native Kazakh words. Of these, Ё, Ц, Ч, Щ, Ъ, Ь, Э, are used only in words borrowed from Russian or through the Russian language which are according to Russian orthographic rules. The letter Х in conversational speech is pronounced similar to Қ, the letter Һ is used only in Arabic-Persian borrowings and is often pronounced like an unvoiced Х. The letter И represents the tense vowel obtained from the combinations ЫЙ /əj/, the letter У represents /w/ and the tense vowel obtained from the combinations ҰУ /ʊw/, ҮУ /ʉw/, ЫУ /əw/ and ІУ /ɪw/. Additionally, И and У are retained in words borrowed from Russian, some Internet resources in part used the government information agency QazAqparat before the encoding of this standard. Today the encoding UTF-8 is being accepted, the Arabic script is still the official alphabet for Kazakhs in the Peoples Republic of China. It was first introduced to the territory of Kazakhstan in the eleventh century, in 1924, Kazakh intellectual Akhmet Baitursynov attempted to reform the Arabic script to better suit Kazakh. The letters ۆ, گ, ڭ, پ and چ are used to represent sounds not found in the Arabic language, the Kazakh Arabic alphabet contains 29 letters and one digit, the upper hamza used at the beginnings of words to create front vowels throughout the word
Kazakh alphabets
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Kazakh Arabic and Latin script in 1924
Kazakh alphabets
Kazakh alphabets
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A Kazakh newspaper in Latin script from 1937.
Kazakh alphabets
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Selected works of
Mao Zedong in Latin-script Kazakh, published in
Beijing in 1977
29.
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
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The Ottoman Turkish alphabet is a version of the Perso-Arabic alphabet used to write Ottoman Turkish until 1928, when it was replaced by the Latin-based modern Turkish alphabet. Though Ottoman Turkish was primarily written in script, non-Muslim Ottoman subjects sometimes wrote it in other scripts, including the Armenian, Greek, Latin. The earliest known Turkic alphabet is the Orkhon script, the various Turkic languages have been written in a number of different alphabets, including Cyrillic, Arabic, Greek, Latin, and some other Asiatic writing systems. The Ottoman Turkish alphabet is a Turkish form of the Perso-Arabic script, well suited to writing Arabic and Persian borrowings, it was poorly suited to native Turkish words. The Arabic script had been designed to write Arabic, and while it was serviceable for Persian, it is quite inadequate at representing Turkish phonemes, still, Turkic languages such as Azerbaijani and Uzbek continue to be written using Arabic script in Iran, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The introduction of the telegraph and the press in the 19th century exposed further weaknesses in the Arabic script. Some Turkish reformers promoted the Latin script well before Atatürks reforms, in 1862, during an earlier period of reform, the statesman Münuf Pasha advocated a reform of the alphabet. At the start of the 20th century, similar proposals were made by writers associated with the Young Turk movement, including Hüseyin Cahit, Abdullah Cevdet. The issue was raised again in 1923 during the İzmir Economic Congress of the new Turkish Republic, a move away from the Arabic script was strongly opposed by conservative and religious elements. It was argued that Romanization of the script would detach Turkey from the wider Islamic world, others opposed Romanization on practical grounds, as was no suitable adaptation of the Latin script that could be used for Turkish phonemes. Some suggested that a better alternative might be to modify the Arabic script to introduce characters for better representing Turkish vowels. In 1926, the Turkic republics of the Soviet Union adopted the Latin script, Ottoman Turkish script was replaced by the Latin-based new Turkish alphabet. Its use became compulsory in all communications in 1929. The change was formalized by the Law on the Adoption and Implementation of the Turkish Alphabet, passed on November 1,1928, as with Arabic and Persian, texts in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet are written right to left. The appearance of a letter changes depending on its position in a word, isolated, final, medial, some letters cannot be joined to the left and so do not possess separate medial and initial forms. In medial position, the form is used. In initial position, the form is used. In most texts, kef, gef, and sağır kef are written identically although one Ottoman variant of gef has a mini-kaf of ﻙ as well as the doubled upper stroke of گ
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
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A calendar page for November 1, 1895 (October 20
O.S.) in cosmopolitan
Thessaloniki. The first 3 lines in Ottoman Turkish Arabic script give the date in the
Rumi – 20 Teşrin-i Evvel 1311 – and
Islamic – 14 Jumādā al-Ūlā 1313 – calendars; the Julian and Gregorian (in French) dates appear below.
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
–
Atatürk introducing the new Turkish alphabet to the people of
Kayseri, September 20, 1928
30.
Arabic alphabet
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The Arabic alphabet or Arabic abjadiyah is the Arabic script as it is codified for writing the Arabic language. It is written right to left, in a cursive style. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants, as with other abjads, such as the Hebrew alphabet, scribes later devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points. The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters, there are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots above or below their central part and these dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters transliterated as b and t have the basic shape, but b has one dot below, ب. Both printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most of the letters within a word connected to the adjacent letters. There are two main collating sequences for the Arabic alphabet, abjad and hija, in this order, letters are also used as numbers, Abjad numerals, and possess the same alphanumeric code/cipher as Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. The hijā’ī or alifbā’ī order, used where lists of names and words are sorted, as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries, groups letters by similarity of shape. Loss of sameḵ was compensated for by the split of shin ש into two independent Arabic letters, ش and ﺱ which moved up to take the place of sameḵ, the six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end. This is commonly vocalized as follows, abjad hawwaz ḥuṭṭī kalaman sa‘faṣ qarashat thakhadh ḍaẓagh, the hijā’ī order is never used as numerals. Another kind of order was used widely in the Maghreb until recently when it was replaced by the Mashriqi order. The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word, letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial, final, or isolated position. While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions, generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example, أرارات has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its following one, in addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures, notably lām-alif. Notes See the article Romanization of Arabic for details on various schemes, however. Also names are transcribed as pronounced locally, not as pronounced in Literary Arabic. Regarding pronunciation, the values given are those of Modern Standard Arabic
Arabic alphabet
–
Calligraphy
Arabic alphabet
–
as the sole official script
31.
Arabi Malayalam
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Arabi Malayalam is a writing system for writing Mappila Malayalam. It uses a variant form of the Arabic script, Mappila Malayalam uses the grammar and syntax of Malayalam, vocabulary from Malayalam, Arabic, Tamil, Urdu and Persian, and the Arabic script with special orthographic features. Though this originated in the South Indian region of the Malabar, today the script is used in Malaysia. It is also used to teach Malayalam in Madrassas of Kerala, until the 20th century, the script was widely taught to all Muslims in Kerala, including women. Most of the Mappila Songs are written in Arabi-Malayalam script, the earliest known such work is the Muhyidheen Mala, written in 1607. Over the centuries, almost 3000 Arabic words used in Mappila Malayalam came to be assimilated to the Malayalam language, many of them relate to law, administration and commerce, indicating the areas where the Muslim influence, especially in the lands under the Zamorin. There were many problems to write Malayalam using letters covering Arabic, only 28 letters were available from Arabic orthography to render over 53 phonemes of Malayalam. It was overcome by following the pattern of creating additional letters established for Persian, the letters like pa, gha, kha, ṅa, ña, ḻa, ga, ca were not available in the Arabic alphabets. The characters which stand for ḻa, ca, pa, ga are ژ, چ, پ, گ respectively in Arabi Malayalam. A huge volume of works written in Arabi-Malayalam have not been translated to the Malayalam script of today. These works contain the greatest literary achievements by Mappilas over the centuries, romantic ballads, folk tales and battle songs have found a place in Arabi-Malayalam literature. While Arabi-Malayalam literally denotes Arabic influence in Malayalam, the used in Arabi-Malayalam works often included Sanskrit, Persian. The first Arabi-Malayalam novel, Chahar Dervesh, a translation of a Persian work, was published in 1883, moyinkutty Vaidyar and others translated important works of Sanskrit into Arabi-Malayalam. Major works translated thus were Astangahridaya, Amarakosha, Panchatantra and even stories about King Vikramaditya, Sanskrit medical texts were also translated into Arabi-Malayalam by authors like Abdurahiman Musaliar of Ponnani Puthiyakath. These included the Upakarasara, Yogarambha and Mahasara, Arabi-Malayalam periodicals played an important role in social reform movements of the Mappilas in the early 20th century. Al-Irshad, published in 1923 by the Muslim Aikya Sanghom played an important role in explaining the tenets of Islam to the common man, Arabi-Malayalam still used as a medium of Madrassa education by Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidhyabhyasa Board in the Malabar region of Kerala. Arwi Judeo-Malayalam Suriyani Malayalam Beary bashe
Arabi Malayalam
–
Al Bayan newspaper Dated March 1930 printed in Arabi Malayalam script
Arabi Malayalam
–
Quran in Arabi
Malayalam
32.
Arwi
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Arwi is a written register of the Tamil language that uses an Arabic alphabet. It typically has extensive lexical influences from the Arabic language, Arwi was used extensively by the Muslim minority of Tamil Nadu state of India and Sri Lanka. The majority of Madrasas still teach the basics of Arwi as part of their curricula, Arwi was an outcome of the cultural synthesis between seafaring Arabs and Tamil-speaking Muslims of Tamil Nadu. It had a body of work in jurisprudence, sufism, law, medicine. It was used as a language for Tamil Muslims to learn Arabic. Many hadith manuscripts have been found, most of the fiqh books, particularly those of Imaam Shaafi and Imaam Abu Hanifa, have been found in Arwi. There was also a translation of the Bible into Arwi in 1926, Arwi contributed immensely to the education and progression of Muslim women in South India and Sri Lanka. Arwi-educated women were active participants in the fabric of society playing vital roles in education, medicine. Large portions of Arwi works were lost in two periods of time, in the 16th century with the arrival of the Portuguese and in the 20th century with the arrival of the printing press. Using the Arabic script meant that Arwi could not jump to print easily, presently, manuscripts are being eaten away by termites in homes and in private, public and institutional libraries. Efforts are underway to halt the decline and revive the language, Arwi still has a place among the more traditional Indian Tamil Muslim and Sri Lankan Moor families. The Arwi alphabet is the Arabic alphabet with thirteen letters, used to represent the Tamil vowels e and o. Arusi branch of the Qadiri path Arwi, Comments, Questions and Answers Islamic Cultural Values of Arwi Southeastern university of Sri Lanka
Arwi
–
Letters unique to Arwi.
Arwi
–
Arwi Arabic script in a tombstone at
Kilakarai in one of the oldest mosques of India,
the Old Jumma Masjid of Kilakarai.
33.
Jawi alphabet
–
Jawi is an Arabic alphabet for writing the Malay language, Acehnese, Banjarese, Minangkabau, Tausūg and several other languages in Southeast Asia. Jawi is one of the two scripts in Brunei, used as an alternative script in Malaysia and Malay dominated areas in Indonesia. It can be typed with the Jawi keyboard, day-to-day usage of Jawi is maintained in more conservative Malay-populated areas such as Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani. Jawi is still used on road and building signs, and taught in primary and religious schools in Brunei. The word Jawi is an adjective for the Arabic noun Jawah, both terms may have originated from the term Javadwipa, the ancient name for Java. Prior to the onset of the Islamisation, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were still firmly established in the region and this is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay, notably the Kedukan Bukit Inscription and Talang Tuwo inscription. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136, at the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran as well as salat. Many Arabic characters are never used as they are not pronounced in Malay language and this was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing in Turkey, Persia and India which had taken place earlier and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the Sri Paduka Tuan of Terengganu, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and this has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole. The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was restricted to the nobility. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class, with the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings, moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th century, other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably the Pegon alphabet of Javanese language in Java and the Serang alphabet of Bugis language in South Sulawesi. Both writing systems applied extensively the Arabic diacritics and added several alphabets other than Jawi alphabets to suit the languages, due to their fairly limited usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advance developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi script. The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, as the Malays found that the earlier Pallava script was totally unsuited as a vehicle to relay religious concepts. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the use of jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam
Jawi alphabet
–
A copy of
Undang-Undang Melaka ('Laws of Malacca'). The Malacca system of justice as enshrined in the text was the legal source for other major regional sultanates like
Johor,
Perak,
Brunei,
Pattani and
Aceh.
Jawi alphabet
–
Pages from
Hikayat Abdullah in the Jawi script.
Jawi alphabet
–
The
Terengganu Inscription Stone, written in year 1303. It is the oldest written artefact with Jawi script on it. The Jawi inscriptions are of local laws influenced by the
Shariah and thus one of the earliest proof of
Islamic influence in Malaysia.
34.
Khowar alphabet
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The Khowar alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Khowar language. It is a modification of the Urdu alphabet, which is itself a derivative of the Persian alphabet, according to the Khowar Academy with 60 letters, the Khowar alphabet is typically written in the calligraphic Nastaliq script, whereas Arabic is more commonly in the Naskh style. Usually, bare transliterations of Khowar into Roman letters omit many phonemic elements that have no equivalent in English or other languages written in the Latin script. Prior to that, the language was carried on through oral tradition, today Urdu and English are the official languages and the only major literary usage of Khowar is in both poetry and prose composition. Khowar has also occasionally written in a version of the Roman script called Roman Khowar since the 1960s. The Montly Zhang is the first newsletter was the first Khowar newspaper to use Nasta’liq computer-based composition, there are efforts under way to develop more sophisticated and user-friendly Khowar support on computers and the internet. Nowadays, nearly all Khowar newspapers, magazines, journals, the Nastaliq calligraphic writing style began as a Persian mixture of scripts Naskh and Taliq. Nastaliq is more cursive and flowing than its Naskh counterpart, a list of the letters of the Khowar alphabet and their pronunciation is given below. Khowar contains many historical spellings from Arabic and Persian, and therefore has many irregularities, the retroflex consonants needed to be added as well, this was accomplished by placing a superscript ط above the corresponding dental consonants. Several letters which represent distinct consonants in Arabic are conflated in Persian, some of the original Arabic letters are not used in Khowar. This is the list of the Khowar letters created by Rehmat Aziz Chitrali, many of these letters also represent vowel sounds. Vowels in Khowar are represented by letters that are also considered consonants, many vowel sounds can be represented by one letter. Confusion can arise, but context is usually enough to figure out the correct sound and this is a list of Khowar vowels found in the initial, medial, and final positions. Short vowels are represented by marks above and below a consonant, alif is the first letter of the Khowar alphabet, and it is used exclusively as a vowel. At the beginning of a word, alif can be used to represent any of the vowels, e. g. ابدار abdar, اسم ism. Also at the beginning, a followed by either wāo or ye represents a long vowel sound. However, wāo or ye alone at the beginning represents a consonant, alif also has a variant, call alif madd. It is used to represent a long ā at the beginning of a word, e. g. آپک āpak, at the middle or end of a word, long ā is represented simply by alif, e. g. باغ bāgh, آرام ārām
Khowar alphabet
–
File:Allam Iqbal’s poetry’s versified khowar translation by Rahmat Aziz Chitrali
Khowar alphabet
–
Khowar-Alphabets created by Rehmat Aziz Chitrali
35.
Kurdish alphabet
–
The Kurdistan Regional Government has agreed upon a standard for Soriani, implemented in Unicode for computation purposes. The Hawar is used in Turkey, Syria and Armenia, the Soriani in Iraq, two additional alphabets, based on the Armenian alphabet and the Cyrillic script, were once used in Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. When presenting the alphabet in his magazine Hawar, Jeladet Ali Bedirkhan proposed using ⟨ḧ ẍ ⟩ for غ, ح and these three glyphs do not have the official status of letters, but serve to represent these sounds when they are indispensable to comprehension. Turkey does not recognize this alphabet, use of the letters Q, W, and X, which did not exist in the Turkish alphabet until 2013, led to persecution in 2000 and 2003. Since September 2003, many Kurds applied to the courts seeking to change their names to Kurdish ones written with these letters, the Turkish government finally legalized the letters Q, W, and X as part of the Turkish alphabet in 2013. Some scholars have suggested to add minor additions to Bedirxans Hawar alphabet to make it more user-friendly, the additions correspond to sounds that are represented in the Soriani Arabic Alphabet, but not in the Hawar alphabet. These scholars suggest this extended alphabet be called the Universal Kurdish Latin Alphabet, the suggested additional characters are Ł, Ň, Ř and Ü. The velar Ł/ł is for non-initial positions only, in Kurdish velar Ł never comes in initial position, the initial position in any Kurdish word beginning with r is pronounced and written as a trill Ř/ř. The letter Ü/ü is a new letter, which is sometimes written ۊ in the Soriani alphabet, the velar nasal consonant is also a Kurdish phoneme which never comes in initial position, and it is written as Ň/ň. The Universal Kurdish Latin Alphabet consists of 35 letters in total, Universal Kurdish Latin Alphabet In this alphabet the short vowels are E, I and U, the long vowels are A, Ê, Î, O, Û and Ü. Non-Kurdish Phonemes These three glyphs do not have the status of letter. Central Kurdish is mainly using a modified Persian alphabet with 33 letters introduced by Said Kaban Sedqi. Unlike the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad, Sorani is almost a true alphabet in which vowels are mandatory, making the script easier to read. Reformed Sorani does have glyphs for the Kurdish short i and it is able to differentiate between the consonant w from the short vowel u by representing w with a. It is also able to differentiate between the consonant y from the long vowel î by representing î with a. For pronunciations see comparison table below, the alphabet is represented by 34 letters including وو, which is arguably incorrect, which is given its own position. Kurds in Iraq and Iran mainly use this alphabet, though the Kurdish Latin alphabet is also in use, the standardization by KRG uses ک instead of ك for letter Kaf, as listed in the Unicode table on the official home page for the standard. However, the glyph is still in use by various individuals
Kurdish alphabet
–
Kurdish restaurant sign written in Arabic script
36.
Pashto alphabet
–
The seventeenth century saw the rise of a polemic debate that was also polarized along lines of script. The heterodox Roshani movement wrote their literature mostly in the Persianate style called Nastaʿlīq script, even lithographically reproduced Pashto has been calligraphied in Naskh as a general rule, since it was adopted as standard. The Pashto alphabet has several letters which do not appear in any other Arabic script, the letters ښ and ږ look like sīn and re respectively with a dot above and beneath. Pashto has ی, ې, ۀ, and ۍ for additional vowels, Pashto uses all 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet, and shares 3 letters with Persian and Urdu in the additional letters. Pashto has 45 letters and 4 diacritic marks, the Southern, Central and Northern dialects of Pashto are included. ^1 In the beginning of a word, آ represents the long vowel /ɑ/, in the middle or end of a word, ا represents the long vowel /ɑ/ which is following a consonant. ^2 Ten letters, ق ف ع ظ ط ض ص ح ﺫ ث, eight of these, ع ظ ط ض ص ح ﺫ ث, represent no additional phonemes of Pashto, and their pronunciation merges with other phonemes. ^3 ح /h/ tends to be omitted in pronunciation when at the end of a word, e. g. اصلاح is always pronounced as. ^4 The letter ړ represents /ɺ̢/ if it is not at the position of a syllable, if it is final. It tends to merge with /p/ پ, ^6 The phoneme /q/ ق occurs only in loanwords. It tends to merge with /k/ ک, ^7 It is also common to write the letter ک as ك. ^8 It is also common to write the letter ګ as گ, ^9 In informal texts, ی as well as ې, ۍ and ئ are sometimes replaced by the letter ے, especially in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. ^10 ی represents /ai/ when it is following a consonant, ^11 The letter ئ represents /j/ after a vowel, e. g. جدائي - judāyī, separation. ^12 It is also common to write ﺉ with the hamza over the side of the letter - ٸ. The superscribed element of the letter ځ in earlier varieties was not hamza-shaped, such shape of the upper element of the letter is hard to find in modern fonts. څ is now used for only /t͡s/. The four diacritic marks are, The diacritic marks are not considered separate letters and their use is optional and are usually not written, they are only occasionally used to distinguish between two words which would otherwise appear similar. In Arabic loanwords, the tanwin fatha can be used, e. g. مَثَلاً - masalan, ^1 If ى follows a consonant in a word, it indicates the word is masculine singular and in the direct case. ^2 ۍ always indicates the word it occurs in is feminine, ^3 If ئ occurs at the end of a verb, it indicates the verb is in second person plural form
Pashto alphabet
Pashto alphabet
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Excerpt from Khayr ul-Bayān, the oldest known document written in Pashto, written in
Nastaliq in 1651
37.
Pegon alphabet
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Pegon is an Arabic alphabet used to write the Javanese and Sundanese languages, as an alternative to the Roman alphabet or the Javanese script and the old Sundanese script. In particular, it was used for writing and poetry from the fifteenth century. The word Pegon originated from a Javanese word pégo, which means deviate, due to the practice of writing Javanese language with Arabic script, the main difference between Jawi and Pegon is that the latter is almost always written with vocal signs. This is because the Javanese language contains more variations of aksara swara than their Malay counterpart resulting in vocal signs needing to be written to avoid phonetic confusion, if written without vocal signs, as in Jawi, the script is called Gundhul. Pegon includes symbols for sounds that are not present in standard Arabic, one of the earliest dated examples of the usage of Pegon may be Masail al-talim, a work on Islamic law written in Arabic with interlinear translation and marginal commentary in Javanese. The manuscript is dated 1623 and written on dluwang, a made from the bark of the mulberry tree
Pegon alphabet
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Pegon consonants. Letters not present in the Arabic alphabet are marked with a yellow circle.
Pegon alphabet
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Pegon vowels
38.
Persian alphabet
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The Persian alphabet or Perso-Arabic alphabet is a writing system based on the Arabic script and used for the Persian language. It has four more than the Arabic alphabet, پ, چ, ژ. The Persian script is an abjad and is exclusively written cursively and that is, the majority of the letters in a word connect to each other. This is also implemented on computers, whenever the Persian alphabet is typed, the computer automatically connects the letters to each other. Words are written right to left. Also, vowels are underrepresented in writing, see below for details, the replacement of the Pahlavi scripts with the Persian alphabet in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirid dynasty in ninth century Greater Khorasan. Below are the 32 letters of the modern Persian alphabet, since the script is cursive, the appearance of a letter changes depending on its position, isolated, initial, medial, and final of a word. The names of the letter are mostly the ones used in Arabic, the only ambiguous name is he, which is used for both ﺡ and ه. For clarification, these are often called ḥe-ye jimi and he-ye do-češm, respectively. Letters which do not link to a following letter Seven letters – و, ژ, ﺯ, ﺭ, ﺫ, ﺩ, ﺍ – do not connect to a letter as the rest of the letters of the alphabet do. These seven letters have the form in isolated and initial position. For example, when the letter ا alef is at the beginning of a such as اینجا injā. Persian script has adopted a subset of Arabic diacritics which consists of zabar /æ/, zir /e/, other Arabic diacritics may be seen in Arabic loan-words. The following are not actual letters but different orthographical shapes for letters, and in the case of the lām alef, as to ﺀ hamze, it has only a single graphic, since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter. However, it is seated on a vāv, ye or alef. Technically, hamze is not a letter but a diacritic, although at first glance they may seem similar, there are many differences in the way the different languages use the alphabets. For example, similar words are written differently in Persian and Arabic, vowel notation is simple but its history is complicated. Classical Arabic has a length distinction, in writing, long vowels are normally written ambiguously by letters known as matres lectionis while short ones are normally omitted entirely
Persian alphabet
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Example showing the
Nastaʿlīq calligraphic style's proportion rules.
39.
Sindhi language
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Sindhi /ˈsɪndi/ is an Indo-Aryan language of the historical Sindh region, spoken by the Sindhi people. It is the language of the Pakistani province of Sindh. In India, Sindhi is one of the scheduled languages officially recognized by the federal government, most Sindhi speakers are concentrated in Pakistan in the Sindh province, and in India, the Kutch region of the state of Gujarat and in the Ulhasnagar region of the state of Maharashtra. The Sindhi language and other languages of Pakistan are struggling to be officially given the status of national language in Pakistan. Before the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the language of Sindh. There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as KTN, Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, besides this, Indian television Doordarshan have been asked by the Indian court to start a news channel for Hindu Sindhis of India. Sindhi Computing is the used for the Software developed for the Sindhi language. Sindhi language software such as Sindhi language keyboards have been developed for the Windows OS, various other online websites provide Sindhi keyboard such as, M. B Sindhi keyboard by Majid Bhurgri. The name Sindhi is derived from Sindhu, the name of the Indus River. When Sindh was occupied by British army and was annexed with Bombay, Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29,1857 advising civil servants in Sindh to qualify examination in Sindhi. He also ordered Sindhi to be used in all official communication, seven-grade education system commonly known as Sindhi-Final was introduced in Sindh. Sindhi Final was made a prerequisite for employment in revenue, police, like other languages of this family, Sindhi has passed through Old Indo-Aryan and Middle Indo-Aryan stages of growth, and it entered the New Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century CE. In the year 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi, the script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities, according to Islamic Sindhi tradition, the first translation of the Quran into Sindhi was completed in the year 883 CE /270 AH in Mansura, Sindh. The first extensive Sindhi translation was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi, the first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq. Sindhi has a large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other languages. Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 16 vowels, the consonant to vowel ratio is around average for worlds languages at 2.8. All plosives, affricates, nasals, the flap and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts
Sindhi language
Sindhi language
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Sindhi
40.
Tajik alphabet
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The Bukhori dialect spoken by Bukharan Jews traditionally used the Hebrew alphabet but more often today is written using the Cyrillic variant. As with many states, the change in writing system. The Persian alphabet is supported by the religious, Islamists. As the de facto standard, the Cyrillic alphabet is supported by those who wish to maintain the status quo. As a result of the influence of Islam in the region, until this time, the language was not thought of as separate and simply considered a dialect of the Persian language. The Soviets began by simplifying the Persian alphabet in 1923, before moving to a Latin-based system in 1927. The Latin script was introduced by the Soviet Union as part of an effort to increase literacy and distance the, at time, largely illiterate population. The regular Persian alphabet, being an abjad, does not provide sufficient letters for representing the system of Tajik. In addition, the abjad is more difficult to learn, each letter having different forms depending on the position in the word, the Decree on Romanisation made this law in April,1928. The Latin variant for Tajik was based on the work by Turcophone scholars who aimed to produce a unified Turkic alphabet, the literacy campaign was successful, with near-universal literacy being achieved by the 1950s. As part of the russification of Central Asia, the Cyrillic script was introduced in the late 1930s, the alphabet remained Cyrillic until the end of the 1980s with the disintegration of the Soviet Union. In 1989, with the growth in Tajik nationalism, a law was enacted declaring Tajik the state language, in addition, the law officially equated Tajik with Persian, placing the word Fârsi after Tajik. The law also called for a reintroduction of the Persian alphabet. The Persian alphabet was introduced into education and public life, although the banning of the Islamic Renaissance Party in 1993 slowed down the adoption, in 1999, the word Fârsi was removed from the state-language law. As of 2004 the de facto standard in use is a Cyrillic alphabet, the letters of the major variants of the Tajik alphabet are presented below, along with their phonetic values. There is also a table below. A variant of the Persian alphabet is used to write Tajik, in the Tajik version, as with all other versions of the Arabic script, with the exception of ا, vowels are not given unique letters, but rather optionally indicated with diacritic marks. The Latin script was introduced after the Russian Revolution of 1917 in order to facilitate an increase in literacy, only lowercase letters were found in the first versions of the Latin variant, between 1926-9
Tajik alphabet
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The
coat of arms of the
Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic circa 1929. "Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" is written (from top to bottom) in Tajik Latin, Tajik Arabic, and Russian Cyrillic.
Tajik alphabet
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An illustrated manuscript written circa 1492 by
Jami, a
Tajik (
Persian)
poet. The writing is in the Persian alphabet.
Tajik alphabet
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The front page of Kommunisti Isfara from 15 May 1936.
Tajik alphabet
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Advertisement in Cyrillic for the admission of the graduate students by the research institutes of the
Tajik Academy of Sciences.
41.
Urdu alphabet
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The Urdu alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Urdu language. It is a modification of the Persian alphabet known as Perso-Arabic, the Urdu alphabet has up to 58 letters. With 39 basic letters and no distinct letter cases, the Urdu alphabet is written in the calligraphic Nastaʿlīq script. Usually, bare transliterations of Urdu into Roman letters omit many phonemic elements that have no equivalent in English or other languages written in the Latin script. The Urdu language emerged as a register of Hindustani well before the Partition of India. It is distinguished most by its extensive Persian influences, the standard Urdu script is a modified version of the Perso-Arabic script and has its origins in 13th century Iran. It is closely related to the development of the Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic script, Urdu script in its extended form is known as Shahmukhi script and is used for writing other Indo-Aryan languages of North Indian subcontinent like Punjabi and Saraiki as well. Despite the invention of the Urdu typewriter in 1911, Urdu newspapers continued to publish prints of handwritten scripts by calligraphers known as katibs or khush-navees until the late 1980s, the Pakistani national newspaper Daily Jang was the first Urdu newspaper to use Nastaʿlīq computer-based composition. There are efforts under way to more sophisticated and user-friendly Urdu support on computers. Nowadays, nearly all Urdu newspapers, magazines, journals, usage of script generally signifies the users faith, Muslims generally use the Urdu script, while Hindus use the Devanagari script. The Nastaʿlīq calligraphic writing style began as a Persian mixture of scripts Naskh, after the Mughal conquest, Nastaliq became the preferred writing style for Urdu. It is the dominant style in Pakistan, and many Urdu writers elsewhere in the use it. Nastaʿlīq is more cursive and flowing than its Naskh counterpart, the Urdu script is an abjad script derived from Perso-Arabic script, which is itself a derivative of the Arabic script. The Urdu alphabet was standardized in 2004 by the National Language Authority, tāʼ marbūṭah is also sometimes considered a letter though it is rarely used except for in certain loan words from Arabic. As an abjad, the Urdu script only shows consonants and long vowels, the letters added include, ٹ to represent /ʈ/, ڈ to represent /ɖ/, ڑ to represent /ɽ/, ں to represent /◌̃/, and ے to represent /ɛ, / or /e, /. Furthermore, a separate letter, ھ, exists to denote a /ʰ/ or a /ʱ/. This letter is used as part of the multitude of digraphs. The digraphs of aspirated consonants are as follows, the Urdu language has 10 vowels and 10 nasalized vowels
Urdu alphabet
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Example of writing in the Urdu alphabet: Urdu
42.
Uyghur Arabic alphabet
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The Uyghur Perso-Arabic alphabet is an Arabic alphabet used for writing the Uyghur language, primarily by Uyghurs living in China. It is one of several Uyghur alphabets, and it is the alphabet of Uyghur language since 1982. The first Perso-Arabic derived alphabet for Uyghur was developed in the 10th century, the version used for writing the Chagatai language. It became the literary language, now known as the Chagatay alphabet. It was used nearly exclusively up to the early 1920s, between 1937 and 1954 the Perso-Arabic alphabet used to write Uyghur was modified by removing redundant letters and adding markings for vowels. A Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in the 1950s and a Latin alphabet in 1958, the modern Uyghur Perso-Arabic alphabet was made official in 1978 and reinstituted by the Chinese government in 1983, with modifications for representing Uyghur vowels. The pre-modification alphabet used Arabic diacritics to mark short vowels, several of these alternatives were influenced by security-policy considerations of the Soviet Union or the Peoples Republic of China. A Pinyin-derived Latin-based alphabet, then called “New script” or Uyghur Yëngi Yëziq or UYY, was for a time the only officially approved alphabet used for Uyghur in Xinjiang
Uyghur Arabic alphabet
43.
Arabic Afrikaans
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Arabic Afrikaans was a form of Afrikaans that was written in Arabic script. It began in the 1830s in the madrasa in Cape Town, seventy-four Arabic Afrikaans texts are extant. The earliest, the Hidyat al-Islam, is dated 1845, though its source manuscript no longer exists, the oldest surviving manuscript, which describes the basic Islamic learning, was written by the imam Abdul-Kahhar ibn Abdul-Malik in 1868. The most professional version was written in 1869 by Abu Bakr Effendi, one of the best examples of this literature was Uiteensetting van die Godsdiens, a book laying out Islamic traditions according to the Hanafi religious law. Written by Abu Bakr Effendi, it was printed using Arabic script throughout and this is a paragraph of the book Uiteensetting van die godsdiens, Transcription of the Arabic-alphabet text. The italics mark Arabic-language words, Iek bagent diesie kitab met Allah sain naam, Allah es rizq giefar ien dunya fer al wat liefandag ies. Allah es beriengar ien die gannat ien dag ahirat fer al die miesie an djinns wat oewhap iman gadoet het, al die dank an parais es rieg fer Allah alien. Allah het gagief fer oewhans Islam sain agama, Islam sain agama oek waas gawies fantefoewhar Ibrahim sain agama. An Allah het gamaak die Quran rasulullah sain hadit fer seker dalil fer oewhans, an Allah het galaat oewhans wiet die riegtie wieg fan die ilms an gahelp fer oewhans oewham ta lier ander miesie oewhap die riegtie manierie. Translation into modern standard Afrikaans, Ek begin hierdie boek met Allah se naam, Allah is onderhouer in die wêreld vir al wat lewendig is. Allah is bringer in die paradys in die laaste dag vir al die mense en djinns wat oop iman gedoen het, al die dank en prys is reg vir Allah alleen. Allah het gegee vir ons Islam se godsdiens, the Arabic-alphabet version uses an Arabic word in several places where modern Afrikaans uses a Germanic word, e. g. dunya دنيا for wêreld, meaning world. The Arabic words are unknown in Afrikaans. Without the above Translation into modern standard Afrikaans, it is impossible for an Afrikaans-speaking person to understand the above Transcription of the Arabic-alphabet text. Some words do however appear to resemble phonetic transliterations between Arabic script and the version of Afrikaans spoken by Cape Coloured people, mixed with Dutch, an example that used Arabic vowels was a handwritten Arabic–Afrikaans bilingual Koran. The letter of prolongation in ī and ū has sukūn, the Afrikaans preposition by is written as part of the next word, likely by copying Arabic language usage with some prepositions. The Afrikaans word al = all is written as part of the next word, the apartheid regime was reluctant to openly acknowledge the influence of other languages spoken in South Africa on Afrikaans. Until around 1900, Afrikaans was considered a dialect of Dutch, even today, Afrikaans and Dutch are considered mutually intelligible
Arabic Afrikaans
–
Arabisch-Afrikaans 1872
44.
Berber Arabic alphabet
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The Berber Arabic alphabet is an Arabic-based alphabet that was used to write various Berber languages in the Middle Ages. Nowadays users have largely reverted to either the Tifinagh alphabet in Morocco, writing Berber Languages, a quick summary. Archived from the original on 2005-07-30
Berber Arabic alphabet
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Berber language poetry in Arabic script with its translation in French
45.
Swahili language
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Swahili, also known as Kiswahili, is a Bantu language and the first language of the Swahili people. The closely related Comorian language, spoken in the Comoros Islands, is considered a dialect. Estimates of the number of Swahili speakers vary widely, from 50 million to over 100 million. Swahili serves as a language of three nations, Tanzania, Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Shikomor, the language in Comoros and also spoken in Mayotte, is related to Swahili. Swahili is also one of the languages of the African Union. A significant fraction of Swahili vocabulary is derived from Arabic through contact with Arabic-speaking Muslim inhabitants of the Swahili Coast, Swahili is traditionally regarded as being the language of coastal areas of Tanzania and Kenya. It was formalised after independence by presidents of the African Great Lakes region and it spread as a fishermans language to the various islands surrounding the Swahili Coast. Traders from these islands had extensive contact with the peoples from at least the 2nd century A. D. There is also evidence of early Zaramo people settlement on Zanzibar from Dar es Salaam in present-day Tanzania. Clove farmers from Oman and the Persian Gulf farmed the Zanzibar Archipelago, the earliest known documents written in Swahili are letters written in Kilwa in 1711 A. D. in the Arabic script that were sent to the Portuguese of Mozambique and their local allies. The original letters are now preserved in the Historical Archives of Goa, the British did not do so in neighbouring Kenya even though they made moves in that direction. Swahili was the only candidate in the two colonies. In the aftermath of Germanys defeat in the First World War, Swahili was to be subordinate to English, university education, much secondary education and governance at the highest levels would be conducted in English. One key step in spreading Swahili was to create a written language. In June 1928, a conference took place at Mombasa, at which the Zanzibar dialect. Swahili has become a language spoken by tens of millions in three African Great Lakes countries where it is an official or national language. In 2016 it was made a subject in all Kenyan schools
Swahili language
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Although originally written with the
Arabic script, Swahili is now written in a
Latin alphabet that was introduced by
Christian missionaries and colonial administrators. The text shown here is the Catholic version of the
Lord's Prayer.
Swahili language
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Coastal areas where Swahili or Comorian is the indigenous language,
Swahili language
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Swahili Arabic script on a one-pysar coin from
Zanzibar circa 1299 AH (1882 AD)
Swahili language
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Swahili Arabic script on a carved wooden door (open) at
Lamu in
Kenya
