1.
Vadakkumnadhan
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Vadakkumnadhan is a 2006 Malayalam drama film, directed by Shajoon Kariyal, written by Gireesh Puthenchery, starring Mohanlal, Padmapriya and Kavya Madhavan in the lead roles. The film is a love story, shot mostly in the scenic foothills of the Himalayas. This film was a critical and commercial success, Meera is his student and murapennu. Though Bharathan does not encourage it, Meera often tries to take advantage of the relationship even in class. Both families have agreed to their wedding and a date has been fixed. But when the day dawns and the bride arrives at the mandapam, she realizes to her utter dismay. From there unfolds the story of Vadakkum Nathan. Mohanlal as Prof. Gaffoor Sona Nair as Latha Bindu Ramakrishnan Filmfare Awards Best Male Playback Singer - Dr. K. J. Yesudas Best Female Playback Singer - K. S, the lyrics were penned by Gireesh Puthenchery. The songs are still on the top of chartbusters, Vadakkum Nathan at the Internet Movie Database
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
5.
Thrissur district
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Thrissur is a revenue district of Kerala situated in the central part of that state. Spanning an area of about 3,032 km2, Thrissur district is home to over 10% of Kerala’s population, Thrissur district was formed on July 1,1949, with the headquarters at Thrissur City. Thrissur is known as the capital of Kerala, and the land of Poorams. The district is famous for its ancient temples, churches, Thrissur Pooram is the most colourful and spectacular temple festival in Kerala. The district was formed on July 1,1949, the name Thrissur is derived from Thiru-Shiva-Perur, which translates to The city with the name of the Lord Siva. Thrissur was also known as Vrishabhadripuram and Then Kailasam in ancient days, from ancient times, Thrissur District has played a part in the political history of south India. The early political history of the District is interlinked with that of the Cheras of the Sangam age, the whole of the present Thrissur District was included in the early Chera Empire. The District can claim to have played a part in fostering the trade relations between Kerala and the world in the ancient and medieval period. Kodungalloor, which had the distinction of being the Primum Emporium India and these three communities are the Christians, the Jews and the Muslims. In 1790 Raja Rama Varma popularly known as Saktan Tampuran ascended the throne of Cochin, with the accession of this ruler the English or modern period in the history of Cochin and of the District began. Saktan Tampuran was mainly responsible for the destruction of the power of the feudal Nair chieftains, another force in the public life of Trichur and its suburbs was the Namboodithiri community and Menons of Royal ancestry. A large part of the Trichur Taluk was for long under the domination of the Yogiatiripppads, the wave of nationalism and political consciousness which swept through the country since the early decades of this century has its repercussions in the District as well. Thrissur District has been in the forefront of the movement for temple entry. The Guruvayur Satyagraha is an episode in the history of the national movement. According to the 2011 census Thrissur district has a population of 3,110,327 and this gives it a ranking of 113th in India. The district has a density of 1,026 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 4. 58%, Thrissur has a sex ratio of 1109 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 95. 32%. Thrissur was also the second highest urbanized district in Kerala after Ernakulam, according to the 2001 India census, Thrissur District had a population of 2,975,440
6.
Thrissur
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It is also the headquarters of the Thrissur District. The City is built around a 65-acre hillock called the Thekkinkadu Maidan which seats the Vadakkumnathan temple, Thrissur was once the capital of the Kingdom of Cochin. It is located 300 kilometres towards north-west of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur is also known as the Cultural Capital of Kerala because of its cultural, spiritual and religious leanings throughout history. It contains the Kerala Sangeetha Nadaka Academy, Kerala Lalithakala Akademi, the city hosts the Thrissur Pooram festival, the most colourful and spectacular temple festival in Kerala. The festival is held at the Thekkinkadu Maidan in April or May, Thrissur has historically been a centre of Hindu scholarship. The city has one of the most important temples of Hindu Shaivism, the district is also home of one of the most holiest Hindu Vaishnava temples, the Guruvayur temple. Christianity, Islam and Judaism entered into the Indian subcontinent through the Thrissur District, the works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings claim Thomas the Apostle to have set foot in Muziris near Thrissur 2,000 years ago. The countrys first mosque, Cheraman Juma Masjid, opened in AD629, Thrissur has opened the gates for Arabs, Romans, Portuguese, Dutch and English. The city has served as an incubator for many Malayali entrepreneurs and it flexes its economic muscle in India as the headquarters of three major scheduled banks, South Indian Bank Ltd, Catholic Syrian Bank and Dhanalakshmi Bank Ltd and a clutch of Chit funds. The city is also a big centre for shopping in Kerala for silks, Thrissur attracts the largest number of domestic tourists in Kerala. The name Thrissur is a form of Thiru-Shiva-Per-Ur literally translates to The City or Town with the name of the Lord Shiva. The name owes itself to the most prominent feature of the city, that is the Vadakkumnathan Temple, Thrissur was also known as Vrishabhadripuram Kailasam of the South) in ancient days. The Ramavarmapuram monument is in granite and is of the menhir type, the monument in Ramavarmapuram is 15 feet in height and 12 feet 4 inches wide. Since 1944, it has been protected by the Department of Archaeology, the monument is locally known as Padakkallu or Pulachikkallu. These menhirs are memorials put up at sites for the departed souls. They belong to the Megalithic Age of Kerala, which is estimated between 1000 BCE and 500 CE. All such monuments have not been dated exactly, some experts are of the view that these are the remnants of the Neolithic Age in the development of human technology. The Ramavarmapuram menhir is also believed to be a monument belonging to the Sangam period in the South Indian history, another monolithic monuments like Dolmens and rock-cut caves are at Porkulam, Chiramanengad, Eyyal, Kattakambal and Kakkad
7.
Garbhagriha
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Garbhagriha or Garbha gruha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctum of a Hindu temple where resides the murti of the primary deity of the temple. Literally the word means womb chamber, from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb, only priests are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain. The Garbhagriha is located in a Hindu temple which is worshipped at by Hindus, in temples with a spire or vimana, this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru, the garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection, generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotees mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the garbha grha may be restricted to priests who perform the services there, the inner garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. More often garbhagriha is square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total equilibrium, in the centre is placed the image of the deity. But sometimes, for the temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular, for example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi. The present structure of most of these temples is a vimana with a square garbhagriha and a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha-mandapa. George Michell, Monuments of India Temple architecture Parts of a North Indian Temple
8.
Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
9.
Maha Shivaratri
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Maha Shivaratri is a Hindu festival celebrated annually in honour of the god Shiva. It is a festival in Hinduism, but one that is solemn and marks a remembrance of overcoming darkness and ignorance in life. The ardent devotees keep awake all night, others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingams. This is an ancient Hindu festival whose origin date is unknown, in Kashmir Shaivism, the festival is called Har-ratri or phonetically simpler Haerath or Herath by Shiva faithfuls of the Kashmir region. Maha Shivaratri is a festival dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Unlike most Hindu festivals which are celebrated during the day, the Maha Shivaratri is celebrated at night, the celebration includes maintaining a jaagaran, an all-night vigil and prayers, because Shaiva Hindus mark this night as overcoming darkness and ignorance in ones life and the world through Shiva. Offerings of fruits, leaves, sweets and milk to Shiva are made, some perform all-day fasting with vedic or tantrik worship of Shiva, in Shiva temples, Om Namah Shivaya, the sacred mantra of Shiva, is chanted through the day. Maha Shivaratri is celebrated over three or ten days based on the Hindu luni-solar calendar, every lunar month, there is a Shivaratri. The main festival is called Maha Shivaratri, or great Shivaratri, according to the Gregorian calendar, the day falls in either February or March. According to Jones and Ryan, the festival may have originated around the 5th century CE, the Maha Shivaratri is mentioned in several Puranas, particularly the Skanda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana. These medieval era Shaiva texts present different mythologies associated with this festival, different legends describe the significance of Maha Shivaratri. According to one legend in the Shaivism tradition, this is the night when Shiva performs the dance of creation, preservation and destruction. The chanting of hymns, the reading of Shiva scriptures and the chorus of devotees joins this cosmic dance, according to another legend, this is the night when Shiva and Parvati got married. The significance of dance tradition to this festival has historical roots, the Maha Shivaratri has served as a historic confluence of artists for annual dance festivals at major Hindu temples such as at Konark, Khajuraho, Pattadakal, Modhera and Chidambaram. The major Jyotirlinga Shiva temples of India, such as in Varanasi and they serve also as sites for fairs and special events. The Mandi fair is famous as a venue for Maha Shivaratri celebrations. It is believed that all gods and goddesses of the area, said to more than 200. Maha Shivaratri is the most important festival in Kashmir Shaivism, found in north Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent and it is celebrated as the anniversary of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati
10.
Architecture of Kerala
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Keralas style of architecture is unique in India, in its striking contrast to Dravidian architecture which is normally practiced in other parts of South India. The architecture of Kerala has been influenced by Dravidian and Indian Vedic architectural science over two millennium, the Tantrasamuchaya, Thachu-Shastra, Manushyalaya-Chandrika and Silparatna are important architectural sciences, which have had a strong impact in Kerala Architecture style. The Manushyalaya-Chandrika, a devoted to domestic architecture is one such science which has its strong roots in Kerala. The architectural style has evolved from Kerala’s peculiar climate and long history of influences of its major trading partners like Chinese, Arabs. The characteristic regional expression of Kerala architecture results from the geographical, geographically Kerala is a narrow strip of land lying in between western seaboard of peninsular India and confined between the towering Western Ghats on its east and the vast Arabian sea on its west. Favoured by plentiful rains due to Monsoon and bright sunshines, this land is green with vegetation. In the uneven terrain of this region human habitation is distributed thickly in the fertile low-lands, heavy rains have brought in presence of large water bodies in form of lakes, rivers, backwaters and lagoons. The climatic factors thus made its significant contributions in developing the style, to counter wettest climatic conditions coupled with heavy humidity. History also played its own contributions to the Kerala architecture, the towering Western Ghats on its east, has successfully prevented influences of neighboring Tamil countries into present day Kerala in later times. The Kerala’s rich spice cultivations brought it center of maritime trade until modern periods. This helped in bring in influences of these civilizations into Kerala architecture, the locational feature of Kerala has influenced the social development and indirectly the style of construction. In the ancient times the Arabian sea and the Ghats formed impenetrable barriers helping the evolution of a culture of Proto-Dravidians. The earliest vestiges of constructions in Kerala belong to this period dated between 3000 B. C. to 300 B. C and they can be grouped into two types – tomb cells and megaliths. The rock cut tomb cells are located in the laterite zones of central Kerala, for example at Porkalam. The tombs are roughly oblong in plan with single or multiple bed chambers with a court in the east from where steps rise to the ground level. Another type of chamber is made of four slabs placed on edges. One or more such dolmens are marked by a stone circle, among the megaliths are the umbrella stones, resembling handless palm leaf umbrellas used for covering pits enclosing burial urns. Two other types of megaliths, hat stones and menhirs however have no burial appendages and they appear to be rather memorial stones
11.
Hindu temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
12.
Kerala state
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
13.
Gopuram
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Gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. This forms a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian style and they are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex and it also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram and they also appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine, the temples walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras. The sanctum sanctorum and its roof is also called the vimanam. The Tamil derivation is from the two words, கோ and புறம் meaning king and exterior respectively and it originates from the Sangam age when it was known as ஓங்கு நிலை வாயில் meaning imperishable gateway. Siegfried Lienhard considers this Tamil derivation but offers a new derivation from the Sanskrit word, separately, it consists of two words go, with the possible meanings of cow or sky, and pura, meaning city. A gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level wooden doors, often richly decorated, above is the tapering gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the gopuram tower narrows. Usually the tower is topped with a vaulted roof with a finial. The four gopurams of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are important early examples, begun in the mid-13th century, sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu is the tallest Gopuram in the world. List of tallest Gopurams Dallapiccola, Anna L, dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn,1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN0300062176
14.
Mahabharata
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The Mahābhārata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The Mahābhārata is a narrative of the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four goals of life or puruṣārtha, traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, the text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period. The title may be translated as the tale of the Bhārata dynasty. According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahābhārata is the longest known epic poem and has described as the longest poem ever written. Its longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines, and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa. W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of civilization to that of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare. The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyāsa, who is also a character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa and he also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times. The first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was Gaṇeśa who wrote down the text to Vyasas dictation, the epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is recited by the sage Vaiśampāyana, a disciple of Vyāsa, the text has been described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the poem must once have carried an immense tragic force. Moritz Winternitz considered that only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole, Research on the Mahābhārata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present Mahābhārata can be traced back to Vedic times, the background to the Mahābhārata suggests the origin of the epic occurs after the very early Vedic period and before the first Indian empire was to rise in the third century B. C
15.
Shrine
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A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other objects associated with the figure being venerated. A shrine at which offerings are made is called an altar. Shrines can be found in various settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, or in the home, a shrine may become a focus of a cult image. Many shrines are located buildings and in the temples designed specifically for worship, such as a church in Christianity. A shrine here is usually the centre of attention in the building, in such cases, adherents of the faith assemble within the building in order to venerate the deity at the shrine. In classical temple architecture, the shrine may be synonymous with the cella, historically, in Hinduism, Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, and also in modern faiths, such as Neopaganism, a shrine can commonly be found within the home or shop. This shrine is usually a structure or a setup of pictures and figurines dedicated to a deity that is part of the official religion. Small household shrines are common among the Chinese and people from South and Southeast Asia, whether Hindu. Usually a small lamp and small offerings are kept daily by the shrine, Buddhist household shrines must be on a shelf above the head, Chinese shrines must stand directly on the floor. Small outdoor yard shrines are found at the bottom of many gardens, following various religions, including historically. Shrines are found in most, though not all, religions, Shrines therefore attract the practice of pilgrimage. Shrines are found in many, though not all, forms of Christianity, Roman Catholicism, the largest denomination of Christianity, has many shrines, as do Orthodox Christianity and Anglicanism. For a shrine to be described as national, the approval of the Episcopal Conference is necessary, for it to be described as international, the approval of the Holy See is required. Another use of the shrine in colloquial Catholic terminology is a niche or alcove in most – especially larger – churches used by parishioners when praying privately in the church. They were also called Devotional Altars, since they could look like small Side Altars or bye-altars, Shrines were always centered on some image of Christ or a saint – for instance, a statue, painting, mural or mosaic, and may have had a reredos behind them. However, Mass would not be celebrated at them, they were used to aid or give a visual focus for prayers. Side altars, where Mass could actually be celebrated, were used in a way to shrines by parishioners
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Parasurama
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Parashurama is the sixth avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism. He is the son of Renuka and one of the saptarishis and he lived during the last Treta and Dvapara Yugas and is one of the Chiranjivi of Hinduism. Parashurama, a Brahmin, received his famous axe after undertaking terrible penance to please Shiva, Parashurama is most known for ridding the world of kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty king Kartavirya Arjuna, not the famous one of Mahabharata, killed his father. As per the Mahabharata, Parashurama single-handedly successfully conquered the entire world, Parashurama conducted hundreds of Ashvamedhas and gave away the entire earth he conquered as alms to sage Kashyapa. He plays important roles in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to Bhishma, Parashurama and Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed the three ultimate weapons, the Brahmanda astra, Vaishnava astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a disciple of Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of warfare from Shiva and he then acquired celestial weapons from Shiva and the other gods on Shivas instructions. Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of warfare. The Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon, Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands of Konkan and Kerala. Parashurama is worshipped as mūlapuruṣa, or male ancestral founder by some Anavil, Dravidulu, Bhumihar, Tyagi, Chitpavan, along with the sages Vyasa, Kripa and Dronas son Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis in the Kaliyuga. Parashurama will also become one of the saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara, Parashurama is a mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor of Vishnus 10th avatar Kalki. The word Parashurama is derived from two words parashu meaning axe and rama, so literally, the word Parashurama means Rama with an axe. Though a Brahmin by birth, Parashurama expressed unusual interest in weapons, afterwards, Parashurama devoted himself in serving his parents and brothers, helping Jamadagni to run his hermitage. According to the Brahmanda Purana, when Parashurama was a teenager, Jamadagni permitted his son and Parashurama visited Richika in his hermitage. Richika and his wife welcomed him and Parashurama stayed with them for a few months, serving them, curious about his ancestors, Parashurama went to the hermitage of Richikas father Aurva and a few months later, he went to Aurvas father, Chyavana. Parashurama was devoted to them and they too gave him knowledge, many months later, Chyavana told Parashurama to meet his own father, Sage Bhrigu, the very progenitor of the Bhargava race himself. With Chyavanas instructions, Parashurama was able to enter Bhrigus hermitage, Parashurama lived with Bhrigu for many months and Bhrigu trained his descendant in performing harsh penances. Lord Shiva was pleased with this, and appeared before him, Parashurama expressed his desire to obtain celestial weapons and skills in warfare from the God. Shiva told him that he would grant the boon only when Parashurama proved himself to be a worthy soul, Shiva told Parashurama to undertake a Tirtha Yatra or holy pilgrimage. After years of penances, Shiva was pleased with Parashuramas devotion, Shiva ordered Parashurama to slay the Daityas and Danavas who were the enemies of the Devas, to which the latter agreed
17.
Avatar
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An avatar is a concept in Hinduism and it means descent, and refers to the appearance or incarnation of a deity on earth. The term also refers to alight, to make ones appearance. The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, the Rigveda describes Indra as endowed with a mysterious power of assuming any form at will. The Bhagavad Gita expounds the doctrine of Avatara but with other than avatar. Theologically, the term is most often associated with the Hindu god Vishnu, the avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, avatars of the Devi in different appearances such as Tripura Sundari, Durga, while avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional. The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism, Incarnation concepts similar to avatar are also found in Buddhism, Christianity and others. The Sanskrit noun is derived from the Sanskrit roots ava and tṛī and these roots trace back, states Monier-Williams, to -taritum, -tarati, -rītum. Avatar literally means descent, alight, to ones appearance. The word also implies to overcome, to remove, to bring down, an avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman. Neither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mention the word avatar as a noun, the verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as action of descending, but not as an incarnated person. The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, the term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the version of avatar appears. The idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, the term avatar, in colloquial use, is also an epithet or a word of reverence for any extraordinary human being who is revered for his or her ideas. In some contexts, the term avatara just means a place, site of sacred pilgrimage, or just achieve ones goals after effort. The term avatar is not unique to Hinduism and it is found in the Trikaya doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, in descriptions for the Dalai Lama in Tibetan Buddhism, and many ancient cultures. The manifest embodiment is sometimes referred to as an incarnation, the translation of avatar as incarnation has been questioned by Christian theologists, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect. The theological concept of Christ as an incarnation, as found in Christology, according to Oduyoye and Vroom, this is different from the Hindu concept of avatar because avatars in Hinduism are unreal and is similar to Docetism
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Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
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Thekkinkadu Maidan
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Thekkinkadu Maidan is situated in the middle of Thrissur city of Kerala state in India. This hillock which seats the Vadakkumnathan Temple, is oval shaped open ground in the centre of the Thrissur city which is under the custody of the Cochin Devaswom Board and it hosts the spectacular cultural festival Thrissur Pooram, which is considered the Mother of all Poorams in Kerala. Thekkinkadu Maidan was a dense forest in olden days, all kinds of wild animals used to roam in the forest where wanted criminals of Thrissur were executed. The soldiers used to push the criminals to dense forest from one the Vadakkumnatha Temple gates, later, Maharaja of Cochin, Rama Varma Sakthan Thampuran cleared the Thekkinkadu Maidan despite the resistance of Brahmin priests and other orthodox section of people. Till 1970, there were no teaks in the Maidan, in the 1970s Cochin Devaswom Board planted some teaks trees. Till 1928, the Thekkinkadu Maidan was with the Sanitary Board, in 1928 it was handed over to Thrissur Municipality when it was formed. In 1934, Diwan Paruvakad Narayanan Nair gave the Maidan to Cochin Devaswom Board, the only condition for the transfer was that any organisation can organise meeting or festival with out any problem. The Thekkinkadu Maidan is 65-acre in area and is encircled by Swaraj Round and it houses Vadakkunnathan Temple, Nehru Park, Thrissur, Kerala Water Authority office and water storage tanks and seven wells. The whole of the city branches from Thekkinkadu Maidan through nine roads, including most of the important roads like the M. G road and these roads further form junctions to make the spread of the city a circular one. The Maidan is full of players and chess players in the evening. Political debates also take place every day. Students Corner, Labour Corner and Nehru Mandapam are the spots where historical events had taken place. Famous people like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, E. M. S. Namboodiripad etc. had given speech in Students Corner, joseph Vadakkan, a political activist priest held the controversial Holy Mass in Maidan, which led to suspension from the church. In 1982, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, another Prime Minister of India also given his speech in Thekkinkadu Maidan, Jawaharlal Nehru Indira Gandhi Rajiv Gandhi Atal Bihari Vajpayee Narendra Modi Manmohan Singh Narendra Modi
20.
Thrissur Pooram
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Thrissur Pooram is an annual Hindu temple festival held in Kerala, India. It is held at the Vadakkunnathan Temple in Thrissur every year on the Pooram day - the day when the moon rises with the Pooram star in the Malayalam Calendar month of Medam and it is the largest and most famous of all Poorams. Thrissur Pooram was the child of Raja Rama Varma or famously known as Sakthan Thampuran. Before the start of Thrissur Pooram, the largest temple festival in Kerala was the festival held at Aarattupuzha knows as Arattupuzha Pooram. Temples in and around City of Thrissur were regular participants, one day because of incessant rains, they were late for the Arattupuzha Pooram and were denied access to the Pooram procession. Felt embarrassed by the denial, the temples went to the Sakthan Thampuran, so in 1798, he unified the 10 temples situated around Vadakkunnathan Temple and organised the celebration of Thrissur Pooram as a mass festival. He invited temples with their deities to City of Thrissur to pay obeisance to Lord Vadakkunnathan, Sakthan Thampuran ordained the temples into two groups, namely Paramekkavu side and Thiruvambady side. These are headed by the participants, Paramekkavu Bagavathi Temple at Thrissur Swaraj Round. The two temples are hardly 500 metres apart, the Thampuran is believed to have chalked out the program and the main events of the Thrissur Pooram festival. The first round of pyrotechnics, known as Sample Vedikettu, happens on the day after the flag hoisting of the Pooram. It is a show presented by Thiruvambady and Paramekkavu Devawsoms. Swaraj Round is venue for this fireworks and starts at 7,15 PM in the evening, the display usually have innovative patterns and varieties of fireworks display. One of the event in Thrissur pooram is “Madathil varavu”- is a panchavadhyam melam, participating more than 200 artists, consists of Thimila, Madhalam, Trumpet, Cymbal. At 2’ O clock, inside the temple starts the famous Ilanjithara melam – a type of melam consists of drum, trumpets, pipe. The two groups in the presence of melam, exchange colourful and crafted umbrellas competitively at the top of the elephants – called Kudamattom, later all Poorams conclude at Nilapaduthara near western goupuram of Vadakkunnathan Temple The notable feature of the pooram is its secular nature. All other communities actively participate and make their prominent role in each, most of the pandal works are crafted by Muslim community. The materials for the umbrellas for ‘Kudamattom’ are offered by the churches and it is a good sign of secularism which is disintegrating nowadays. Both Thiruvambady and Paramekkavu temples compete with other to provide the crowd with the best
21.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
22.
Archaeological Survey of India
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It was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham who also became its first Director-General. The first systematic research into Indias history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, based in Calcutta, the society promoted the study of ancient Sanskrit and Persian texts and published an annual journal titled Asiatic Researches. Notable among its members was Charles Wilkins who published the first English translation of the Bhagavad Gita in 1785 with the patronage of the then Governor-General of India. However, the most important of the achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. This successful decipherment inaugurated the study of Indian palaeography, armed with the knowledge of Brahmi, Alexander Cunningham, a protégé of Prinsep, carried out a detailed survey of the Buddhist monuments which lasted for over half a century. Inspired by early amateur archaeologists like the Italian military officer, Jean-Baptiste Ventura, the survey was suspended briefly between 1865 and 1871 due to lack of funds but restored by Lord Lawrence the then Viceroy of India. In 1871, the Survey was revived as a separate department, to this day, Alexander Cunningham is revered as the Father of Indian Archaeology. Cunningham retired in 1885 and was succeeded as Director General by James Burgess, Burgess launched a yearly journal The Indian Antiquary and an annual epigraphical publication Epigraphia Indica as a supplement to the Indian Antiquary. The post of Director General was permanently suspended in 1889 due to a crunch and was not restored until 1902. In the interim period, conservation work in the different circles was carried out by the superintendents of the individual circles, the post of Director General was restored by Lord Curzon in 1902. Breaking with tradition, Curzon chose a 26-year-old professor of classical studies at Cambridge named John Marshall to head the survey. Marshall served as Director General for a quarter of a century and during his long tenure, Marshall established the post of Government epigraphist and encouraged epigraphical studies. The most significant event of his tenure was, however, the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization at Harappa, the success and scale of the discoveries made ensured that the progress made in Marshalls tenure would remain unmatched. Marshall was succeeded by Harold Hargreaves in 1928, Hargreaves was succeeded by Daya Ram Sahni, supervisor of Marshalls excavation of Harappa in 1921−22, who in 1931, became the first Indian Director General of the survey. Sahni was succeeded by J. F. Blakiston and K. N. Dikshit both of whom had participated in the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro, in 1944, a British archaeologist and army officer, Mortimer Wheeler took over as Director General. Wheeler served as Director General till 1948 and during this period he excavated the Iron Age site of Arikamedu, Wheeler was succeeded by N. P. Chakravarti in 1948. The National Museum was inaugurated in New Delhi on August 15,1949 to house the artifacts displayed at the Indian Exhibition in the United Kingdom, madho Sarup Vats and Amalananda Ghosh succeeded Chakravarti. Ghoshs tenure which lasted until 1968 is noted for the excavations of Indus Valley sites at Kalibangan, Lothal, the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was passed in 1958 bringing the archaeological survey under the aegis of the Ministry of Culture
23.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
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World Heritage Sites
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
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Parashurama
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Parashurama is the sixth avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism. He is the son of Renuka and one of the saptarishis and he lived during the last Treta and Dvapara Yugas and is one of the Chiranjivi of Hinduism. Parashurama, a Brahmin, received his famous axe after undertaking terrible penance to please Shiva, Parashurama is most known for ridding the world of kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty king Kartavirya Arjuna, not the famous one of Mahabharata, killed his father. As per the Mahabharata, Parashurama single-handedly successfully conquered the entire world, Parashurama conducted hundreds of Ashvamedhas and gave away the entire earth he conquered as alms to sage Kashyapa. He plays important roles in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to Bhishma, Parashurama and Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed the three ultimate weapons, the Brahmanda astra, Vaishnava astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a disciple of Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of warfare from Shiva and he then acquired celestial weapons from Shiva and the other gods on Shivas instructions. Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of warfare. The Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon, Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands of Konkan and Kerala. Parashurama is worshipped as mūlapuruṣa, or male ancestral founder by some Anavil, Dravidulu, Bhumihar, Tyagi, Chitpavan, along with the sages Vyasa, Kripa and Dronas son Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis in the Kaliyuga. Parashurama will also become one of the saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara, Parashurama is a mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor of Vishnus 10th avatar Kalki. The word Parashurama is derived from two words parashu meaning axe and rama, so literally, the word Parashurama means Rama with an axe. Though a Brahmin by birth, Parashurama expressed unusual interest in weapons, afterwards, Parashurama devoted himself in serving his parents and brothers, helping Jamadagni to run his hermitage. According to the Brahmanda Purana, when Parashurama was a teenager, Jamadagni permitted his son and Parashurama visited Richika in his hermitage. Richika and his wife welcomed him and Parashurama stayed with them for a few months, serving them, curious about his ancestors, Parashurama went to the hermitage of Richikas father Aurva and a few months later, he went to Aurvas father, Chyavana. Parashurama was devoted to them and they too gave him knowledge, many months later, Chyavana told Parashurama to meet his own father, Sage Bhrigu, the very progenitor of the Bhargava race himself. With Chyavanas instructions, Parashurama was able to enter Bhrigus hermitage, Parashurama lived with Bhrigu for many months and Bhrigu trained his descendant in performing harsh penances. Lord Shiva was pleased with this, and appeared before him, Parashurama expressed his desire to obtain celestial weapons and skills in warfare from the God. Shiva told him that he would grant the boon only when Parashurama proved himself to be a worthy soul, Shiva told Parashurama to undertake a Tirtha Yatra or holy pilgrimage. After years of penances, Shiva was pleased with Parashuramas devotion, Shiva ordered Parashurama to slay the Daityas and Danavas who were the enemies of the Devas, to which the latter agreed
26.
Kshatriya
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Kshatriya is one of the four varna of the Hindu society. The Sanskrit term kshatriya is used in the context of Vedic society wherein members organised themselves into four classes, brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, traditionally, the kshatriya constituted the ruling and military elite. Their role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime, the Prakrit derivative of Kshatriya is Khatri. The administrative machinery in the Rig Vedic period functioned with a chief called Rajan whose position was not hereditary. The king was elected in an assembly, which included women. The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle, was assisted by a priest, the concept of fourfold varna system was non-existent. The hymn Purusha Sukta to the Rigveda describes the history of the four varna. Since not all dark-skinned Indians was fully regulated under the varna in the vedic society, the term rajanya unlike the word kshatriya essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas kshatra, means ruling, one of the ruling order, jaiswal points out the term Brahman rarely occurs in the Rig-veda with the exception of the Purusha Sukta and may not have been used for the priestly class. Based on the authority of Panini, Patanjali, Katyayana and the Mahabharata, Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of a people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore. Some examples were the Andhaka and Vrsni Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers and this later gave rise to the idea of kingship. In the period of the Brahmanas there was ambiguity in the position of the varna, in the Panchavimsha Brahmana, the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11, the Kshatriya are placed second, in Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12 the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of dharmasutras, the kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles. Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, the kshatriya caste constituted an aristocracy but were not always necessarily wealthy. Kings usually belonged to this caste and it was considered their duty to acquire a knowledge of weapons in addition to cultivating their aptitude for command, the science of weaponry was one of the 13 branches of learning which every educated kshatriya male was expected to study. Both the kings suite and the army were recruited from among this caste. Many kshatriya were authorised to take up a craft or trade rather than gaining their living as professional warriors and these families still retained the privileges accorded to their caste however, which included special forms of marriage which were their prerogative
27.
Yajna
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Yajna literally means sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering, and refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras. Yajna has been a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as well as Yajurveda, the tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire. Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda portion of the Vedic literature, the proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu philosophy. Yajna have continued to play a role in a Hindus rites of passage. Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Yajna vedic rites, the word yajna appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE. In Rigveda, Yajurveda and others, it means worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice. In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, a Yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts and community events. It is derived, states Nigal, from the Sanskrit verb yaj, the Sanskrit word is related to the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the Vedic yajna, the Yasna is the name of a religious service, not a class of rituals. Yajna has been a part of an individual or social ritual since the Vedic times, when the ritual fire – the divine Agni, the god of fire and the messenger of gods – were deployed in a Yajna, mantras were chanted. The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire were a form of hospitality for the Vedic gods, the Vedangas, or auxiliary sciences attached to the Vedic literature, define Yajna as follows, Definition of a Vedic sacrifice — Apastamba Yajna Paribhasa-sutras 1. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in verse 1.5.14, for example, uses the analogy of Yajna materials to explain the means to see ones soul and God, with inner rituals and without external rituals. Vedic yajnas are performed by four priests of the Vedic priesthood, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar. The functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations, the Adhvaryu is the priests assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin is the superintendent of the performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses. There were usually one, or three, fires lit in the center of the offering ground, oblations are offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered as oblations in the yajna are ghee, milk, grains, cakes, the duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas, others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months
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Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
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Dakshina
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Dakshina, means south, southern, but also refers to a Tantric concept right-hand path, as well as a Vedic concept of donation or payment for the services of a priest, spiritual guide or teacher. As a Vedic concept, the donation originally consisted of a cow, the term itself is derived from this, the feminine dakṣiṇā being a term for a cow able to calve and give milk in the Rigveda. Dakshina is personified as a goddess along with Brahmanaspati, Indra and Soma in RV1.18.5 and RV10.103.8, and is the reputed author of RV10.107 according to the Anukramani. In later literature, in the Manusmrti and in the Ramayana, gurudakshina refers to the tradition of repaying ones teacher or guru after a period of study or the completion of formal education, or to spiritual guide. This tradition is one of acknowledgment, respect, and thanks and it is a form of reciprocity and exchange between student and teacher. The repayment is not exclusively monetary and may be a task the teacher wants the student to accomplish. There is a story in the Indian epic Mahabharata that discusses proper and improper gurudakshina. This story refers to a tribal boys passion to learn and master archery, the story, like many stories in Mahabharata is an open ended parable on education, personal drive to learn, and what is proper and improper dakshina
30.
Tapas (Indian religions)
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Tapas is a Sanskrit word that means to heat. It also connotes certain spiritual practices in Indian religions, the Tapas practice often involves solitude, and is a part of monastic practices that are believed to be a means to moksha. In certain contexts, the term means penance, pious activity, Tapas is based on the root Tap meaning to heat, to give out warmth, to shine, to burn. The term evolves to mean to suffer, to mortify the body, undergo penance in order to burn away past karma. The term Tapas means warmth, heat, fire, the meaning of the word evolves in ancient Indian literature. The earliest discussions of tapas, and compound words from the root tap relate to the necessary for biological birth. Some of the earliest reference of tapas, and compound words from the tap is found in many ancient Hindu scriptures, including the Ŗg Veda, Satapatha Brahmana. In these texts, tapas is described as the process led to the spiritual birth of ṛṣis - sages of spiritual insights. The Atharva Veda suggests all the gods were tapas-born, and all life was created from the suns tapas. In the Jāiminiya-Upanisad Brāhmaņa, life itself and creates progeny by tapas. Sanskrit tapasyā, literally produced by heat, refers to a personal endeavor of discipline, one who undertakes tapas is a Tapasvin. The fire deity of Hinduism, Agni, is central to many Hindu rituals such as yajna, Agni is considered an agent of heat, of sexual energy, of incubation, Agni is considered a great tapasvin. The word tapasvi refers to an ascetic or meditator, while tapasvinī to a female. Before he reached his enlightenment, the Buddha tried asceticism of the found in other Śramaṇa religions. Post-enlightenment, the Buddhist doctrines of the Middle Way and Noble Eightfold Path did not include ascetic practices, for this reason, the elimination of previous deeds through penance and the non-performaning of new deeds is tantamount to non-inflow in the future. From the non flow in the future, there is destruction of deeds, from the destruction of deeds, there is destruction of pain. From the destruction of pain, there is destruction of feeling, from the destruction of feeling, thus say, o monks, those free of bonds. These ascetic Tapas practices is also confirmed by Jainism texts such as Uttarajjhyayana, in the Mahayana tradition, asceticism with esoteric and mystical meanings became an accepted practice, such as in the Tendai and Shingon schools of Japanese Buddhism
31.
Varuna
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Varuna is the Hindu god of water and the celestial ocean, as well as a god of law of the underwater world. His consort is the Hindu goddess Varuni, originally the chief god of the Vedic pantheon, Varuna was replaced by Indra and later faded away with the ascendancy of Shiva and Vishnu. Arjuna is the son of Indra/ Varuna in the great epic Mahabharata and it is believed that if we pray to him we would be protected from thunder, Varuna and Mitra are the gods of the societal affairs including the oath, and are often twinned Mitra-Varuna. Varuna is also twinned with Indra in the Rigveda, as Indra-Varuna, the Rigveda and Atharvaveda portrays Varuna as omniscient, catching liars in his snares. Both Mitra and Varuna are classified as Asuras in the Rigveda, Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats Vrtra. Varuna does not respond, and Rama arises on the fourth morning, with his bow and arrow, he angrily begins attacking the oceans with celestial weapons—burning up the waters and killing its life and creatures. The Vanaras are dazzled and fearful at witnessing the enraged Rama demolish the oceans, just as Rama invokes the brahmastra, considered the most powerful weapon capable of destroying all creation, Varuna arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, explaining that he himself was at a loss to answer Ramas question, begging him not to destroy the oceans with the missile, he suggests that Rama re-direct the weapon at a demonic race that lives in the heart of the ocean. Ramas arrows destroys the demons, and establishes a purer, liberated environment there, Varuna promises that he would keep the oceans still for all of Ramas army to pass, and Nala constructs a bridge across to Lanka. Rama justifies his angry assault on the oceans as he followed the process of petitioning and worshipping Varuna. Also unrelated to Vedic Varuna are Avestan Vourukasha and Varena, the former is the Avestas mythological sea that covers the earth, while Varena is a mythological four-cornered fourteenth region of the world. In the Buddhism of the Far East, Varuna is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, in Japan, Varuna had been called Suiten in Japanese Buddhism. Varuna joins these other eleven Devas of Buddhism, found in Japan and other parts of southeast Asia, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirrti, Vayu, Ishana, Kubera, Brahma, Prithvi, Surya, the meaning of suiten-gū is a shrine of Varuna. After Shinbutsu bunri the separation of Shinto deities from Buddhist deities, Ādityas Ahura Mazda Asura Guardians of the directions Hindu deities Mitra Paravar Rigvedic deities Shukra The king and the god Veles
32.
Kingdom of Cochin
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Kingdom of Cochin was a late medieval Hindu kingdom and later princely state on the Malabar Coast, South India. Once controlling much of the territory between Ponnani and Thottappally, the Cochin kingdom shrank to its minimal extent as a result of invasions by the Zamorin of Calicut. When Portuguese armadas arrived in India, Cochin was in vassalage to Zamorin and was looking for an opportunity to break away, Cochin became a long-time Portuguese protectorate providing assistance against native overlords. After the Portuguese, the Dutch East India Company followed by the English East India Company, even today, the full official designation of the Raja of Cochin is “Perumpadappu Gangadhara Veera Kerala Thrikkovil Adhikarikal”. The Kingdom of Cochin, originally known as Perumpadappu Swarupam, was under the rule of the Later Cheras in the Middle Ages, after the fall of the Mahodayapuram Cheras in the 12th century, along with numerous other provinces Perumpadappu Swarupam became a free political entity. However, it was only after the arrival of Portuguese colonizers on the Malabar Coast did the Perumpadappu Swarupam acquire any political importance, Perumpadappu rulers had family relationships with the Nambudiri rulers of Edappally. After the transfer of Kochi and Vypin from Edappally rulers to the Perumpadappu rulers, ma Huan, the Muslim voyager and translator who accompanied Admiral Zheng He on three of his seven expeditions to the Western Oceans, describes the king of Cochin as being a Buddhist. There is no extant written evidence about the emergence of the Kingdom of Cochin or of the Cochin Royal Family, all that is recorded are folk tales and stories, and a somewhat blurred historical picture about the origins of the ruling dynasty. The surviving manuscripts, such as Keralolpathi, Keralamahatmyam, and Perumpadapu Grandavari, are collections of myths and legends that are less than reliable as conventional historical sources. There is a legend that the last Perumal who ruled the Chera dynasty divided his kingdom between his nephews and his sons, converted to Islam and traveled to Mecca on a hajj. The Keralolpathi recounts the narrative in the following fashion, The last. He left for Mecca by ship with some Muslims who arrived at Kodungallur port, before leaving for Mecca, he divided his kingdom between his nephews and sons. The Perumpadapu Grandavari contains an account of the dynastic origins. Cheraman Perumal divided the land in half,17 amsa north of Neelaeswaram and 17 amsa south, totaling 34 amsa, thirty-four kingdoms between Kanyakumari and Gokarna were given to the thampuran who was the daughter of the last niece of Cheraman Perumal. Keralolpathi recorded the division of his kingdom in 345 AD, Perumpadapu Grandavari in 385 AD, historians, including Robin Jeffry, Faucett and Samuel Mateer, are of the opinion that as with all other Kings of Malabar, the Cochin Raja was also of Nair origin. Cochin kingdom ruled over a vast area in central Kerala before the Portuguese arrival and their state stretched up to Ponnani and Pukkaitha in the north, Anamalais in the east, and Cochin and Porakkad in the south, with capital at Perumpadappu on the northern border. Later, Calicut conquered large parts of Perumpadappu Kingdom, and made them a tributary state, Cochin was the scene of the first European settlement in India. In the year 1500, the Portuguese Admiral Pedro Álvares Cabral landed at Cochin after being repelled from Calicut, the king of Cochin welcomed the Portuguese and a treaty of friendship was signed
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Winnowing
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Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from chaff. It is also used to remove weevils or other pests from stored grain, threshing, the loosening of grain or seeds from the husks and straw, is the step in the chaff-removal process that comes before winnowing. In its simplest form it involves throwing the mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, techniques included using a winnowing fan or using a tool on a pile of harvested grain. In Callimachus Hymn to Zeus, Adrasteia lays the infant Zeus in a golden líknon, her goat suckles him and he is given honey. In the Odyssey, the dead oracle Teiresias tells Odysseus to walk away from Ithaca with an oar until a wayfarer tells him it is a winnowing fan, and there to build a shrine to Poseidon. In Ancient China the method was improved by mechanisation with the development of the winnowing fan. This was featured in Wang Zhens book the Nong Shu of 1313 AD, ruth 3,2 Now Boaz, with whose women you have worked, is a relative of ours. Tonight he will be winnowing barley on the threshing floor, proverbs 20,8 When a king sits on his throne to judge, he winnows out all evil with his eyes. Proverbs 20,26 A wise king winnows out the wicked, isaiah 41,16 You will winnow them, the wind will pick them up, and a gale will blow them away. But you will rejoice in the Lord and glory in the Holy One of Israel, I will bring bereavement and destruction on my people, for they have not changed their ways. Jeremiah 51,2 I will send foreigners to Babylon to winnow her and to devastate her land, in Matthew 3,12, a sentence introduces the separation of wheat and chaff by His winnowing fan is in his hand. In Saxon settlements such as one identified in Northumberland as Bedes Ad Gefrin the buildings were shown by a reconstruction to have opposed entries. In barns a draught created by the use of these opposed doorways was used in winnowing, the technique developed by the Chinese was not adopted in Europe until the 18th century, when winnowing machines used a sail fan. The rotary winnowing fan was exported to Europe, brought there by Dutch sailors between 1700 and 1720, apparently they had obtained them from the Dutch settlement of Batavia in Java, Dutch East Indies. The Swedes imported some from south China at about the same time, until the beginning of the 18th century, no rotary winnowing fans existed in the West. The development of the winnowing barn allowed rice plantations in South Carolina to increase their yields dramatically, in 1737 Andrew Rodger, a farmer on the estate of Cavers in Roxburghshire, developed a winnowing machine for corn, called a Fanner. These were successful and the family sold them throughout Scotland for many years, as the Industrial Revolution, the winnowing process was mechanized by the invention of additional winnowing machines, such as fanning mills. Threshing Rice huller Rice pounder Sieving Winnowing engine machine Winnowing Winnowing machine The dictionary definition of winnowing at Wiktionary
34.
Mount Kailash
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Mount Kailash (also Mount Kailas, Kangrinboqê or Gang Rinpoche is a peak in the Kailash Range, which forms part of the Transhimalaya in Tibet. It lies near the source of some of the longest rivers in Asia, the Indus River, the Sutlej River, the Brahmaputra River, and it is considered a sacred place in four religions, Bön, Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. The mountain lies near Lake Manasarovar and Lake Rakshastal in Tibet Autonomous Region, the mountain is known as either Kailāśa or Kailāsa in Sanskrit. The name may be derived from the word kelāsa, which means crystal, in his Tibetan-English dictionary, Chandra identifies the entry for kai la sha which is a loan word from Sanskrit kailāśa. The Tibetan name for the mountain is Gangs Rin-po-che, Gangs or Kang is the Tibetan word for snow peak analogous to alp or himal, rinpoche is an honorific meaning precious one so the combined term can be translated precious jewel of snows. Tibetan Buddhists call it Kangri Rinpoche, Precious Snow Mountain, bon texts have many names, Waters Flower, Mountain of Sea Water, Nine Stacked Swastika Mountain. According to Hinduism, Lord Shiva, the Destroyer, resides at the summit of a mountain named Kailāśa. He is at once the Lord of Yoga and therefore the ultimate renunciate ascetic, according to Charles Allen, one description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus, in Jainism, Kailash is also known as Meru Parvat or Sumeru. Ashtapada, the next to Mt. Kailash, is the site where the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva. Tantric Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the home of the Buddha Demchok and it is said that Milarepa, champion of Tantric Buddhism, arrived in Tibet to challenge Naro Bön-chung, champion of the Bön religion of Tibet. The two magicians engaged in a terrifying sorcerers battle, but neither was able to gain a decisive advantage, finally, it was agreed that whoever could reach the summit of Kailash most rapidly would be the victor. While Naro Bön-chung sat on a drum and soared up the slope, Milarepas followers were dumbfounded to see him sitting still. Yet when Naro Bön-chung was nearly at the top, Milarepa suddenly moved into action and overtook him by riding on the rays of the Sun, thus winning the contest. He did, however, fling a handful of snow on to the top of a mountain, since known as Bönri, bequeathing it to the Bönpo. The Bön, a native to Tibet, maintain that the entire mystical region. Every year, thousands make a pilgrimage to Kailash, following a tradition going back thousands of years, pilgrims of several religions believe that circumambulating Mount Kailash on foot is a holy ritual that will bring good fortune. The peregrination is made in a direction by Hindus and Buddhists
35.
Guru
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Guru is a Sanskrit term that connotes someone who is a teacher, guide, expert, or master of certain knowledge or field. The term also refers to someone who primarily is ones spiritual guide, the oldest references to the concept of guru are found in the earliest Vedic texts of Hinduism. These gurus led broad ranges of studies including Hindu scriptures, Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music, the tradition of guru is also found in Jainism, referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a Jain ascetic. In Sikhism, the tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as Guru Nanak. The guru concept has thrived in Vajrayāna Buddhism, where the guru is considered a figure to worship. The word guru, a noun, connotes teacher in Sanskrit, but in Indian traditions it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English. The word has the meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Bengali, Gujarati. The Malayalam term Acharyan or Asan are derived from the Sanskrit word Acharya, as a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge. The word has its roots in the Sanskrit gri, and may have a connection to the word gur, meaning to raise, lift up, Sanskrit guru is cognate with Latin gravis heavy, grave, weighty, serious and Greek βαρύς barus heavy. All three derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *gʷerə-, specifically from the zero-grade form *gʷr̥ə-, another etymological theory considers the term guru to be based on the syllables gu and ru, which it claims stands for darkness and light that dispels it, respectively. The guru is seen as the one who dispels the darkness of ignorance, reender Kranenborg disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word guru. He describes this as a folk etymology, karen Pechelis states that, in the popular parlance, the dispeller of darkness, one who points the way definition for guru is common in the Indian tradition. The Guru is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of Hinduism, at a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life. Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture, the word Guru is mentioned in the earliest layer of Vedic texts. The hymn 4.5.6 of Rigveda, for example, states Joel Mlecko, describes the guru as, the source and inspirer of the knowledge of the Self, the Upanishads, that is the later layers of the Vedic text, mention guru. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 4.4 for example, declares that it is only through guru that one attains the knowledge that matters, the Katha Upanisad, in verse 1.2.8 declares the guru as indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the guru then urges a student, states Mlecko, to struggle, discover and experience the Truth, the 8th century Hindu text Upadesasahasri of the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara discusses the role of the guru in assessing and guiding students. In Chapter 1, he states that teacher is the pilot as the student walks in the journey of knowledge and he should also thoroughly impress upon the student qualities like humility, which are the means to knowledge
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Parvati
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Parvati, also known as Urvi/Renu, is the Hindu goddess of fertility, love and devotion, as well as of divine strength and power. She is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess Shakti and she is the mother goddess in Hinduism, and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu stories of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses. Parvati is the wife of the Hindu god Shiva - the protector and regenerator of universe and she is the daughter of the mountain king Himavan and mother Mena. Parvati is the mother of Hindu deities Ganesha and Kartikeya, some communities also believe her to be the sister of the god Vishnu and the river-goddess Ganga. With Shiva, Parvati is a deity in the Shaiva sect. In Hindu belief, she is the energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings. In Hindu temples dedicated to her and Shiva, she is represented as the argha or yoni. She is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace Hindu temples all over South Asia, parvata is one of the Sanskrit words for mountain, Parvati derives her name from being the daughter of king Himavan and mother Mena. King Parvat is considered lord of the mountains and the personification of the Himalayas, Parvati is known by many names in Hindu literature. Other names which associate her with mountains are Shailaja, Adrija or Nagajaa or Shailaputri, Haimavathi, the Lalita sahasranama contains a listing of 1,000 names of Parvati. Two of Parvatis most famous epithets are Uma and Aparna, the name Uma is used for Sati in earlier texts, but in the Ramayana, it is used as a synonym for Parvati. In the Harivamsa, Parvati is referred to as Aparna and then addressed as Uma and she is also Ambika, Shakti, Mataji, Maheshwari, Durga, Bhairavi, Bhavani, Shivaradni, and many hundreds of others. Parvati is also the goddess of love and devotion, or Kamakshi, regional stories of Gauri suggest an alternate origin for Gauris name and complexion. In parts of India, Gauris skin color is golden or yellow in honor of her being the goddess of ripened corn/harvest, some scholars hold that Parvati does not explicitly appear in Vedic literature, though the Kena Upanishad contains a goddess called Uma-Haimavati. She appears as the shakti, or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. Her primary role is as a mediator who reveals the knowledge of Brahman to the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu, and Indra, Sati-Parvati appears in the epic period, as both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata present Parvati as Shivas wife. However, it is not until the plays of Kalidasa and the Puranas that the stories of Sati-Parvati, Kinsley adds that Parvati may have emerged from legends of non-aryan goddesses that lived in mountains
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Ganesha
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Ganesha, also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists, although he is known by many attributes, Ganeshas elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences, as the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions, several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesha emerged as a deity in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, during the Gupta period. He was formally included among the five deities of Smartism in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity, the principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Brahma Purana and Brahmanda Purana are other two Puranic genre encyclopedic texts that deal with Ganesha, Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name, the name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, the term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name Lord of the Gaņas to mean Lord of Hosts or Lord of created categories, Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning group, and pati, meaning ruler or lord. Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha, Vinayaka, Vighnarāja, Dvaimātura, Gaṇādhipa, Ekadanta, Heramba, Lambodara, Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak, the names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles. A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai or Pillaiyar, a. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a child while pillaiyar means a noble child. He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify tooth or tusk, also elephant tooth or tusk. Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have meant the young of the elephant
38.
Kartikeya
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Karthikeya is the Hindu god of war. He is the Commander-in-Chief of the army of the devas and he is also the primary deity of the Kaumaram sect of Hinduism. Murugan is worshiped primarily in areas of Tamil speaking populations, including Tamil Nadu in India, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Réunion. It is one of the few sites in Sri Lanka that is venerated by, Hindu Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese people. In northern India, he is known as Kartikeya. He is known as Subrahmanya, Muruga or Palani Andava in Tamil Nadu and he was also known as Mahasena and the Kadamba dynasty worshiped him by this name. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to him as the son of Rudra, the Taittiriya Aranyaka contains the Gayatri Mantra for Shanmukha. The Chandogya Upanishad refers to Skanda as the way leads to wisdom. Baudhāyanas Dharmasūtra calls Skanda Mahāsena Having a Great Army and Subrahmaṇya beloved of Brahmins, the āraṇyaparvan of the Mahabharata relates the legend of Kartikeya Skanda in considerable detail. The Skanda Purana is devoted to the narrative of Kartikeya, the Upanishads also constantly make a reference to a Supreme Being called Guha, the indweller. The Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai is a devotional poem included in the Pattuppāṭṭu ten idylls of the age of the third Sangam. In the Tirumurukāṟtruuppaṭai, he is described as a god of youth, His face shines a myriad rays light. Other Sangam period works in Tamil that refer to Murugan in detail include the Paripāṭal, the Akananūru, the first elaborate account of Kartikeyas origin occurs in the Mahabharata. In a complicated story, he is said to have been born from Agni and Svaha, the actual wives then become the Pleiades. The Lord asked him what kind of boon he required, in reply to which he asked that no power in the universe should destroy him except the Lords power itself. Lord Shiva granted the boon to him, after succeeding in his penance, Suraabaathman began to torture humans as well as the devas. He then conquered the Indraloka and made Indra captive, one day, upon losing her husband as a prisoner, Indraani prayed to Lord Shiva in earth to help her. Meanwhile, Ajaamukhi was in search of Indraani to produce her as a prize for her brother Suraabaathman as a result of victory of their war against the devas, Ajaamughi along with her servant finally found Indraani praying to Lord Shiva
39.
Lingam
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The lingam is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu deity, Shiva, used for worship in temples, smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects. In traditional Indian society, the linga is seen as a symbol of the energy, the lingam is often represented alongside the yoni, a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti, female creative energy. The union of linga and yoni represents the indivisible two-in-oneness of male and female, the lingam is a column-like or oval symbol of Shiva, the Formless All-pervasive Reality, made of stone, metal, or clay. The Shiva Linga is a symbol of Lord Shiva – a mark that reminds of the Omnipotent Lord, in Shaivite Hindu temples, the linga is a smooth cylindrical mass symbolising Shiva. It is found at the centre of the temple, often resting in the middle of a rimmed, disc-shaped structure, anthropologist Christopher John Fuller wrote that although most sculpted images are anthropomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga is an important exception. Some believe that linga-worship was a feature of indigenous Indian religion, there is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar, and this is one possible origin of linga worship. Some associate Shiva-Linga with this Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post, in the hymn, a description is found of the beginning-less and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga, in the Linga Purana the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the supreme nature of Mahâdeva. The Hindu scripture Shiva Purana describes the origin of the lingam, known as Shiva-linga, as the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar of fire, Lord Shiva is pictured as emerging from the Lingam – the cosmic pillar of fire – proving his superiority over the gods Brahma and Vishnu. The Linga Purana also supports this interpretation of lingam as a cosmic pillar, a similar interpretation is also found in the Skanda Purana, The endless sky is the Linga, the Earth is its base. At the end of time the universe and all the Gods finally merge in the Linga itself. In yogic lore, the linga is considered the first form to arise when creation occurs, seek him within the self and you will soon find him, meditate on His omnipresence and gain His boons. The oldest example of a lingam that is used for worship is in Gudimallam. It dates to the 2nd century BC, a figure of Shiva is carved into the front of the lingam. There is a set of proportions for the height, width. Some types of Shiva linga are mukhalinga, lingodbhavamurti, a linga with a cobra on top, svayambhuva directly made from light, Sphatika-linga, around 70 lingas are worshipped throughout the world and have become places of pilgrimage. The Rasa linga or Parad Shiva linga is made of mercury and it is of great importance for Hindu devotees and is worshipped with complete process, belief, and devotion. It is worshipped to be physically, mentally, spiritually, and psychologically as well as to obtain protection from the natural calamities, evil power, disaster
40.
Banyan
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A banyan, also spelled banian, is a fig that begins its life as an epiphyte, i. e. A plant that grows on plant, when its seed germinates in a crack or crevice of a host tree or human edifice. Like other fig species, including the edible fig Ficus carica. The syncarp of Ficus species supplies shelter and food for fig wasps and, in turn, frugivore birds disperse the seeds of banyans. The seeds are small, and because most banyans grow in woodlands, for this reason banyans bear the colloquial name strangler fig. A number of tropical species that compete for sunlight, especially of the genus Ficus. The leaves of the tree are large, leathery, glossy, green. Like most figs, the bud is covered by two large scales. As the leaf develops the scales abscise, young leaves have an attractive reddish tinge. Older banyan trees are characterized by aerial roots that mature into thick, woody trunks. Old trees can spread laterally by using these prop roots to grow over a wide area, in some species, the prop roots develop over a considerable area that resembles a grove of trees, with every trunk connected directly or indirectly to the primary trunk. The topology of this root system inspired the name of the hierarchical computer network operating system Banyan VINES. In a banyan that envelops its host tree, the mesh of roots growing around the latter eventually applies considerable pressure to, such an enveloped, dead tree eventually decomposes, so that the banyan becomes a columnar tree with a hollow, central core. In jungles, such hollows are very desirable shelters to many animals, the name was originally given to F. benghalensis and comes from India, where early travellers observed that the shade of the tree was frequented by banias or Indian traders. In the Gujarati language, banya means grocer or merchant, not tree, the Portuguese picked up the word to refer specifically to Hindu merchants, and passed it along to the English as early as 1599 with the same meaning. By 1634, English writers began to tell of the banyan tree, the tree provided a shaded place for a village meeting or for merchants to sell their goods. Eventually, banyan became the name of the tree itself, the original banyan, F. benghalensis, can grow into a giant tree covering several hectares. Over time, the name became generalized to all strangler figs of the Urostigma subgenus, the many banyan species include, Ficus microcarpa, which is native from Sri Lanka through New Caledonia, is a significant invasive species elsewhere
41.
John Gould
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John Gould FRS was an English ornithologist and bird artist. He has been considered the father of study in Australia. His identification of the birds now nicknamed Darwins finches played a role in the inception of Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection, Goulds work is referenced in Charles Darwins book, On the Origin of Species. Gould was born in Lyme Regis, Dorset, the first son of a gardener and he and the boy probably had a scanty education. Shortly afterwards his father obtained a position on an estate near Guildford, Surrey and he was for some time under the care of J. T. Aiton, of the Royal Gardens of Windsor. The young Gould started training as a gardener, being employed under his father at Windsor from 1818 to 1824 and he became an expert in the art of taxidermy. In 1824 he set himself up in business in London as a taxidermist, Goulds position brought him into contact with the countrys leading naturalists. This meant that he was often the first to see new collections of birds given to the Zoological Society of London, in 1830 a collection of birds arrived from the Himalayas, many not previously described. Gould published these birds in A Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains, the text was by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and the illustrations were lithographed by Goulds wife Elizabeth, daughter of Nicholas Coxen, of Kent. Most of Goulds work were rough sketches on paper from which artists created the lithographic plates. This work was followed by four more in the seven years. It was completed in 1837, Gould wrote the text, and his clerk, Edwin Prince, some of the illustrations were made by Edward Lear as part of his Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae in 1832. Lear, however, was in difficulty, and he sold the entire set of lithographs to Gould. The books were published in a large size, imperial folio. Eventually 41 of these volumes were published, with about 3000 plates and they appeared in parts at £3 3s. A number, subscribed for in advance, and in spite of the expense of preparing the plates, Gould succeeded in making his ventures pay. This was a period for Gould who also published Icones Avium in two parts containing 18 leaves of bird studies on 54 cm plates as a supplement to his previous works. No further monographs were published as in 1838 he and his moved to Australia to work on the Birds of Australia
42.
Perumthachan
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However Perumthachan is an important figure in the folklore of Kerala and many a wondrous structure and architecture that still stand are attributed to him. Many legends of Perumthachan are seen in Aithihyamala, the compilation of legends, according to the legend, Raman Perumthachan was born to a Brahmin father Vararuchi and mother from a Paraiyar caste, hailing from the village of Thrithala. After their marriage, they set out on a long journey, during the course of their travels, the woman became pregnant several times, and every time she delivered a baby, she was asked by her husband if it had a mouth. Every time that she replied in the affirmative, Vararuchi asked her to let go of the baby, averring that the God which carved its mouth, each of them grew famous in their lives and many tales and lores were attributed, with them as the main cast. The eldest was Agnihothri, a Brahmin, whose place is Mezhathur in Thrithala, the others are Pakkanar, Perumthachan, Naranath Bhranthan, Vayillakunnilappan and so on. Since Raman was raised by parents who belonged to the Asari caste, he mastered the art and science of carpentry, architecture and he read the sacred texts and imbibed the ancient intellectual tradition. He was commissioned for many a great project to build temples and palaces. In course of time he came to be regarded as the reincarnation of the architect of the gods. Raman Perumthachan had a son named Kannan, who like him, mastered and excelled in carpentry and architecture and in time, the repute of Perumthachans son spread far and wide, which allegedly spurred animus between father and son. According to the Aithihyamala, Perumthachan, blinded by his professional jealousy he dropped his chisel on his own son in the guise of an accident, thus the legend ends in tragedy, telling us that even great men can have their frailties. According to another legendary about Perumthachacn, his son Kannan was certainly a greater perfectionist in all craftsmanship and he outdid, but, Perunthachan never envied him, he was only proud of his son. Nevertheless, the father had a different thing to worry about and his fatherhood was known to none other than himself and the queen. Though this was the subject of a secret gossip among just the circle of Perumthachan’s assistants. An impotent middle-aged Brahman king had a young and very beautiful queen who was a Brahman, too and she was a devotee of Goddess Durga. The king thought of getting a temple constructed within the palace for the queen to worship, Perumthachan was called for, and was entrusted with the job. During construction carving the sculpture of the goddess was the most important item, Perumthachan tried to carve the face numerous times on other stones to practice so that he would not spoil the main piece, but was dissatisfied. This was happening for the first time with him, the fact was that the queen used to peep through one of her windows at him and he himself was aware of this. Hence, whenever he started to work on the face his mind would imagine a blank face because he could not see the beautiful face
43.
Malayalam
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Malayalam /mʌləˈjɑːləm/ is a language spoken in India, predominantly in the state of Kerala. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated as a Classical Language in India in 2013 and it was developed to the current form mainly by the influence of the poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century. Malayalam has official status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people, according to one theory, Malayalam originated from Middle Tamil in the 7th century. However, the current understanding proposes the separation of Malayalam from Proto-Dravidian in the pre-historic era, Malayalam incorporated many elements from Sanskrit through the ages. Before Malayalam came into being, Old Tamil was used in literature and courts of a region called Tamilakam, including present day Kerala state, silappatikaramit was written by Chera prince Ilango Adigal from Chunkaparra, and is considered a classic in Sangam literature. Modern Malayalam still preserves many words from the ancient Tamil vocabulary of Sangam literature, the earliest script used to write Malayalam was the Vatteluttu alphabet, and later the Kolezhuttu, which derived from it. As Malayalam began to borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit. This developed into the modern Malayalam script, many medieval liturgical texts were written in an admixture of Sanskrit and early Malayalam, called Manipravalam. The oldest literary work in Malayalam, distinct from the Tamil tradition, is dated from between the 9th and 11th centuries, the first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785. Due to its lineage deriving from both Tamil and Sanskrit, the Malayalam script has the largest number of letters among the Indian language orthographies, the Malayalam script includes letters capable of representing almost all the sounds of all Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages. Malayalam serves as a language on the islands including the Mahl-dominated Minicoy Island. The word Malayalam originated from the Sanskrit resp, Malayalam words malai or mala, meaning hill, and elam, meaning region. Malayalam thus translates as hill region and used to refer to the land of the Chera dynasty, the language Malayalam is alternatively called Alealum, Malayalani, Malayali, Malean, Maliyad, and Mallealle. The word Malayalam originally meant only for the name of the region, Malayanma or Malayayma represented the language. With the emergence of modern Malayalam language, the name of the language started to be known by the name of the region, hence now, the word Malayanma is considered by some to represent the olden Malayalam language. The language got the name Malayalam during the mid 19th century, the origin of Malayalam, an independent offshoot of the proto-Dravidian language, has been and continues to be an engaging pursuit among comparative historical linguists. Together with Tamil, Toda, Kannada and Tulu, Malayalam belongs to the group of Dravidian languages
44.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
45.
Jainism
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Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. The majority of Jains reside in India, with 6-7 million followers, Jainism is smaller than many other major world religions. Outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
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