1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
Liechtenstein
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Liechtenstein, officially the Principality of Liechtenstein, is a doubly landlocked German-speaking microstate in Central Europe. It is a monarchy with the rank of principality, headed by the Prince of Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein is bordered by Switzerland to the west and south and Austria to the east and it has an area of just over 160 square kilometres and an estimated population of 37,000. Divided into 11 municipalities, its capital is Vaduz and its largest municipality is Schaan, the unemployment rate is one of the lowest in the world at 1. 5%. Liechtenstein has been known in the past as a tax haven, however. An alpine country, Liechtenstein is mainly mountainous, making it a winter sport destination, many cultivated fields and small farms are found both in the south and north. The country has a financial sector centered in Vaduz. Liechtenstein is a member of the European Free Trade Association, and while not being a member of the European Union and it also has a customs union and a monetary union with Switzerland. The oldest traces of human existence in Liechtenstein date back to the Middle Paleolithic era, neolithic farming settlements were founded in the valleys around 5300 BC. Hallstatt and La Tène cultures flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC possibly under influence from the Greek. One of the most important tribal groups in the Alpine region were the Helvetii, in 58 BC, at the Battle of Bibracte, Julius Caesar defeated the Alpine tribes, bringing the region under closer control of the Roman Empire. By 15 BC, Tiberius, who was destined to be the second Roman emperor, Liechtenstein was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. The area was maintained by the Roman military, which maintained a large legionary camp called Brigantium near Lake Constance, a Roman road ran through the territory. In 259/60 Brigantium was destroyed by the Alemanni, a Germanic people who settled in the area in around 450. In the Early Middle Ages, the Alemanni had settled the eastern Swiss plateau by the 5th century, Liechtenstein was at the eastern edge of Alemannia. In the 6th century, the region became part of the Frankish Empire following Clovis Is victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504. The area that later became Liechtenstein remained under Frankish hegemony until the empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD following the death of Charlemagne. The territory of present-day Liechtenstein belonged to East Francia until it was reunified with Middle Francia under the Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD
Liechtenstein
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Gutenberg Castle, Balzers, Liechtenstein.
Liechtenstein
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Flag
Liechtenstein
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Vaduz Castle, overlooking the capital, is home to the
Prince of Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein
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Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein from 1805 to 1806 and 1814 to 1836.
3.
Electoral district
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An electoral district is a territorial subdivision for electing members to a legislative body. Generally, only voters who reside within the district are permitted to vote in an election held there, from a single district, a single member or multiple members might be chosen. Members might be chosen by a first-past-the-post system or a representative system. Members might be chosen through an election under universal suffrage. The names for electoral districts vary across countries and, occasionally, the term constituency is commonly used to refer to an electoral district, it can also refer to the body of eligible voters within the represented area. Similarly, in Australia and New Zealand, electoral districts are called electorates, the term Chûnāô-Kshetra is used while referring to an electoral district in general irrespective of the legislature. When referring to a particular constituency, it is simply referred to as Kshetra along with the name of the legislature. Electoral districts for municipal or other bodies are called wards. In Canada, districts are colloquially called ridings, in French, circonscription or comté, local electoral districts are sometimes called wards, a term which also designates administrative subdivisions of a municipality. In local government in the Republic of Ireland voting districts are called electoral areas, district magnitude is the number of representatives elected from a given district to the same legislative body. A single-member district has one representative, while a district has more than one. Under proportional representation systems, district magnitude is an important determinant of the makeup of the elected body, the geographic distribution of minorities also affects their representation - an unpopular nationwide minority can still secure a seat if they are concentrated in a particular district. District magnitude can vary within the same system during an election. In the Republic of Ireland, for instance, national elections to Dáil Éireann are held using a combination of 3,4, main articles, Apportionment and Redistricting Apportionment is the process of allocating a number of representatives to different regions, such as states or provinces. Apportionment changes are accompanied by redistricting, the redrawing of electoral district boundaries to accommodate the new number of representatives. This redrawing is necessary under single-member district systems, as each new representative requires their own district, multi-member systems, however, vary depending on other rules. Apportionment is generally done on the basis of population, the United States Senate, by contrast, is apportioned without regard to population, every state gets exactly two senators. Malapportionment occurs when voters are under- or over-represented due to variation in district population, given the complexity of this process, software is increasingly used to simplify the task, while better supporting reproducible and more justifiable results
Electoral district
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Representatives from electoral districts typically have offices in their respective districts. This photo shows the office of Michael Moore, a Member of Parliament (MP) in the UK.
4.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
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Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
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G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
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Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
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William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
5.
Capital (political)
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
Capital (political)
–
Parliament Hill, the national legislative buildings, in
Ottawa, the capital of
Canada.
Capital (political)
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The
Roman Forum was surrounded by many government buildings as the capital of
Ancient Rome.
Capital (political)
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The
Western Wall is one of the greatest findings of the Jewish history in
Jerusalem.
Capital (political)
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Cornwall Council headquarters in the
county town of
Truro.
6.
Rhine
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The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe, at about 1,230 km, with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s. The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days. The many castles and fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire, in the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism. The variant of the name of the Rhine in modern languages are all derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, spanish is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin-, while Italian, Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren-. The Gaulish name Rēnos belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root *rei- to move, flow, run, the grammatical gender of the Celtic name is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch and French. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine, the length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in Rhine-kilometers, a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the Old Rhine Bridge at Constance to Hoek van Holland. The river length is shortened from the rivers natural course due to a number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th century. The total length of the Rhine, to the inclusion of Lake Constance and its course is conventionally divided as follows, The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein near Tamins-Reichenau. Above this point is the catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs almost exclusively to the Swiss Canton of Graubünden, ranging from Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino, traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Vorderrhein and the Rhine as a whole. The Hinterrhein rises in the Rheinwald valley below Mount Rheinwaldhorn, the Vorderrhein, or Anterior Rhine, springs from Lai da Tuma, near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta formed by the largest visible rock slide in the alps, the Flims Rockslide. A multiday trekking route is signposted along the young Rhine called Senda Sursilvana, the Hinterrhein/Rein Posteriur, or Posterior Rhine, starts from the Paradies Glacier, near the Rheinwaldhorn. One of its tributaries, the Reno di Lei, drains the Valle di Lei on politically Italian territory, after three main valleys separated by the two gorges, Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau. The Vorderrhein arises from numerous source streams in the upper Surselva, one source is Lai da Tuma with the Rein da Tuma, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it. Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Reno di Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the Canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, all streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants. In its lower course the Vorderrhein flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta through the Flims Rockslide, the whole stretch of the Vorderrhein to the Rhine confluence near Reichenau-Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana
Rhine
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Lorelei rock in
Rhineland-Palatinate
Rhine
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Map of the Rhine basin
Rhine
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The Rein da Tuma is captured in the center of the picture and led into the
Curnera Reservoir
Rhine
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The outflow from
Lake Toma is traditionally seen as the source of the Rhine
7.
Schaan
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Schaan is the largest municipality of Liechtenstein by population. It is located to the north of Vaduz, the capital, as of 2005 it has a population of 5,806 making it the most populous administrative district in Liechtenstein, and covers an area of 26.8 km², including mountains and forest. 850, Schaan has over 4,000 enterprises, making it an economic center in the country. Schaan borders the town of Buchs in Switzerland, the municipality includes the village of Mühleholz and the Naafkopf, one of the two tripoints between Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Austria. There are four sites, Malarsch, Pardiel, Rebera. The Gemeinschaftszentrum Resch, Primarschule provides primary school services, Realschule Schaan and Sportschule Liechtenstein are in Schaan, while Realschule Vaduz and Oberschule Vaduz are in the Schulzentrum Mühleholz II in Vaduz. There is a private Waldorf school that has students from, in addition to Liechtenstein, Austria and Switzerland
Schaan
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Buchs SG,
Grabs SG,
Gams SG in Switzerland and Schaan
Schaan
–
Church of St. Laurentius
Schaan
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Town hall of Schaan
Schaan
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Schaan-Vaduz railway station
8.
Werdenberg (Holy Roman Empire)
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Werdenberg was a county of the Holy Roman Empire situated on either side of the Rhine, including parts of what is now St. Gallen, Liechtenstein, and Vorarlberg. It was partitioned from Montfort in 1230, in 1260, it was divided into Werdenberg and Sargans. It is named for Werdenberg Castle, today located in the municipality of Grabs in the Swiss canton of St and his son was Hugo I of Montfort, whose son Rudolf I is considered the founder of the Werdenberg line. In 1308 Werdenberg was further divided into Werdenberg-Heiligenberg and Werdenberg-Werdenberg, the Vaduz line of Counts of Werdenberg died out in 1406 and Vaduz passed to the Barons of Brandis. The family fractured further into a number of cadet branches, the line of Werdenberg-Heiligenberg-Sigmaringen-Trochtelfingen remained influential in the early 16th century in the context of the Swabian League but was extinct in 1534. The Werdenberg feud was a series of feuds between the Werdenberg and their neighbours in the late 15th century, most notably their conflict with the von Zimmern family of Swabia. Gerhard Köbler, Werdenberg, in, Historisches Lexikon der deutschen Länder, die deutschen Territorien vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart 2nd edition Munich 1989, p.605. Fritz Rigendinger, Das Sarganserland im Spätmittelalter, lokale Herrschaften, die Grafschaft Sargans und die Grafen von Werdenberg-Sargans. Carl Borromäus Alois Fickler, Heiligenberg in Schwaben, mit einer Geschichte seiner alten Grafen und des von ihnen beherrschten Linzgaues. Macklot, Karlsruhe 1853 Gerhard Köbler, Werdenberg, in, Historisches Lexikon der deutschen Länder, die deutschen Territorien vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Verbesserte Auflage, München 1989, S.605 Werdenberg, von in German, French, johann Nepomuk von Vanotti, Geschichte der Grafen von Montfort und von Werdenberg. Hermann Wartmann, Werdenberg, Grafen von, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,41, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, pp. 749–759
Werdenberg (Holy Roman Empire)
–
Territories of the counts of Werdenberg, Werdenberg-Sargans and Montfort in the 14th century
9.
Vaduz Castle
–
Vaduz Castle is the palace and official residence of the Prince of Liechtenstein. The castle gave its name to the town of Vaduz, the capital of Liechtenstein, the former owners, who were presumably also the builders, were the counts of Werdenberg-Sargans. The bergfried and parts of the side are the oldest. The tower stands on a piece of ground that is 12 by 13 metres in area, at the ground floor, the tower walls have a thickness of up to 4 metres. The original entrance lay at the side at a height of 11 metres. The chapel of St. Anna was presumably built in the Middle Ages as well, in the Swabian War of 1499, the castle was burned by the Swiss Confederacy. The western side was expanded by Count Kaspar von Hohenems, the Princely Family of Liechtenstein acquired Vaduz Castle in 1712 when it purchased the countship of Vaduz. At this time, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, combined the countship with the Lordship of Schellenberg, purchased by the Liechtensteins in 1699, to form the present Principality of Liechtenstein. The castle underwent a restoration between 1904 and 1920, then again in the early 1920s during the reign of Prince Johann II. Since 1938, the castle has been the residence of Liechtensteins Princely Family. The castle is not open to the public as the family still lives in the castle. List of castles in Liechtenstein Valtice
Vaduz Castle
–
Vaduz Castle
Vaduz Castle
–
Vaduz Castle as seen from the capital
Vaduz Castle
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The castle undergoing renovation to the tower
Vaduz Castle
–
View from the castle
10.
Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
Switzerland
–
Founded in 44 BC by
Lucius Munatius Plancus,
Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
–
Flag
Switzerland
–
The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
–
The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.
11.
Swabian War
–
The Swabian War of 1499 was the last major armed conflict between the Old Swiss Confederacy and the House of Habsburg. Hostilities quickly spread from the Grisons through the Rhine valley to Lake Constance and even to the Sundgau in southern Alsace, many battles were fought from January to July 1499, and in all but a few minor skirmishes, the experienced Swiss soldiers defeated the Swabian and Habsburg armies. After their victories in the Burgundian Wars, the Swiss had battle tested troops, the treaty granted the Confederacy far-reaching independence from the empire. Since the late 13th century, the members of the Swiss Confederacy had gradually taken control of territories that once had belonged to the Habsburg realm. The Swiss had attained the status of imperial immediacy, being only to the emperor himself. This status granted them a far-reaching autonomy within the Holy Roman Empire, before 1438, the empire and the emperor had been an antipole to the Habsburg dukes for the Swiss. Previous emperors had supported the confederates in their struggles against the Habsburgs. When Frederick III of Habsburg ascended to the throne, the Swiss suddenly faced a new situation in which they could no longer count on support from the empire, worse yet, conflicts with the Habsburg dukes threatened to become conflicts with the empire itself. Under Fredericks reign, this did not occur yet, but Fredericks troubled reign did not leave room for military operations against the Swiss. In the empire, Frederick faced the opposition of the Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty and of his cousin Sigismund, who was duke in Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Sigismund had been in conflict with the Swiss Confederacy, too. When he had been banned by Pope Pius II in a conflict over the nomination of a bishop in Tyrol, in the following Burgundy Wars, the Swiss and Sigismund both fought against Charles the Bold. With their help, he forced the Wittelsbach house to return the territories signed over by Sigismund, in 1490, Sigismund was forced to abdicate and turn over all his territories to Fredericks son Maximilian I. The Duchy of Burgundy was also a French fiefdom and immediately claimed by Charles VIII, the first phase of this conflict would last until 1489, keeping Maximilian occupied in the Low Countries. He even fell into the hands of his enemies and was held prisor for four months in Bruges in 1488 and he was freed only when his father sent an army under the command of duke Albert of Saxony to his rescue. Maximilian subsequently returned to Germany, leaving his cousin Albert as his representative, Albert would, in the following years, manage to assert the Habsburg hegemony in the Netherlands. Maximilian had been elected King of the Romans in 1486 on his fathers initiative, upon the death of Frederick in 1493, Maximilian also took over his fathers possessions and thus united the whole Habsburg territory in his hands. Maximilian controlled thus territories that nearly encircled the Old Swiss Confederacy, Tyrol and Vorarlberg in the east, Further Austria in the north, on the Swabian side, similar concerns existed. For the common people in Swabia, the independence and freedom of the Eidgenossen was a powerful, many a baron in southern Swabia feared that his own subjects might revolt and seek adherence to the Swiss Confederacy
Swabian War
–
The
battle of Hard was the first major battle of the Swabian War. Illustration from the
Luzerner Schilling of 1513.
Swabian War
–
Emperor Frederick III
Swabian War
–
Emperor Maximilian I in a painting from 1519 by
Albrecht Dürer.
Swabian War
–
Women and priests retrieve the dead bodies of Swabian soldiers just outside the city gates of Constance after the
battle of Schwaderloh. (
Luzerner Schilling)
12.
Princely Family of Liechtenstein
–
The Liechtenstein dynasty, from which the principality takes its name, is the family which reigns by constitutional, hereditary right over the nation of Liechtenstein. The family comes from Castle Liechtenstein in Lower Austria, which the family possessed from at least 1140 to the 13th century, and from 1807 onwards. Thus, and without any territory held directly under the Imperial throne, the head of the family was able to arrange the purchase from the Hohenems family of the minuscule Lordship of Schellenberg in 1699, and the County of Vaduz in 1712. Schellenberg and Vaduz indeed had no feudal lord other than their comital sovereign, on this date Liechtenstein became a member state of the Holy Roman Empire. The Princes of Liechtenstein did not set foot in their new principality for several decades, the numbers represent the positions in the line of succession
Princely Family of Liechtenstein
–
Hans-Adam I, Prince of Liechtenstein (1662 - 1712), acquired the territory of the
Principality
Princely Family of Liechtenstein
–
House of Liechtenstein
Princely Family of Liechtenstein
–
Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein (1760 - 1836), the last prince to rule under the
Holy Roman Empire and the first ruler of a sovereign state from 1806
Princely Family of Liechtenstein
–
Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein (1840 - 1929), allied the principality with Switzerland after the downfall of the
Habsburg Monarchy in 1918
13.
Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire)
–
The Imperial Diet was the deliberative and legislative body of the Holy Roman Empire. Its members were the Imperial Estates, divided into three colleges, the diet as a permanent, regularized institution evolved from the Hoftage of the Middle Ages. From 1663 until the end of the empire in 1806, it was in permanent session at Regensburg, the Imperial Estates had, according to feudal law, no authority above them besides the Holy Roman Emperor himself. The holding of an Imperial Estate entitled one to a vote in the diet, thus, an individual member might have multiple votes and votes in different colleges. In general, members did not attend the permanent diet at Regensburg, the late imperial diet was in effect a permanent meeting of ambassadors between the Estates. Initially, there was neither a fixed time nor location for the Diet, the Golden Bull of 1356 cemented the concept of territorial rule, the largely independent rule of the dukes over their respective territories, and also limited the number of electors to seven. The Pope, contrary to myth, was never involved in the electoral process. However, until the late 15th century, the Diet was not actually formalized as an institution, instead, the dukes and other princes would irregularly convene at the court of the Emperor, these assemblies were usually referred to as Hoftage. Only beginning in 1489 was the Diet called the Reichstag, initially, the two colleges were that of the prince-electors and that of the other dukes and princes. Several attempts to reform the Empire and end its slow disintegration, notably starting with the Diet of 1495, from then to its end in 1806, the Empire was not much more than a collection of largely independent states. Only with the introduction of the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg in 1663 did the Diet permanently convene in a fixed location. The Imperial Diet of Constance opened on 27 April 1507, it recognized the unity of the Holy Roman Empire and founded the Imperial Chamber, the empire’s supreme court. Since 1489, the Diet comprised three colleges, The Electoral college, led by the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz in his capacity as Archchancellor of Germany, in 1692 the Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg became the ninth Prince-elector as Archbannerbearer during the Nine Years War. In the War of the Bavarian Succession, the dignities of the Palatinate. The college of Imperial Princes incorporated the Imperial Counts as well as lords, Prince-Bishops. Strong in members, though often discordant, the second college tried to preserve its interests against the dominance of the Prince-electors, the House of Princes was again subdivided into an ecclesiastical and a secular bench. Remarkably, the bench was headed by the—secular—Archduke of Austria. As the Austrian House of Habsburg had failed to assume the leadership of the secular bench, the ecclesiastical bench also comprised the Grand Master and Deutschmeister of the Teutonic Knights, as well as the Grand Prior of the Monastic State of the Knights Hospitaller at Heitersheim
Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire)
–
Seating plan for an inauguration of the Imperial Diet in the
Regensburg Town Hall from a 1675 engraving: Emperor and Prince-electors at the head, secular Princes to the left, ecclesiastical to the right, deputies of Imperial Cities in the foreground.
Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire)
–
"Here I stand":
Martin Luther at the
Diet of Worms, 1521 19th-century painting by
Hermann Wislicenus
14.
Reichsunmittelbar
–
As confirmed by the Peace of Westphalia, the possession of imperial immediacy came with a particular form of territorial authority known as territorial superiority. In todays terms, it would be understood as a form of sovereignty. They formed the Imperial Estates, together with roughly 100 immediate counts,40 Imperial prelates and 50 Imperial Cities who only enjoyed a collective vote. Additional advantages might include the rights to collect taxes and tolls, to hold a market, to mint coins, to bear arms, the last of these might include the so-called Blutgericht through which capital punishment could be administered. These rights varied according to the patents granted by the emperor. Immediate rights might be lost if the Emperor and/or the Imperial Diet could not defend them against external aggression, as occurred in the French Revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 required the emperor to renounce all claims to the portions of the Holy Roman Empire west of the Rhine. The practical application of the rights of immediacy was complex, this makes the history of the Holy Roman Empire particularly difficult to understand, even such contemporaries as Goethe and Fichte called the Empire a monstrosity. Prussian historian Heinrich von Treitschke described it in the 19th century as having become a mess of rotted imperial forms. Pointing out that people like Goethe meant monster as a compliment in modern understanding, free Imperial City German mediatization Imperial Abbey Imperial Estate Imperial Village List of states of the Holy Roman Empire Braun, B. Reichsunmittelbarkeit in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 2005-05-03
Reichsunmittelbar
–
Document signed by the Abbot of Marchtal, immediate and exempt
Reichsunmittelbar
–
The Prince-Bishop of Liège, member of the Imperial estates, enjoyed Imperial immediacy and therefore could negotiate and sign international treaties on his own, as long as they were not directed against the Emperor and the Empire.
15.
Holy Roman Emperor
–
The Holy Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. From an autocracy in Carolingian times the title evolved into an elected monarchy chosen by the Prince-electors, until the Reformation the Emperor elect was required to be crowned by the Pope before assuming the imperial title. The title was held in conjunction with the rule of the Kingdom of Germany, in theory, the Holy Roman Emperor was primus inter pares among the other Catholic monarchs, in practice, a Holy Roman Emperor was only as strong as his army and alliances made him. Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, effectively became hereditary holders of the title, after the Reformation many of the subject states and most of those in Germany were Protestant while the Emperor continued to be Catholic. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last Emperor as a result of the collapse of the polity during the Napoleonic wars, from the time of Constantine I the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. In the west, the title of Emperor was revived in 800, as the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was known as the Investiture Controversy. After Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, no pope appointed an emperor again until the coronation of Otto the Great in 962. Under Otto and his successors, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, the various German princes elected one of their peers as King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. After Charles Vs coronation, all succeeding emperors were called elected Emperor due to the lack of papal coronation, the term sacrum in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope, the final Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empires final dissolution. The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was August Emperor of the Romans, the word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents. In German-language historiography, the term Römisch-deutscher Kaiser is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman Emperor on one hand, the English term Holy Roman Emperor is a modern shorthand for emperor of the Holy Roman Empire not corresponding to the historical style or title. Successions to the kingship were controlled by a variety of complicated factors, elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. The Electoral council was set at seven princes by the Golden Bull of 1356, another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire. After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the exception of Charles VII. Maximilian I and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope, Maximilian therefore named himself Elected Roman Emperor in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors, of his successors only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation
Holy Roman Emperor
–
Francis II
Holy Roman Emperor
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Quaternion Eagle
Holy Roman Emperor
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Replicas of the Crown jewels
Holy Roman Emperor
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Holy Roman Emperors of Habsburg dynasty and their families
16.
Schellenberg
–
Schellenberg is a municipality in the lowland area of Liechtenstein, on the banks of the Rhine. As of 2014, it has a population of 1,053, the area was first settled by Celts, then by Rhaetians. Rome conquered the area in 15 BC, and made it part of the province of Rhaetia, the Province later became a county under Charlemagne. The county was divided among heirs. The Lordship of Schellenberg was purchased by the Counts of Vaduz in 1437, after the Swabian War in 1499, both came under Austrian suzerainty. The emperor formally united Vaduz and Schellenberg in 1719 as the Principality of Liechtenstein, the Russian Monument in the municipality commemorates the asylum given to Russian soldiers during the Second World War. Near the end of World War II, Liechtenstein granted asylum to approximately five hundred soldiers of the First Russian National Army and this act was no small matter, as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to resettle the asylum seekers permanently, in contrast, the British repatriated the Russians who fought on the German side to the USSR. In Schellenberg, there is a road crossing to Austria, manned by Austrian. Media related to Schellenberg at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of Schellenberg at Wiktionary Official website History of Schellenberg
Schellenberg
–
Schellenberg
17.
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Charles VI succeeded his elder brother, Joseph I, as Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, King of Hungary and Croatia, and King of Serbia, Archduke of Austria, etc. in 1711. He unsuccessfully claimed the throne of Spain as Charles III following the death of its ruler, four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, faced with his lack of male heirs, Charles provided for a male-line succession failure with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. The Emperor favoured his own daughters over those of his brother and predecessor, Joseph I, in the succession, ignoring the decree he had signed during the reign of his father. Charles sought the other European powers approval and they exacted harsh terms, Britain demanded that Austria abolish its overseas trading company. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged, Charles died in 1740, sparking the War of the Austrian Succession, which plagued his successor, Maria Theresa, for eight years. Archduke Charles, the son of the Emperor Leopold I and of his third wife. His tutor was Anton Florian, Prince of Liechtenstein, following the death of Charles II of Spain, in 1700, without any direct heir, Charles declared himself King of Spain—both were members of the House of Habsburg. The ensuing War of the Spanish Succession, which pitted Frances candidate, Philip, Duke of Anjou, Louis XIV of Frances grandson, against Austrias Charles, lasted for almost 14 years. The Kingdom of Portugal, Kingdom of England, Scotland, Ireland, to prevent a union of Spain and France, Philip was forced to renounce his right to succeed his grandfathers throne. Charless father and his advisors went about arranging a marriage for him and their eyes fell upon Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, the eldest child of Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. She was held to be beautiful by her contemporaries. On 1 August 1708, in Barcelona, Charles married her by proxy and she gave him two daughters that survived to adulthood, Maria Theresa and Maria Anna. Lack of sons irked Charles and eventually led to the promulgation of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, for the next twenty years, Charles sought approval of the Sanction from the other European powers. They exacted harsh terms, for instance, Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company, France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged. For a short time, however, it seemed that the Pragmatic Sanction was gratuitous, a year later, Maria Theresa, his elder surviving child, was born. Contemporaries wrote that at her ceremony, Charles, despite his best efforts. The next year saw the arrival of another girl, Maria Anna, Charles was successful in the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18, adding Banat to Hungary, and establishing direct Austrian rule over Serbia and Oltenia. This extended Austrian rule to the lower Danube, the War of the Quadruple Alliance followed
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Charles VI in the regalia of the Order of the Golden Fleece; painting attributed to
Martin van Meytens
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Signature
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
–
The future Emperor Charles VI
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Charles VI, 1721
18.
Principality
–
Most of these states have historically been a polity, but in some occasions were rather territories in respect of which a princely title is held. The princes estate and wealth may be located mainly or wholly outside the confines of the principality. Generally recognised surviving sovereign principalities are Liechtenstein, Monaco, and the co-principality of Andorra, extant royal primogenitures styled as principalities include Asturias, and Wales. The term principality is often used informally to describe Wales as it currently exists, since that time, the title Prince of Wales has traditionally been granted to the heir to the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, but it confers no responsibilities for government in Wales. It has country status and is one of four countries in the United Kingdom, principality of Asturias is the official name of autonomous community of Asturias. No sovereign duchy currently exists, but Luxembourg is an example of a sovereign grand duchy. Historically there have been sovereign principalities with many styles of ruler, such as Countships, Margraviates and even Lordships, feudalism increased the power of local princes within a kings lands. As princes continued to more power over time, the authority of the king was diminished in many places. This led to political fragmentation as the lands were broken into mini-states ruled by princes and dukes who wielded absolute power over their small territories. This was especially prevalent in Europe, and particularly with the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, during the Late Middle Ages from 1200 to 1500, principalities were often at war with each other as royal houses asserted sovereignty over smaller principalities. These wars caused a deal of instability and economies were destroyed. Episodes of bubonic plague reduced the power of principalities to survive independently. Eventually, agricultural progress and development of new goods and services boosted commerce between principalities. Many of these states became wealthy, expanded their territories and improved the services provided to their citizens, Princes and dukes developed their lands, established new ports and chartered large thriving cities. Some used their wealth to build palaces and other institutions now associated with sovereign states. While some principalities prospered in their independence, less successful states were swallowed by stronger royal houses, Europe saw consolidation of small principalities into larger kingdoms and empires. This had already happened in England in the first millennium, and this subsequently led to the creation of such states as France, Portugal. Another form of consolidation was orchestrated in Italy during the Renaissance by the Medici family, a banking family from Florence, the Medici took control of governments in various Italian regions and even assumed the papacy
Principality
–
Prince
Johann I Josef, last prince of
Liechtenstein prior to the end of the
Holy Roman Empire
19.
Anton Florian of Liechtenstein
–
Anton Florian, Prince of Liechtenstein was the Prince of Liechtenstein between 1718 and 1721. He was born in Wilfersdorf, in what is now Lower Austria, Florian returned to Vienna for Charless coronation. He was the Imperial Chief Intendant and Chairman of the Secret Council until he died in 1721, on 23 January 1719, Charles VI created the new principality of Liechtenstein from the domains of Seigneury of Schellenberg and County of Vaduz, which were both held by the Liechtenstein family. This was done so that Anton Florian could be admitted to the Reichstag, thus, Anton Florian became the first Prince of Liechtenstein. It is the monarchy of the Holy Roman Empire that still exists. He was the 591st Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria and he died in Vienna in 1721. Anton Florian married Eleonore Barbara Catharina, Countess of Thun-Hohenstein on 15 October 1679
Anton Florian of Liechtenstein
–
Anton Florian
20.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire at its maximal extent, in the 13th century
Holy Roman Empire
–
Imperial Banner
Holy Roman Empire
–
An illustration from
Schedelsche Weltchronik depicting the structure of the Reich: The Holy Roman Emperor is sitting; on his left are three ecclesiastics; on his right are four secular electors.
Holy Roman Empire
–
Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)
21.
Roman Catholicism
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholicism
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholicism
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
22.
Protestantism
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestantism
–
(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestantism
–
The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestantism
–
Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestantism
–
The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
23.
Islam
–
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
Islam
–
The
Kaaba, in
Mecca,
Hejaz region, today's
Saudi Arabia, is the
center of Islam.
Muslims from all over the world gather there to
pray in unity.
Islam
–
The dome of the
Carol I Mosque in
Constanța,
Romania, topped by the
Islamic crescent
Islam
–
Medallion showing "
Allah " (
God) in
Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul,
Turkey.
Islam
–
An
angel presenting
Muhammad and his companions with a miniature city. In the
Topkapi Palace Library,
Istanbul.
24.
Vaduz Cathedral
–
Vaduz Cathedral, or Cathedral of St. Florin, is a neo-Gothic church in Vaduz, Liechtenstein, and the center of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vaduz. Originally a parish church, it has held the status of cathedral since 1997 and it was built in 1874 by Friedrich von Schmidt on the site of earlier medieval foundations. Its patron saint is Florinus of Remüs, a 9th-century saint of the Vinschgau Valley, the Archdiocese of Vaduz was erected by Pope John Paul II in the apostolic constitution Ad satius consulendum 2 December 1997. Before then it had been the Liechtenstein Deanery, a part of the Swiss Diocese of Chur, the solemn public ceremony took place on December 12,1997, in the parish church of Vaduz, which was then raised to the dignity of a cathedral. Prince Franz Joseph II of Liechtenstein and his wife Countess Georgina von Wilczek were both buried in the cathedral in 1989, elisabeth von Gutmann was buried there too
Vaduz Cathedral
–
North side
25.
Buchs, St. Gallen
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Buchs is a municipality in the Wahlkreis of Werdenberg in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland. It lies on the border with Liechtenstein and it is about to become a city. Buchs is first mentioned in 765 as de Pogio in the testament of the Chur bishop Tello, in 1213 it was mentioned as Buchs, when it was held by the Counts of Werdenberg. From 1404 the Werdenberg estates were a possession of the Counts of Montfort, in 1517 the area was acquired by the citizens of Glarus who implemented the Protestant Reformation. Buchs was incorporated into the Canton of Linth of the short-lived Napoleonic Helvetic Republic from 1798 to 1803, Buchs has an area, as of 2006, of 16 km2. Of this area,39. 6% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,25. 1% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. The municipality is located in the Werdenberg Wahlkreis and it is a shopping, industry and services center for the upper St. Gallen Rhine valley as well as the capital of the Wahlkreis. It consists of the village of Buchs and the hamlets of Räfis. It lies on the border with Liechtenstein, next to the town of Schaan, the blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Vert on a Pale Argent a Altar Cloth Sable ringed and fringed Or. Buchs has a population of 12,414, as of 2007, about 30. 4% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Of the foreign population,181 are from Germany,412 are from Italy,1,199 are from ex-Yugoslavia,189 are from Austria,168 are from Turkey, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 5. 4%. Most of the population speaks German, with Serbo-Croatian being second most common, of the Swiss national languages,8,826 speak German,62 people speak French,282 people speak Italian, and 39 people speak Romansh. The age distribution, as of 2000, in Buchs is,1,165 children or 11. 2% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,299 teenagers or 12. 5% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population,1,430 people or 13. 8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 1,713 people or 16. 5% are between 30 and 39,1,454 people or 14. 0% are between 40 and 49, and 1,335 people or 12. 8% are between 50 and 59. In 2000 there were 1,687 persons who were living alone in a private dwelling, there were 2,285 persons who were part of a couple without children, and 5,070 who were part of a couple with children. In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 36. 3% of the vote, the next three most popular parties were the SP, the FDP and the CVP. The historical population is given in the table, In Buchs about 65. 8% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education
Buchs, St. Gallen
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Buchs
Buchs, St. Gallen
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Buchs SG,
Grabs SG,
Gams SG in Switzerland and
Schaan in Liechtenstein
Buchs, St. Gallen
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NTB Interstate University of Applied Sciences of Technology Buchs
Buchs, St. Gallen
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Schloss Werdenberg and Werdenberg lake, looking from Buchs toward Grabs
26.
Feldkirch, Vorarlberg
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Feldkirch is a medieval city in the western Austrian state of Vorarlberg on the border with Switzerland and Liechtenstein. It is the center of the district Feldkirch. After Dornbirn, it is the second largest town in Vorarlberg in terms of population, the westernmost point in Austria lies in Feldkirch on the River Rhine, at the tripoint border of Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. Other sights in the include the cathedral of St. Nikolaus from the late Gothic period. Feldkirch was the birthplace of Rheticus, and is currently the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Feldkirch, from 1651–1773 and from 1856–1979, Feldkirch was the home of the Jesuit school Stella Matutina. March 1799 saw two clashes between the forces of the First French Republic and Habsburg Austria, on the 7th, Nicolas Oudinot with 9,000 French soldiers defeated Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze with 6,000 Austrians. The Battle of Feldkirch occurred on 23 March when André Masséna and 12,000 Frenchmen were beaten by Franz Jellacic and 5,500 Austrians, the bus system works together with Vorarlbergs bus system which provides several supra-regional lines starting and ending in Feldkirch. Theres an additional line called nightline which connects different bars and discos all around Feldkirch, the nightline plies till about 4 oclock am on weekends. Feldkirch railway station lies on the railway line through the Vorarlberg. Wiltrud Drexel, ski racer Günther Freitag, novelist Herbert Bösch, politician and MEP Natalie Uher, Playmate and actress Hans Weingartner, author, director, Feldkirch is the home of an annual Summer Festival, founded in 2002 by Thomas Hengelbrock and directed since 2007 by Philippe Arlaud
Feldkirch, Vorarlberg
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Feldkirch
Feldkirch, Vorarlberg
27.
Sargans
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Sargans is a municipality in the Wahlkreis of Sarganserland in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland. Sargans is known for its castle, which dates from before the founding of the Swiss Confederation in 1291, Sargans was also a County of the Holy Roman Empire, see County of Sargans. There are traces of Neolithic settlement in the area, a significant Roman-era estate was destroyed by an Alamannic incursion in c. Sargans remained part of Lower Raetia in the medieval period. A church dedicated to Saint Cassian is mentioned in the 9th century, Sargans was part of the territory of the county of Werdenberg from the 12th century, with a separate line of Werdenberg-Sargans established in the later 13th century. The castle was presumably first built in the 12th century and is first mentioned in 1282, the town of Sargans grew around the castle in the 13th century. Sargans is mentioned as Senegaunis in the 11th century, an earlier mention as de Senegaune, ostensibly dated to 765, survives in a 16th-century copy. In 1248 it was mentioned as Sanegans, in 1264 as Sangans, the modern spelling dates to the 16th century. The etymology of the name is unknown, San- seems to have changed to Sar- under the influence of the hydronym Saar, a popular etymology connecting the name Sargans to goose may date to as early as the 15th century. From 1406, a fortification of the town and the castle was built. In 1445, the town, but not the castle, was captured and burned by the Swiss Confederacy, the town was given limited rights of self-government in 1456 when the count agreed to select a Schultheiss out of a list of three candidates to be submitted by the burghers. In 1483, count Jürg of Werdenberg-Sargans was forced to sell the county to the Swiss Confederacy for 15,000 Rhenish guilder, from this time until 1798, the castle was the seat of the Swiss reeves. The town burned down again in 1490, in 1501, the Swiss Confederac confirmed the city rights of Sargans and granted the right for a weekly market. The municipal coat of arms goes back to the 15th century and it is canting, showing a goose based on the folk etymoloy for the name Sargans. The historical coat of arms of the county of Sargans was azure three mullets or, in 1798, Sargans became part of the Mels district of the Canton of Linth in the Helvetic Republic. It was incorporated into the Canton of St. Gallen in 1803, most of the town was destroyed by fire in 1811. Sargans is at the juncture of the lines connecting Chur with Zürich and with Lake Constance. The line to Vienna was added in 1884, the Saar was first canalised in 1858 for the construction of the railway station and again in 1978 for the construction of the A3-A13 motorway junction
Sargans
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Sargans
Sargans
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View from Mt. Laufböden toward Mels and Sargans
Sargans
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Sargans from Schloss Sargans
28.
Liechtenstein Bus
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Liechtenstein Bus is a bus company based in Vaduz, Liechtenstein. The company operates a total of 19 petrol-powered buses and 27 diesel buses on a network of 13 routes throughout Liechtenstein, many services operated by Liechtenstein Bus venture over the borders into Switzerland and Austria. At Schaan-Vaduz bus station, all arrive at the same time. At the touristic center at Schaan-Vaduz bus station, passengers can get information about public transport in Liechtenstein. Owner of a Swiss Pass can travel for free on Liechtenstein’s buses
Liechtenstein Bus
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Volvo 7700 Hybrid at
Schaan railway station in July 2013
29.
Rheinpark Stadion
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The Rheinpark Stadion in Vaduz is the national stadium of Liechtenstein. It plays host to the matches of the Liechtenstein national football team. The stadium was opened on 31 July 1998 with a match between FC Vaduz, the Liechtenstein Cup holders at the time, and 1. FC Kaiserslautern, the then Bundesliga champions, FC Kaiserslautern won the match 8-0. It lies on the banks of the River Rhine, just metres from the border with Switzerland, the stadium has a fully seated capacity of 5,873. The stadium has additional standing places giving it a capacity of 7,584. The building of the stadium cost roughly 19 million CHF, list of football stadiums in Liechtenstein Official website of Liechtenstein FA Official website of FC Vaduz FC Vaduz stadium information Media related to Rheinpark-Stadion at Wikimedia Commons
Rheinpark Stadion
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Rheinpark Stadion
30.
FC Vaduz
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Fussball Club Vaduz is a Liechtenstein football club from Vaduz that plays in the Swiss Football League. They currently play in the Swiss Super League following promotion from the Swiss Challenge League after winning its 2013–14 championship, Vaduz is unique in that it represents its own national association in the UEFA Europa League when winning the domestic cup, whilst playing in another countrys league. This is due to Liechtenstein not organizing its own league because of lack of funds, the signing of experienced goalkeeper Peter Jehle from Tours and Franz Burgmeier from Darlington boosted the Liechtensteiner contingent to six by the start of the 2009–10 season. Fussball Club Vaduz was founded on 14 February 1932 in Vaduz, FC Vaduz is the only professional football club in Liechtenstein. In its first training match, which Vaduz played in Balzers on 24 April of that year, the club played in Vorarlberger Football Association in Austria for the 1932–33 season. In 1933, Vaduz began playing in Switzerland, over the years Vaduz struggled through various tiers of Swiss football and won its first Liechtensteiner Cup in 1949. Vaduz enjoyed a stay in the Swiss 1. Liga from 1960 to 1973, which is the tier of the Swiss football league system. Vaduz has been required to pay a fee to the Swiss Football Association in order to participate as a foreign club, from the 2001–02 season, Vaduz played in the Swiss Challenge League, the second tier of the Swiss league system. Vaduz, however, were relegated back to the Challenge League after one season in the top flight, Vaduz finally returned to top level after five years in the Challenge League. However, they have never got past the qualifying rounds to date, however, Vaduz did come within one second of reaching the first round proper of the UEFA Cup in 2002. With the aggregate level, and with opponents Livingston scheduled to go through on away goals. The ball was sent into the box, and Marius Zarn hit a goal-bound shot, however, the referee blew the whistle for full-time just before the ball crossed over the line, and Livingston progressed through in controversial circumstances. FC Vaduz started their European campaign in 2009–10 by beating Scottish side Falkirk in the qualifying round of the Europa League. However, they lost 3–0 on aggregate to Czech side Slovan Liberec in the qualifying round. In the 2014–15 Swiss Super League season, Vaduz survived for the first time in their history in the Swiss Super League and they finished in 9th place with 31 points won. They also won their 43rd Liechtenstein cup, becoming world record holders of a cup in the process. In season 2015-16 FC Vaduz started their European campaign in the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League by beating S. P, la Fiorita from San Marino in the first qualifying round of the Europa League
FC Vaduz
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Rheinpark Stadion
FC Vaduz
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Vaduz
31.
Liechtenstein national football team
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The Liechtenstein national football team is the national football team of the Principality of Liechtenstein and is controlled by the Liechtenstein Football Association. The organisation is known as the Liechtensteiner Fussballverband in German, the teams first match was an unofficial match against Malta in Seoul, a 1–1 draw in 1981. Their first official match came two years later, a 0–1 defeat from Switzerland. Liechtensteins largest win, a 4–0 win over Luxembourg in a 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier on 13 October 2004, was both its first away win ever and its first win in any World Cup qualifier. Liechtenstein are only a relatively recent affiliate to FIFA, and did not participate in any qualifying series until the UEFA Euro 1996 qualifiers, there they managed to surprise the Republic of Ireland by holding them to a 0–0 draw on 3 June 1995. On 14 October 1998, they managed their first victory in a campaign by winning 2–1 against Azerbaijan in a UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying match. Since then, the presence of Liechtenstein clubs in the Swiss league system, the Euro 2004 qualifiers saw Liechtenstein improve to the extent they restricted England to 2–0 wins. The 2006 World Cup qualifiers, however, brought even better results as two wins over Luxembourg and draws against both Slovakia and Portugal meant that Liechtenstein finished with eight points. From their qualifying campaigns, the one that received the most points was their 2006 FIFA World Cup campaign. The following players were called up in the last 12 months, as recorded in the subsequent book Stamping Grounds, Liechtensteins Quest for the World Cup, Liechtenstein lost all eight games without scoring a goal. RSSSF archive of most capped players and highest goalscorers Liechtensteiner Fussballverbund Die Elf, documentary film about Liechtenstein national team
Liechtenstein national football team
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Liechtenstein
32.
Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein
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The Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein is the state museum of modern and contemporary art in Vaduz, Liechtenstein. The building by the Swiss architects Meinrad Morger, Heinrich Degelo, the museum collection of international modern and contemporary art is also the national art collection of the Principality of Liechtenstein. In 1967, the State of Liechtenstein received a gift of ten paintings which resulted in the foundation of the State Art Collection of Liechtenstein the following year, the first curator of the collection was Dr. Georg Malin, a Liechtenstein artist, historian and art historian. He soon expanded the collection to include modern and contemporary art. The building of the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein how it presents itself today was realized with the support of a group of private donors, together with the government of Liechtenstein and the City of Vaduz, they planned and implemented the construction of the museum. In August 2000, the building was donated to the Principality of Liechtenstein as a millennium gift. The government established a foundation to operate the museum. The Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein was formally opened on November 12,2000, mr. Friedemann Malsch has been the director of the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein since 1996. It was briefly featured on a Top Gear episode where they were looking for the best driving road in the World, the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein was built by the Swiss architects Meinrad Morger and Heinrich Degelo, along with Christian Kerez. Together they have created a building of great structural complexity. The closed form is a “black box” of tinted concrete and black basalt stone, river pebbles embedded in the building’s exterior provide a subtle coloration, forming a link to the landscape of the Alpine Rhine Valley. The hand-carved surface of the facade invites touching, and reflects the surroundings, long rows of windows open the black cube to both inside and outside. Inside the black box is a perfect White Cube, the building is clearly structured with maximum space devoted to art. The visible exterior of the building corresponds almost exactly to the exhibition spaces. There are six rooms arranged around two diametrically opposed staircases. The ground plan, reminiscent of a windmill’s sails, enables diagonal views through the whole building and these exhibition rooms offer art the largest possible freedom through their clarity and precision. In 2008 the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein has been voted one of The World’s Top 10 Ugliest Buildings and Monuments, the collection of the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein is one of international modern and contemporary art. It covers the period from the century to the present with a focus on sculptures
Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein
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Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Museum of Fine Arts
Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein
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Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein
Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein
33.
Liechtenstein Collection
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The Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna, Austria contains much of the art collections of its owners, the Princely Family of Liechtenstein, rulers of the principality of Liechtenstein. They include important European works of art, forming one of the leading private art collections. Its highlight used to be Leonardos portrait of Ginevra de Benci and it was reopened on 29 March 2004 and, after battling with low visitor numbers, was closed for regular visiting by the public in November 2011. According to the website, the highlights of the princely collections can be viewed exclusively as part of an event package or a pre-booked guided tour. Objects from the collections have been sent on touring exhibitions to museums in other countries, other works from the collection fill the palaces and residences of the Princely Family in Liechtenstein and Austria. A catalogue of the featured in the Gallery at the time of Prince Joseph Wenzel was compiled by Vicenzo Fanti in 1767. The Gartenpalais was built by Prince Johann Adam Andreas von Liechtenstein, who commissioned its design and construction from Domenico Egidio Rossi, painted decor in the Palais was contributed by Marcantonio Franceschini, Antonio Bellucci, Andrea Pozzo and Johann Michael Rottmayr. Sculpture came from Giovanni Giuliani and his studio, and stucco from the stuccator Santino Bussi
Liechtenstein Collection
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Liechtenstein Museum
Liechtenstein Collection
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Liechtenstein Garden Palace painted in 1759 by
Canaletto
Liechtenstein Collection
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Raphael, Portrait of a Man
Liechtenstein Collection
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Rubens,
Mars and Rhea Silvia
34.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
35.
Liechtenstein National Museum
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The Liechtenstein National Museum is a museum in Vaduz, Liechtenstein. The museum building dated back to 1438 and it used to house the princely tavern, custom house and the seat of the government. A work was carried out in 1998-2008 to renovate the building, the museum displays artifacts about the history, culture, nature and landscape of Liechtenstein in its three buildings and 42 exhibit rooms
Liechtenstein National Museum
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Liechtenstein National Museum
36.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
Association football
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The attacking player (No. 10) attempts to kick the ball beyond the opposing team's goalkeeper and between the goalposts and beneath the crossbar to score a
goal
Association football
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Children playing
cuju in
Song dynasty China
Association football
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Ebenezer Cobb Morley, who is regarded as the "father of football"
Association football
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A women's international match between the United States and Germany
37.
University of Liechtenstein
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The University of Liechtenstein is the largest of four centers for higher education in the Principality of Liechtenstein. It focuses on two fields of study – architecture and business economics, the University of Liechtenstein is located in Vaduz, the capital of the principality. The students and faculty come from 40 countries, and the university has partnerships with 80 other institutions, the university was founded in 1961 mainly for the teaching of mechanical and civil engineers which later evolved into the Liechtenstein School of Engineering. In 1992 the establishment was recognized as the Liechtenstein University of Applied Sciences. In 2008 the institution derived the status as a university and received the right to offer programs in addition to Bachelors and Masters programs according to the Bologna process. This included further extensions of the university and research programs with other universities, in November 2010 the Liechtenstein Parliament adopted the law on the University of Liechtenstein that has been ratified on 1 February 2011. Jürgen Brücker succeeded Klaus Näscher, who co-founded the university, as president since October 2016, Dr. Brücker was formerly a member of the Presidents Board and Management Board of the University of the University of St. Gallen. As Dean of External Relations and Development at the University of St. Gallen, the bachelors degree program leads to a first professional qualification at an institution of higher education. The bachelor programs consist of at least six semesters, the master programs last for a minimum of four semesters. The Architecture program received 1st place in 2008 in an international ranking from the magazine DETAIL, students of the MSc Information systems program won the 2015 and 2016 SAP DemoJam competition in Barcelona, which is the world’s biggest conference for SAP developers and designers. Starring in DemoJam 2015 was Kevin Flesher, Kevin Bösch, Rapha Credential, Bruno Saboia, the 2016 DemoJam participants were Roberts Zentelis, Carolina Martinez, Gaëtan Magal, Iliyan Iliev, Yanitsa Kircheva. The doctorate may be acquired in the program of studies. Doctor of Philosophy – PhD / DoktorIn der Wissenschaft – Dr. scient, the doctorate program lasts for a minimum of three years. The offerings include executive master’s and university programs, symposiums and conferences as well as lectures, the university is associated member in the European Research Center for Information Systems. Liechtenstein Economic Research Center, Economy and Growth, Public Finance, Macroeconomics, all chairs and researchers, their research achievements, publications, research projects and partners are documented. The information also serves the purpose of evaluation and can be found under R&D documentation on the university website. The Spinnerei Student Office organizes events for the students, there is a calendar on their homepage where students may enter events that they wish to share with their colleagues. The ULSV is interested in improving both the academic and social experiences for the students of the university, START Liechtenstein is a student organization that supports the students in their entrepreneurial ideas
University of Liechtenstein
University of Liechtenstein
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International Students
38.
Realschule
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Realschule is a type of secondary school in Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Estonia. It has also existed in Croatia, Austria, Denmark and Norway, Sweden, Hungary, Slovenia, for Johann Joachim Becher, education also had a mandate to support the replacement of the Holy Roman Empire with a more republican commonwealth. His school would have had the task of creating education and teaching an organized state structure and his ideal was the artisan, the educated scholar, the universal scientist. In the German secondary school system, Realschule is ranked between Hauptschule and Gymnasium, after completing the Realschule, good students are allowed to attend a professional Gymnasium or a general-education Gymnasium. They can also attend a Berufschule or do an apprenticeship, in most states of Germany, students start the Realschule at the age of ten or eleven and typically finish school at the age of 16–17. In some states, Realschulen have recently replaced by Oberschulen or Sekundarschulen. In 20061.32 million German students attended a Realschule, at Realschule, a student gets an extended education and learns at least one foreign language, usually English. In the state of Baden-Württemberg, after the grade, the student has to choose among technology, home economics. The new subject becomes the fifth main subject, after German, maths, science and English. Other subjects are geography, social sciences, economics, history, religious education, after the 8th grade a student has to choose between arts and music. High school diplomas obtained in Canada or the United States are usually acknowledged as a Mittlere Reife, in some cases however students may apply for certain subjects at a university. All students holding an American high school diploma may apply for the Studienkolleg and those holding a high school diploma can choose from a wider range of possible major subjects at a German university if they did well on the SAT or ACT. Those who scored higher than 1300 on the SAT or higher than 28 on the ACT may apply for any subject at a German university, Gymnasia and Realgymnasia are the classical higher or secondary schools of Germany. According to the PISA examination the students attending a Realschule were outperformed by those attending a Gymnasium, however, they did better than those attending a Hauptschule or a Gesamtschule school. The German tripartite system of education has been criticized for separating children along class lines at a very early age. For instance, in some German states, a decision is made in the sixth or even the fourth grade about whether a child is to continue in the Gymnasium, the Realschule, or the Hauptschule. Only the Gymnasium is a school, so critics argue essentially a decision is made as early as the fourth grade about whether a child will be allowed to attend college. The system is considered so onerous outside Germany that the OECD even sent an envoy to Germany to condemn current German practice
Realschule
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Realschule an der Blutenburg, Germany
39.
Oberschule
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The responsibility for the education system in Germany lies primarily with the states, while the federal government plays a minor role. Optional Kindergarten education is provided for all children between one and six years of age, after which attendance is compulsory. The system varies throughout Germany because each state decides its own educational policies, most children, however, first attend Grundschule from the age of six to ten. German secondary education includes five types of school, the Gymnasium is designed to prepare pupils for higher education and finishes with the final examination Abitur, after grade 12, mostly year 13. This new path of achieving the Realschulabschluss at a vocationally oriented secondary school was changed by the school regulations in 1981 – with a one-year qualifying period. During the one-year qualifying period of the change to the new regulations, after 1982, the new path was compulsory, as explained above. Other than this, there is the Gesamtschule, which combines the Hauptschule, Realschule, one in 21 pupils attends a Förderschule. Nevertheless, the Förderschulen/Sonderschulen can also lead, in special circumstances, most German children only attend school in the morning. There are usually no provisions for serving lunch, the amount of extracurricular activity is determined individually by each school and varies greatly. Many of Germanys hundred or so institutions of higher learning charge little or no tuition by international comparison, students usually must prove through examinations that they are qualified. In order to enter university, students are, as a rule, required to have passed the Abitur examination, since 2009, however and those wishing to attend a university of applied sciences must, as a rule, have Abitur, Fachhochschulreife, or a Meisterbrief. A special system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung allows pupils on vocational courses to do training in a company as well as at a state school. Historically, Lutheranism had a influence on German culture, including its education. Martin Luther advocated compulsory schooling so that all people would independently be able to read and this concept became a model for schools throughout Germany. German public schools generally have religious education provided by the churches in cooperation with the state ever since and it provided not only the skills needed in an early industrialized world, but also a strict education in ethics, duty, discipline and obedience. Children of affluent parents often went on to attend private schools for an additional four years. In 1810, after the Napoleonic wars, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, the final examination, Abitur, was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812 and extended to all of Germany in 1871. The state also established teacher training colleges for teachers in the common or elementary grades
Oberschule
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Sign of different school types on a school complex in Germany
Oberschule
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The
Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren (picture showing church and courtyard) form a combined
Gymnasium and
boarding school
Oberschule
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Gymnasium pupils in 1904
Oberschule
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A pupil standing up to answer the teacher's question in 1961. On the wall the Christian cross can be seen. This was common in a classroom at that time
40.
Oceanic climate
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Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
Oceanic climate
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Seattle, a city with an oceanic climate
Oceanic climate
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World map showing oceanic climate zones, as defined by the
Köppen climate types "Cfb", "Cfc", "Cwb" and "Cwc"
Oceanic climate
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Curitiba, capital city of Brazilian
Paraná state features a subtropical highland climate
41.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation
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A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation
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Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation
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Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation
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Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
42.
Relative humidity
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Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest and it requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures, more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air. Humans are sensitive to high humidity because the body uses evaporative cooling, enabled by perspiration. Perspiration evaporates from the more slowly under humid conditions than under arid. For example, if the air temperature is 24 °C and the humidity is zero percent. If the relative humidity is 100 percent at the air temperature. In other words, if the air is 24 °C and contains saturated water vapor, then the human body cools itself at the rate as it would if it were 27 °C. The heat index and the humidex are indices that reflect the effect of temperature. In cold climates, the temperature causes lower capacity for water vapour to flow about. Dry cracked skin can result from dry air, low humidity causes tissue lining nasal passages to dry, crack and become more susceptible to penetration of Rhinovirus cold viruses. Low humidity is a cause of nosebleeds. The use of a humidifier in homes, especially bedrooms, can help with these symptoms, indoor relative humidities should be kept above 30% to reduce the likelihood of the occupants nasal passages drying out. Humans can be comfortable within a range of humidities depending on the temperature—from thirty to seventy percent—but ideally between 50% and 60%. Very low humidity can create discomfort, respiratory problems, and aggravate allergies in some individuals, in the winter, it is advisable to maintain relative humidity at 30 percent or above. Extremely low relative humidities may also cause eye irritation, wooden furniture can shrink, causing the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture. When the temperature is low and the humidity is high. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, condensation can pose a safety risk as it can promote the growth of mold and wood rot as well as possibly freezing emergency exits shut. The basic principles for buildings, above, also apply to vehicles, in addition, there may be safety considerations
Relative humidity
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Humidity and hygrometry
43.
Sunshine duration
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It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location, and thus differs from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year, or in hours per day, the first measure indicates the general sunniness of a location compared with other places, while the latter allows for comparison of sunshine in various seasons in the same location. Another often-used measure is percentage ratio of recorded bright sunshine duration, an important use of sunshine duration data is to characterize the climate of sites, especially of health resorts. This also takes account the psychological effect of strong solar light on human well-being. It is often used to promote tourist destinations, if the Sun were to be above the horizon 50% of the time for a standard year consisting of 8,760 hours, apparent maximal daytime duration would be 4,380 hours for any point on Earth. However, there are physical and astronomical effects that change that picture, namely, atmospheric refraction allows the Sun to be still visible even when it physically sets below the horizon. For that reason, average daytime is longest in polar areas, places on the Arctic Circle have the longest total annual daytime,4,647 hours, while the North Pole receives 4,575. Because of elliptic nature of the Earths orbit, the Southern Hemisphere is not symmetrical, the Equator has a total daytime of 4,422 hours per year. Given the theoretical maximum of daytime duration for a given location, bright sunshine hours represent the total hours when the sunlight is stronger than a specified threshold, as opposed to just visible hours. Visible sunshine, for example, occurs around sunrise and sunset, measurement is performed by instruments called sunshine recorders. For the specific purpose of sunshine duration recording, Campbell–Stokes recorders are used, when the intensity exceeds a pre-determined threshold, the tape burns. The total length of the trace is proportional to the number of bright hours. Another type of recorder is the Jordan sunshine recorder, newer, electronic recorders have more stable sensitivity than that of the paper tape. In 2003, the duration was finally defined as the period during which direct solar irradiance exceeds a threshold value of 120 W/m². The sky is clear in these regions, and fair weather is virtually perpetual, the descending branch of the Hadley cell and the long-term lack of atmospheric disturbances helps to explain the seemingly endless supply of sunny, cloud-free days in the deserts. Low clouding conditions are associated with rainfall shortage, as seen in these dry regions. In the belt encompassing northern Chad and the Tibesti Mountains, northern Sudan, southern Libya, some places in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula receive 3, 600–3,800 hours of bright sunshine annually. The largest sun-baked region in the world is North Africa, the sunniest month in the world is December in Eastern Antarctica, with almost 23 hours of bright sun daily
Sunshine duration
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Campbell–Stokes recorder measures sunshine
44.
Cathedral of St. Florin
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Vaduz Cathedral, or Cathedral of St. Florin, is a neo-Gothic church in Vaduz, Liechtenstein, and the center of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vaduz. Originally a parish church, it has held the status of cathedral since 1997 and it was built in 1874 by Friedrich von Schmidt on the site of earlier medieval foundations. Its patron saint is Florinus of Remüs, a 9th-century saint of the Vinschgau Valley, the Archdiocese of Vaduz was erected by Pope John Paul II in the apostolic constitution Ad satius consulendum 2 December 1997. Before then it had been the Liechtenstein Deanery, a part of the Swiss Diocese of Chur, the solemn public ceremony took place on December 12,1997, in the parish church of Vaduz, which was then raised to the dignity of a cathedral. Prince Franz Joseph II of Liechtenstein and his wife Countess Georgina von Wilczek were both buried in the cathedral in 1989, elisabeth von Gutmann was buried there too
Cathedral of St. Florin
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North side
45.
Josef Rheinberger
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Josef Gabriel Rheinberger was an organist and composer, born in Liechtenstein and resident for most of his life in Germany. Josef Gabriel Rheinberger, whose father was the treasurer for Aloys II, Prince of Liechtenstein, when only seven years old, he was already serving as organist of the Vaduz parish church, and his first composition was performed the following year. In 1849, he studied with composer Philipp M. Schmutzer in Feldkirch, in 1851, his father, who had initially opposed his sons desire to embark on the life of a professional musician, relented and allowed him to enter the Munich Conservatorium. Not long after graduating, he became professor of piano and of composition at the same institution, when this first version of the Munich Conservatorium was dissolved, he was appointed répétiteur at the Court Theatre, from which he resigned in 1867. Rheinberger married his pupil, the poet and socialite Franziska Fanny von Hoffnaass in 1867. The couple remained childless, but the marriage was happy, Franziska wrote the texts for much of her husbands vocal work. The stylistic influences on Rheinberger ranged from contemporaries such as Brahms to composers from earlier times, such as Mendelssohn, Schumann, Schubert and, above all and he was also an enthusiast for painting and literature. In 1877 he was appointed court conductor, responsible for the music in the royal chapel and he was subsequently awarded an honorary doctorate by Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. A distinguished teacher, he numbered many Americans among his pupils, including Horatio Parker, William Berwald, George Whitefield Chadwick, Bruno Klein, other students of his included important figures from Europe, Italian composer Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, and German composers Humperdinck and Wilhelm Furtwängler. See, List of music students by teacher, R to S#Josef Rheinberger, when the second Munich Conservatorium was founded, Rheinberger was appointed Royal Professor of organ and composition, a post he held for the rest of his life. On 31 December 1892 his wife died, after suffering a long illness, two years later, poor health led him to give up the post of Court Music Director. His religious works include twelve Masses, a Requiem and a Stabat Mater and his other works include several operas, symphonies, chamber music, and choral works. Today Rheinberger is remembered above all for his elaborate and challenging organ compositions and his organ sonatas were once declared to be undoubtedly the most valuable addition to organ music since the time of Mendelssohn. They are characterized by a blending of the modern Romantic spirit with masterly counterpoint. Rheinberger died in 1901 in Munich, and was buried in the Alter Südfriedhof and his grave was destroyed during World War II, and his remains were moved to his home town of Vaduz in 1950. This list only mentions works that were assigned a number by Rheinberger himself. Sacred vocal works Cantatas, including the Christmas cantata Der Stern von Bethlehem, Op. g. g. Clarinet Sonata, Op. 105 in A major 4 piano sonatas Works for organ 2 organ concertos 20 organ sonatas 12 Fughettas, Op.12312 Monologues, Op.16212 Meditations, Op. Joseph Gabriel Rheinberger
Josef Rheinberger
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Josef Rheinberger
Josef Rheinberger
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Josef and Fanny
Josef Rheinberger
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Josef in his later years
Liechtenstein
