1.
Alps
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The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc, Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres, the altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe, in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era, a mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established, Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, in World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war. The Alpine region has a cultural identity. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, at present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes, maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp and this may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin. According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb hill, Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus, in modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found. The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km arc from east to west and is 200 km in width, the mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km. The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, the range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the border of Bavaria in Germany
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Oglio
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The Oglio is a left-side tributary of the Po River in Lombardy, Italy. The streams merge near Pezzo di Ponte di Legno and it flows in a southwest direction, through Valcamonica and enters into the Lake Iseo at Costa Volpino. It leaves Lake Iseo at Sarnico and, after traveling a zone of moraine deposits, it joins the river Po at Torredoglio, not far from Cesole and Scorzarolo and its drainage basin, which corresponds to the region of Valle Camonica, covers 6,649 square kilometres. It is part of the larger Po-Adige basin, media related to Oglio at Wikimedia Commons
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Lombardy
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Lombardy is one of the twenty administrative regions of Italy, in the northwest of the country, with an area of 23,844 square kilometres. Milan, Lombardys capital, is the second-largest city and the largest metropolitan area in Italy, the word Lombardy comes from Lombard, which in turn is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus, derived from the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz + *bardaz, equivalent to long beard. Some sources derive the second element instead from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ, *barduz, Lombardy referred during the early Middle Ages to the entire territory of Italy ruled by the Lombards, a Germanic tribe who conquered much of the Italian peninsula beginning in the 6th century. During the late Middle Ages, the term shifted meaning and was used to identify the whole of Northern Italy, with a surface of 23,861 km2, Lombardy is the 4th largest region of Italy. It is bordered by Switzerland and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, three distinct natural zones can be fairly easily distinguished in the Lombardy region, mountains, hills and plains – the latter being divided in Alta and Bassa. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above made is the subregion of Oltrepò Pavese, formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po River. The mighty Po river marks the border of the region for a length of about 210 km. In its progress it receives the waters of the Ticino River, the other streams which contribute to the great river are, the Olona, the Lambro, the Adda, the Oglio and the Mincio. The numerous lakes of Lombardy, all of glacial origin, lie in the northern highlands, from west to east these are Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Iseo, Lake Idro, then Lake Garda, the largest in Italy. A minor mountainous area, the Oltrepò Pavese, lies south of the Po, in the plains, intensively cultivated for centuries, little of the original environment remains. The most commons trees are elm, alder, sycamore, poplar, willow, in the area of the foothills lakes, however, grow olive trees, cypresses and larches, as well as varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolias, azaleas, acacias. Numerous species of flora in the Prealpine area include some kinds of saxifrage, the Lombard garlic, groundsels bellflowers. The highlands are characterized by the vegetation of the whole range of the Italian Alps. At a lower levels oak woods or broadleafed trees grow, on the slopes beech trees grow at the lowest limits. Shrubs such as rhododendron, dwarf pine and juniper are native to the summital zone, Lombardy has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. In addition, there is a seasonal temperature variation. A peculiarity of the climate is the thick fog that covers the plains between October and February. In the Alpine foothills, characterised by an Oceanic climate, numerous lakes exercise a mitigating influence, in the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental
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Concarena
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The Concarena is a mountain in Lombardy, northern Italy. It is the highest mountain in the Bergamasque Prealps and it is multi summited and its highest peak is the Cima della Bacchetta, with a height of 2,549 m. The Concarena divides the mid Val Camonica and the Valle di Scalve, most of the mountain is located in the province of Brescia, with only the north-western areas part of the province of Bergamo. Other summits over 2,000 meters include the Cima dei Ladrinai, Monte Vaccio, the mountain is composed of carbonate rocks from the Triassic period. II-C.11. c
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Vatican Museums
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The Vatican Museums are the museums of the Vatican City and are located within the citys boundaries. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century. The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling decorated by Michelangelo and the Stanze di Raffaello decorated by Raphael, are on the route through the Vatican Museums. In 2013, they were visited by 6 million people, which combined makes it the 6th most visited art museum in the world, there are 54 galleries, or sale, in total, with the Sistine Chapel, notably, being the very last sala within the Museum. It is one of the largest museums in the world, in 2017, the Museums official website and social media presence was completely redone, in accord with current standards and appearances for modern websites. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were working at the Vatican, on their recommendation, the pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The pope put the sculpture of Laocoön and his sons on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery, the Museum Christianum was founded by Benedict XIV, and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854. The Museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public, on 1 January 2017 Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007. The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pope Pius XI ordered construction of a proper building, the new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932. The museum has paintings including, Giottos Stefaneschi Triptych Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Opere di Misericordia Raphaels Madonna of Foligno, Oddi Altarpiece, the group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. The museum takes its name from two popes, Clement XIV and Pius VI, the pope who brought the museum to completion, Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIIIs Belvedere palace and started the refurbishment work. Pope Clement XIV founded the Pio-Clementino museum in 1771, and originally it contained the Renaissance, the museum and collection were enlarged by Clements successor Pius VI. Today, the museum works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are, Greek Cross Gallery, with the porphyri sarcophagi of Constance and Saint Helen, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great. Sala Rotonda, shaped like a miniature Pantheon, the room has impressive ancient mosaics on the floors, Gallery of the Statues, as its name implies, holds various important statues, including Sleeping Ariadne and the bust of Menander. It also contains the Barberini Candelabra, Gallery of the Busts, Many ancient busts are displayed. Cabinet of the Masks, The name comes from the mosaic on the floor of the gallery, found in Villa Adriana, along the walls, several famous statues are shown including the Three Graces. One wove the thread of life, second nurtured it, third cut it. The center piece is Belvedere Torso, revered by Michelangelo and other Renaissance men, sala degli Animali, So named because of the many ancient statues of animals
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Nadro
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Nadro is an Italian hamlet of the comune of Ceto, Lombardy. It lies 75 km from Brescia, along the strada Statale 42 del Tonale e della Mendola and is situated in Val Camonica, nadro is a medieval town developed around the tower house of the noble Gaionis family, dated 15th century
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Cividate Camuno
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Cividate Camuno is an Italian comune of 2,774 inhabitants, in Val Camonica, province of Brescia, in Lombardy. The territory of Cividate Camuno is bordered by municipalities, to the east Bienno, on the north Breno and Malegno, to the west Piancogno. Originally a Roman town, the Civitas Camunnorum, Cividate Camuno was known as Civethate in the medieval period, between 1863 and 1887 Cividate assumed the name Cividate Alpino, but because of bureaucratic confusion, in 1887 the village re-took the name Cividate Camuno. Commanding the countryside, it is accessed by a ladder with four flights with no possibility of approach. Archaeological excavations have reported pre-Christian elements, the one which characterize the people of Cividate Camuno is Pàtate, Bö or Maia Hüche. Blessed Giuseppe Tovini Blessed Mosè Tovini Historical photos - Intercam Historical photos - Lombardia Beni Culturali Archaeological park with Roman theatre and amphitheatre and national museum
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Capo di Ponte
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Capo di Ponte is an Italian comune in Val Camonica, province of Brescia, in Lombardy. Located 362 metres above sea level, Capo di Ponte owes its name to an ancient settlement to the west of a bridge over the River Oglio which leads to a hamlet named Cemmo, the present comune is on the eastern side of the river. In 1315 the Imesigo marsh, on the plain between Capo di Ponte and Sellero, was flooded by the River Re. In 1698 Father Gregorio Brunelli says that the village of Zero, after the fall of the Republic of Venice the comune of Capo di Ponte was founded, later becoming comune of Cemmo and Capo di Ponte. Under the Lombardo-Veneto kingdom, the name was changed to comune di Capo di Ponte e Cemmo. It has been known as Capo di Ponte since 1859, the churches of Capo di Ponte are, Parish of Saint Martino, rebuilt in the eighteenth century with stone columns in Sarnico. The Soasa is by Beniamino Simoni, monastery of San Salvatore of Tezze Church of Saint Faustina and Liberata Oratory of St Rocco at Bridge of the seventeenth century
10.
Breno
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Breno is an Italian comune of 4,986 inhabitants in Val Camonica, province of Brescia, in Lombardy. It is bounded by communes of Niardo, Bagolino, Bienno, Braone, Ceto, Cividate Camuno, Condino, Daone, Losine, Malegno, Niardo. The town of Breno stands in a gorge, between the castle hill and the Corno Cerreto, on the left bank of the river Oglio. According to professor Fedele the gorge was once the bed of the Oglio, on top of the castle hill a house dating back to the Neolithic was discovered. In the locality Spinera, at the river Oglio, there is the Sanctuary of Minerva of the first century CE, in the Middle Ages the Castle of Breno had two towers, one belonging to the Guelph family Ronchi, the other to the Ghibelline family Alberzoni. In the 1397 peace of Breno between Guelphs and Ghibellines, the representatives of the community of Breno sided both with the Ghibellines and the Guelphs, during the Republic of Venice rule Breno was the seat of the Community of Val Camonica. Breno today is the seat of the Comunità montana di Valle Camonica, the emblem of the province of Brescia is the group of five blazons, that of Brescia in the center, the town of Chiari, Breno, Verolanuova and Salò. Parish Church of San Salvatore, the structure located in the center of the country. The altars are in marble of Ono San Pietro, Church of SantAntonio Abate, preserves notable works of art, between them should be mentioned first of all the important cycle of frescoes realized by Romanino. Church of St Maria at the Bridge, the500, onto the structure is the temple of Minerva, Church of San Carlo, the seventeenth century, with significant number of ex-voto. Church of San Maurizio, an ancient parish, chapel of St. Apollonia, the road leading to St. Valentine. Church of San Valentino, fifteenth construction, interior perhaps Giovanni Pietro da Cemmo, the Castle of Breno rises over a hill inhabited already in prehistoric times. It was the main bastion for the control of Valle Camonica until the seventeenth century, the scütüm are in camunian dialect nicknames, sometimes personal, elsewhere showing the characteristic features of a community. Among the painting collection, are works by, Emilian 14th century master - I sette dormienti nella spelonca Venetian 16th century - Madonna with Bambino, Historical photos - Intercam Historical photos - Lombardia Beni Culturali
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Bienno
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The village is located in Val Grigna, on the northern side of the river Grigna. It is bordered by towns such as, Bagolino, Berzo Inferiore, Bovegno, Breno, Cividate Camuno, Collio. In 1295 a dispute occurred with the neighbouring village Bovegno regarding some high pastures, on January 25,1350 the bishop of Brescia invested iure feuds for a tenth of the rights in the territories of the Municipality of Bienno and men of Bienno. This also happened back in 1295,1336, and later in 1388,1423 and 1486, in 1391 the land of Bienno, which sided with the Ghibellines, was the site of extensive cattle raiding by the Guelph Camuni, led by Baroncino Nobili of Lozio. The peace of Breno was signed on 31 December 1397 by the representative of the community of Bienno, Lanini Bertolino di Martino, between 1805 and 1815 the town of Bienno was united to Prestine and called Bienno with Prestine. Bienno is part of the club of The Most Beautiful Villages in Italy creation of the Council of Tourism of the Association of Italian Municipalities, the smallest church in the lower part of the old town, the Chiesa di Santa Maria Annunziata. In its single nave, it contains frescoes of great value produced during the 16th century by artists, including Giovanni Pietro da Cemmo. The frescoes also include, among subjects, a danse macabre to the right of the altar. Hermitage of St. Peter and Paul, built in the half of the 20th century, but originated in the 11th or 12th century. Church of San Defendente on a hill at the entrance of Bienno dating back to the 15th century. Church of St Peter ad Vincula of 16th century and it is built onto a Roman altar of Bacchus of which you can see the remains in the back of the building. Hill of Christ the King, there stands a monument to Christ the King, chapel of the pools, dating back to the 15th century and reworked in the 17th century. The House of Panteghini, built in 1483, the House of Bettoni dated of 1550. It becomes the Public Library and a cultural center, the scütüm are in camunian dialect nicknames, sometimes personal, elsewhere showing the characteristic features of a community. The one which characterize the people of Bienno is Padèle and this week welcomes thousands of visitors. Mostra mercato 2014 Geltrude Comensoli, religious, arte in Val Camonica - vol 4. Historical photos - Intercam Historical photos - Lombardia Beni Culturali
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
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Pisogne
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Pisogne is a comune of 8156 inhabitants in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy, Italy. Pisogne is situated at the northern-east tip of Lake Iseo, where the river Oglio flows into the lake and it is the lowermost commune of the Val Camonica. Neighbouring communes are Marone, Pezzaze, Pian Camuno and Costa Volpino, Pisogne is mentioned for the first time in 1227. In 1287 the great rebellion led by Camunian Federici noble family against the city of Brescia, was followed by the killing of several of Pisogne Guelphs resident there, following this fact, the town was fortified between the 12th and 13th century and granted to the Brusati family. In 1518 eight witches were convicted of arson in Pisogne, on November 14,1727 the bandit Giorgio Vicario, one of the most feared of Val Camonica buli, born in Pisogne in 1695, was murdered. In 1907 Pisogne was reached by the line, which is still running. The Church of Santa Maria della Neve, containing frescoes by Romanino The ancient parish church of Santa Maria in Silvis, built around the 9th century on ancient Roman remains, the parish church dedicated to Santa Maria Assunta, dating to the 18th century. The Bishops Tower, located in the main square Bishop Giacomo Maria Corna Pellegrini Pisogne is twinned with, Konstancin-Jeziorna, Poland Panazza, Gaetano, arte in Val Camonica - vol 3. Historical photos - Intercam Historical photos - Lombardia Beni Culturali
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Lake Iseo
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Lake Iseo or Lago dIseo or Sebino is the fourth largest lake in Lombardy, Italy, fed by the Oglio river. It is in the north of the country in the Val Camonica area, near the cities of Brescia, the lake is almost equally divided between the Provinces of Bergamo and Brescia. Northern Italy is renowned for its heavily industrialised towns and in there are several stunning lakes. Lake Iseo remains one of outstanding beauty, with its lush green mountains surrounding the crystal clear lake. There are several towns around the lake, the largest being Iseo. A notable tourism sector has emerged, a road has been carved into the side of the mountains that travel to circumvent the entire lake. In the middle of the lake is Monte Isola, there is easy access via the regular running lake ferries. The Floating Piers, an art installation by Christo and Jeanne-Claude, was open to the public at Lake Iseo for 16 days in June, around the shore of the lake are some small towns, Two smaller islands, Loreto and St. Paul, are privately owned. Photos and information about Lake Iseo Lake Iseo Information
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Ponte di Legno
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Ponte di Legno is an Italian comune of 1,729 inhabitants in Val Camonica, province of Brescia, in Lombardy. Situated at the confluence of the two rivers of the Oglio, Ponte di Legno is the uppermost comune of Valle Camonica. The territory of the municipality of Ponte di Legno was part of the ancient Dalaunia, on September 27,1917 the village was bombarded by Austrian cannons and razed to the ground in a short time. The churches of Ponte di Legno are, Parish of the Holy Trinity, dated 1685, inside there are works from the workshop of Ramus. It is an ancient church dating from the century, with frescoes of the thirteenth century of the hand of the painter Johannes from Volpino. The scütüm are in camunian dialect nicknames, sometimes personal, elsewhere showing the features of a community
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Province of Brescia
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The Province of Brescia is a Province in Lombardy, northern Italy. It has a population of some 1,200,000 As of 2016, the province of Brescia stretches between Lake Iseo in the west, Lake Garda in the east, the Southern Rhaetian Alps in the north and the Lombardian plains in the south. The main rivers of the province are the Oglio, the Mella, rock Drawings in Valcamonica, Brescia, one of the places of Longobard power, Prehistoric settlements of Lavagnone, Lugana Vecchia, Lucone, San Sivino and Gabbiano. Communes of the province of Brescia Official website
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Lovere
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Lovere is a town and comune in the province of Bergamo, in Lombardy, Italy, at the northwest end of Lake Iseo. The houses in the city have overhanging wooden roofs, typical of Switzerland, united with the heavy stone arcades of Italy, Lovere is part of The most beautiful villages in Italy, an Association that notes small Italian towns of strong artistic and historical interest. The first known settlement in Lovere area dates to the 5th and 4th century BC, being of Celtic origin. Later it was conquered by the Romans, attracted by its position at the end of the Val Camonica. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire it was ruled by the Lombards and the Franks. Given to the monks of the Marmoutier Abbey, it was sold to the Bishops of Bergamo, the fights lasted until the mid-15th century, when the territory was conquered by the Republic of Venice, whose rule lasted until the French invasion in 1797. The English aristocrat and writer Lady Mary Wortley Montagu spent ten years of her life on the shores of Lake Iseo, santa Maria in Valvendra - parish church built initially in Gothic style before 1473, then replaced by Renaissance forms. It has with a nave and two aisles, and houses works by Gian Paolo Cavagna, Domenico Carpinoni and Piero Marone, paintings from the 19th century include works by Eduardo Arroyo, Bengt Lindstrom, Emilio Vedova and others. The palace is home to marble sculptures by Benzoni, Johann Weigel, Andrea Chierici, Luciano Zambetti. The museum also contains a collection of terracotta, porcelain, antique armor and armaments, palazzo Tadini houses also a zoological collection. San Giorgio- church dating from 1263, although rebuilt in the mid-15th century. It houses a Last Supper by Cavagana and Trinity with the Virgin by Palma the Younger, santa Chiara- Clarissan monastery built in the early 16th century. It has some works by Sebastiano Conca, san Martino- oratory dated by some to the 9th century, and including some recently rediscovered frescoes in the apse. Castelliere -ancient fortification, some dating to 3rd century BC. Lovere possesses a metallurgic plant, Lucchini RS, which employs about 1300 people and specializes in the manufacture of railroad wheels,1906 Medicine Nobel Prize Camillo Golgi studied in Loveres Liceo Classico. Giacomo Agostini, all-time leader in victories in motorcycle Grand Prix history, was born in Lovere in 1942, leading cinema critic and RAI author Enrico Ghezzi was born in Lovere in 1952. Borghitalia website This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Province of Bergamo
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The Province of Bergamo is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. It has a population of 1,108,298, an area of 2,745.94 square kilometers and its capital is the city of Bergamo. The northern part spans the Orobian Alps with the highest point being Mount Coca at 3,052 meters and its rivers include the Serio, Dezzo, Cherio, Brembo, and Adda. Its valleys include the Seriana, Cavallina, and Brembana, other, smaller but important valleys include the Valle Imagna, the Val di Scalve, the Val Serina, and the Val Taleggio. The southern part is made up of flatlands. In the east, Lake Iseo forms its boundary which the Oglio from the Camonica Valley flows through, minerals are found in the area of Trescore Balneario and San Pellegrino and other places. The low-lying areas are rich in pastures along with corn, wine, grain, rice, very common is also the breeding of poultry, pigs with modern techniques, and the traditional sheep herding. The provincial economy is based on SMEs, and varied products are made, the main heavy industries of the province of Bergamo are mineral processing, especially iron, concrete and marble. There is a tractor plant, in Treviglio, and a large pipe plant. Silks, metallurgical products and clothing are also common products, a Heineken Italia brewery makes Moretti La Rossa in Comun Nuovo. Bergamo masons and assemblers are very famous for their ability and dedication to work, as the end of 2006 the province of Bergamo host 92,000 immigrants from counties outside the European Union. About 15,000 of them came from Bolivia, especially the city of Cochabamba, due to the relations of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Bergamo. Most of Bolivians reside in the town of Bergamo, communes of the province of Bergamo Galleria orobica Official website
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Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
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Camunni
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The Camuni or Camunni were an ancient population located in Val Camonica during the Iron Age, the Latin name Camunni was attributed to them by the authors of the 1st century. They are also called ancient Camuni, to them from the current inhabitants of the valley. The Camunni were among the greatest producers of art in Europe. A people of origin, they lived in a region, the Val Camonica. The Camunni are mentioned by classical historiographical sources from the 1st century BC, in ancient Greek, Strabo referred to them as Καμοῦνοι, while Cassius Dio called them Καμούννιοι. They were granted Roman citizenship from the half of the 1st century. Οἱ μὲν οὖν Ῥαιτοὶ μέχρι τῆς Ἰταλίας καθήκουσι τῆς ὑπὲρ Οὐήρωνος καὶ Κώμου, Οἱ δὲ Ὀυινδολικοὶ καὶ Νωρικοὶ τὴν ἐκτὸς παρώρειαν κατέχουσι τὸ πλέον· μετὰ Βρεύνων καὶ Γεναύνων, ἤδη τούτων Ἰλλυριῶν. Ἅπαντες δ οὗτοι καὶ τῆς Ἰταλίας τὰ γειτονεύοντα μέρη κατέτρεχον ἀεὶ καὶ τῆς Ἐλουηττίων καὶ Σηκοανῶν καὶ Βοίων καὶ Γερμανῶν, Ἰταμώτατοι δὲ τῶν μὲν Ὀυινδολικῶν ἐξητάζοντο Λικάττιοι καὶ Κλαυτηνάτιοι καὶ Ὀυέννωνες, τῶν δὲ Ῥαιτῶν Ῥουκάντιοι καὶ Κωτουάντιοι. But the Vindelici and Norici occupy the part of the outer side of the mountain, along with the Breuni and the Genauni. All these peoples used to overrun, from time to time, the parts, not only of Italy, but also of the country of the Elvetii, the Sequani, the Boii. The Licattii, the Clautenatii, and the Vennones proved to be the boldest warriors of all the Vindelici, as did the Rucantii and the Cotuantii of all the Rhaeti. Among these are the Triumplini, a people who were sold with their territory, and then the Camuni, the Etruscans, already widespread in the Po Valley, had contacts with Alpine populations by the 5th century BC. At the beginning of the 4th century BC, the Celtic Gauls arrived in Italy, coming from Transalpine Gaul, they settled in the Po plain and came in touch with the Camunian population. Some of the petroglyphs in Valcamonica with figures of Celtic deities such as Kernunnos attest this Gaulish presence. Publius Silius Nerva, governor of Illyricum, was to complete the conquest of the eastern Alpine front, the Camunni and Vennoni, Alpine tribes, took up arms against the Romans, but were conquered and subdued by Publius Silius. The city that the Camunni were assigned to was probably Brixia, romanization proceeded from Civitas Camunnorum, a city founded by the Romans around 23 BC, during the principate of Tiberius. Camunian religion went through the process of interpretatio Romana, forming a combination with Roman religion. Camunian stone carvings, 70–80% of which date to the Bronze Age, are thought to have value for celebratory, commemorative, initiatory
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Edolo
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Edolo is a town and comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy, located in the High Camonica valley. Edolo is neighbour to the comuni of Corteno Golgi, Incudine, Lovero, Malonno, Monno, Ponte di Legno, Saviore dellAdamello, Sernio, Sonico, Temù, Tovo di SantAgata, Vezza dOglio, Edolo houses the northern terminus of the Brescia-Edolo railway operated by Trenord. It is also the location of the Edolo Pumped Storage Plant, despite Edolos close distance to Tirano and the border with Switzerland, there is no train connection between the two towns. In the summer, a bus service connects Edolo and Tirano
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Sellero
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Sellero is a comune of 1,503 people in the province of Brescia in the middle Val Camonica. In its territory there are thousands of rock engravings, including the Rosa camuna in Carpene, in the communes territory there are also examples of energy excellence, such as the San Fioranos underground hydroelectric power and a biomass tele-heating power. The commune consists of the settlements of Sellero and the frazione of Novelle, another settlement is Scianica, situated in the valley floor and developed in the 1970s and 1980s. The commune is situated in the middle Val Camonica, on the bank of the river Oglio. Neighbouring communes are Berzo Demo, Capo di Ponte, Cedegolo, the highest point is Monte Elto, which is 2,145 metres high. There are traces of Camunnic settlements around Sellero, dating back to the Bronze Age, during the Roman era, the area was sparsely populated. It was repopulated during the Middle Ages, recently, from 1927 to 1948 the commune joined with Cedegolo, a neighbouring commune. Source, ISTAT The two churches of the town, the church and the ancient church present some interesting artistic works. The parish church, finished in 1785, presents an interesting altar in Sicilys and Veronas marble, also the ancient church, erected by Frankish, can be visited and presents some Pietro di Cemmos frescos. Near the frazione of Novelle there are the Caronas mines, which can be visited with equipment for speleology, Sellero, from 1950 to 1980, was an important industrial town in Valle Camonica, thank to the Scianicas little plain. The first activity started in 1907 when the Curletti company began the utilization of Caronas mine for the sulphurs mining, with the mines utilization some people founded the SEFE which built three furnaces for the calcium carbides production. Now the first activity is a factory, Riva Acciaio
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Cedegolo
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Cedegolo is an Italian comune of 1,258 inhabitants in Val Camonica, province of Brescia, in Lombardy. The village of Cedegolo located in a gorge formed by Oglio river. It is crossed by two streams, the Val Gravagna, further north, and the Poia, to the south, the comune of Cedegolo was created in 1797, at the fall of the Republic of Venice, but became a hamlet of Grevo in 1798. The bridge over the river Poglia, in the center of the village, was completed in 1592, from Cedegolo in July 1866 the fourth regiment of volunteers in Italy and the Second Battalion of bersaglieri moved to enter Austrian Trentino, through the Lake Arno. The churches of Cedegolo are, Parish of Saint Jerome, the first half of the XVII, the altar is by Pietro Ramus. The skötöm are in camunian dialect nicknames, sometimes personal, elsewhere showing the features of a community. The one which characterize the people of Cedegolo is Lìca-tóncc, Cedegolo is one of the few toponyms which in Eastern Lombard require the determinative article, el Sedegòl. At least until the half of the twentieth century the young men of Cedegolo followed the tradition of tunà or fa saltà le tòle on the St. Jerome calendar day. It was a pretty dangerous activity involving controlled explosions of acetylene gas, Historical photos - Intercam Historical photos - Lombardia Beni Culturali
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Periadriatic Seam
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The Periadriatic Seam is a distinct geologic fault in Southern Europe, running S-shaped about 1000 km from the Tyrrhenian Sea through the whole Southern Alps as far as Hungary. It forms the division between the Adriatic plate and the European plate, the term Insubric line is sometimes used to address the whole Periadriatic Seam, but it is more commonly used to mean just a western part of it. Within the Eastern Alps, the marks the border between the Central Eastern Alps and the Southern Limestone Alps. In the Western Alps it forms the division between the southern Apulian foreland and the central zones of the Alps. Continental collision is still going on, with the Apulian and European plates still converging, movement along the Periadriatic Seam is the cause for the earthquake zone between Vienna and Friuli. Meanwhile, the zones of the Alps are rising too. The result is the set of major faultzones collectively named Periadriatic Seam, the uplift caused violent erosion of the young orogen, which led to the formation of the Hohe Tauern window. At several regions a heavy uplift of the Central Alps by some kilometers took place, Apulian Plate Geology of the Alps
25.
Province of Sondrio
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The Province of Sondrio is in the Lombardy region of northern Italy. Its provincial capital is the town Sondrio, as of 2016, it has a population of 181,712. The Province was established in 1815, within the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, combining the valleys of Valtellina, Valchiavenna, before the Roman conquest, the territory was inhabited by Celts and Rhaetians. The Romans included this area in their Cisalpine Gaul province, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it was settled by Germanic tribe the Lombards, and it was first ruled by feudal lords from the local area. It fell under the rule of the Duchy of Milan due to the House of Visconti, upon the collapse of the Duchy of Milan, rule over Sondrio was exercised by the Swiss Canton of Graubünden. The Peace of Westphalia secured peace in the region and granted the region to the Canton of Graubünden, in 1797, the Republic of Valtellina was formed but was quickly conquered by the French to become a component of the Cisalpine Republic client state. The Congress of Vienna Sondrio and Valtellina as a province of the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, Lombardy–Venetia was absorbed into the Kingdom of Italy in 1866. The Province of Sondrio is a mountainous, sparsely populated area in the north of Lombardy. The Rhaetian Alps are the highest mountains in Lombardy, the valleys mostly run from north to south, the main ones being the Valtellina and Valchiavenna. One of the towns is Livigno, which is a tourist centre in the summer. There are 78 communes in the province and Sondrio is the biggest town, the Stelvio National Park is located in the northern end of the province. The economy is based on construction, logging, quarrying, tourism, workers from Switzerland commute to work in Sondrio, and other workers cross the border from Italy to join the Swiss workforce. Throughout the province grapes have traditionally been grown, each district having its own local variety, the traditions of viticulture are embedded in the culture of the countryside
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Valtellina
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Valtellina or the Valtelline, German, Veltlin, Italian, Valtellina, is a valley in the Lombardy region of northern Italy, bordering Switzerland. Today it is known for its ski center, hot spring spas, bresaola, in past centuries it was a key alpine pass between northern Italy and Germany and control of the Valtellina was much sought after, particularly during the Thirty Years War. The most important comune of the valley is Sondrio, the major centers are Aprica, Morbegno, Tirano, Bormio. Although Livigno is on the side of the alpine watershed. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the Valtellina belonged to Graubünden, during the Thirty Years War, the Valtellina was a theater of intense military and diplomatic struggle among France, the Habsburg powers and the local authorities. At stake was control of the routes through the Valtellina territory to the passes between Lombardy and the Danube watershed, the anti-Habsburg forces in the Three Leagues put together a court that between 1618 and 1620 handed down a number of convictions against Catholics in the Leagues and Valtellina. The harsh judgments of the anti-Habsburg Thusis court led to a conspiracy to drive the Protestants out of the valley, the leader of the conspiracy, Giacomo Robustelli of the Planta family, had ties to Madrid, Rome and Paris. On the evening of 18/19 July 1620, a force of Valtellina rebels supported by Austrian and Italian troops marched into Tirano, when they finished in Tirano, they marched to Teglio, Sondrio and further down the valley killing every Protestant that they found. Between 500 and 600 people were killed on that night and in the four days. The attack drove nearly all the Protestants out of the valley, prevented further Protestant incursions, the killings in Valtellina were part of the conflicts in Graubünden known as the Bündner Wirren or Confusion of the Leagues. In 1797 the growing power of the First French Republic created the Cisalpine republic in Northern Italy, on 10 October 1797, the French supported a revolt in the Valtellina against the Graubünden, and it joined the Cisalpine Republic. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the Valtellina became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, in 1859 it came, together with Lombardy, to the Kingdom of Sardinia, and finally in 1861 it became part of the Kingdom of Italy. Australia, especially Western Australia, was a destination for such migrants. Industrially, the area is famous as the home of the worlds first mainline electrified railway, the electrification of the Valtellina line took place in 1902, using three-phase power at 3,600 V, with a maximum speed of 70 km/h. The system was designed by the brilliant Hungarian engineer Kálmán Kandó who was employed by contractors the Budapest-based Ganz company. These days, however, only Italian and Lombard are spoken, the Fascist Party secretary Alessandro Pavolini was the main proponent of the idea, which he first raised with Mussolini in September 1944. He pointed out that the valley was ringed with fortifications dating from World War I, in the last months of 1944 Mussolinis government began moving munitions and food stores to the area. By January 1945, however, no decision to make a stand in the Valtellina had been taken
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Trentino
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Trentino, officially the Autonomous Province of Trento, is an autonomous province of Italy, in the countrys far north. Trentino is, along with South Tyrol, one of the two provinces making up the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which is designated a region under the constitution. The province is divided into 178 comuni and its capital is the city of Trento. The province covers an area of more than 6,000 km2, Trentino is renowned for its mountains, such as the Dolomites, which are part of the Alps. The province is known as Trentino. The name derives from Trento, the city of the province. Originally, the term was used by the population only to refer to the city. In its wider sense, Trentino was first used around 1848 in an article by a member of the Frankfurt National Assembly, since the new 1972 autonomous status, the administrative name of the province is Autonomous Province of Trento. The history of Trentino begins in the mid-Stone Age, the valleys of what is now Trentino were already inhabited by man, the main settlements being in the valley of the Adige River, thanks to its milder climate. In the early Middle Ages, this area was included within the Kingdom of Italy, in 1027, the Bishopric of Trent was established as a State of the Holy Roman Empire by Emperor Conrad II. It was a territory, roughly corresponding to the present-day Trentino. The Council of Trent, held in three sessions from 1545 to 1563, with the first at Trento, was one of the important councils in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. It was an articulation of Roman Catholic doctrine in response to the Protestant Reformation, and specified doctrine on salvation, the sacraments, after the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, the bishopric was secularized and absorbed into the Austrian County of Tyrol. It was governed by the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, the region was the location of heavy fighting during World War I, as it was directly on the front lines between Austria-Hungary and Italy. Trentino remained a part of Austria-Hungary until after the end of the war in 1919, since this treaty, Trentino enjoys considerable autonomy from the Italian central government in Rome. It has its own elected government and legislative assembly, in 1996, the Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino was formed between the Austrian state of Tyrol and the Italian provinces of South Tyrol and Trentino. The boundaries of the association correspond to the old County of Tyrol, the aim is to promote regional peace, understanding and cooperation in many areas. The regions assemblies meet together as one on various occasions and have set up a liaison office to the European Union in Brussels
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Val di Sole
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The Sole Valley is a valley in Trentino, northern Italy. Sole Valley applies to the Vermiglio Valley, the east-west aligned valley of the river Noce and its sidevalleys, the rest of the valley from Ossana to Mostizzolo is simply called Sole Valley. Some of the towns in the valley are Vermiglio, Peio, Dimaro, Croviana, the Sole Valley heads to the Tonale Pass, on the other side of the pass begins the valley of the river Oglio which flows to Edolo. In the southern part of the region is the ski resort Madonna di Campiglio, just over the Campo Carlo Magno, in the east the region ends at Mostizzolo, where the main valley bends south to Non Valley before joining the valley of the Adige north of Trento
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Valle Sabbia
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The Valle Sabbia is the second-largest of the Tre Valli Bresciane, situated in the eastern part of the province of Brescia. Physically it constitutes a single valley with Val di Chiese and it is bounded by Lake Garda to the east, Val Trompia to the west, the Valli Giudicarie to the north and the Pianura Padana to south. The main approach is on Strada Statale 237 del Caffaro and it also contains the river Chiese, tributary and outlet of Lake Idro. Its most populous area is Gavardo, which includes the Valles hospital, antonio Fappani, La Campagna garibaldina del 1866 in Valle Sabbia e nelle Giudicarie, Brescia 1970
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Ice age
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An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed glacial periods, in the terminology of glaciology, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres. In 1742 Pierre Martel, an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the glaciers, later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and chamois hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpentier in 1834, comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in Goethes scientific work. Such explanations could also be found in parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist Ernst von Bibra visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport, the Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice in order to explain the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist, James Hutton, two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist Göran Wahlenberg published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon, only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark argued a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations and he attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earths orbit. During the following years, Esmarks ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish, at the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson seemed to be relatively open to Esmarks ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen. Jamesons remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark, in Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi, a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker, since incorporated in the southern Thuringian city of Meiningen, adopted Esmarks theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about former polar ice caps reaching as far as the zones of the globe. When he read his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, most scientists remained sceptical, finally, Venetz convinced his friend Jean de Charpentier. De Charpentier transformed Venetzs idea into a theory with a limited to the Alps. In fact, both men shared the same volcanistic, or in de Charpentiers case rather plutonistic assumptions, about the Earths history, in 1834, de Charpentier presented his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft
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Glacier
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A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
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Epipaleolithic
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Epipaleolithic is a term used for the final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic. The period is dated from c. 20,000 BP to c. 10,500 BP. The term is used as a synonym of Mesolithic. Inversely, those that are in transitional ways towards artificial production of food are inscribed in the Mesolithic, epipalaeolithic hunter-gatherers, generally nomadic, made relatively advanced tools from small flint or obsidian blades, known as microliths, that were hafted in wooden implements. The Epipaleolithic is best understood when discussing the southern Levant, as the period is well documented due to preservation at the site. Of these animals, it is likely only the equids were migrational
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Neolithic
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It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
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Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
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Po (river)
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The Po is a river that flows eastward across northern Italy. The Po flows either 652 km or 682 km – considering the length of the Maira, the headwaters of the Po are a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face of Monviso. The Po ends at a delta projecting into the Adriatic Sea near Venice and it has a drainage area of 74,000 km² in all,70,000 in Italy, of which 41,000 is in montane environments and 29,000 on the plain. The Po is the longest river in Italy, at its widest point its width is 503 m, the Po extends along the 45th parallel north. The river flows through many important Italian cities, including Turin, Piacenza and it is connected to Milan through a net of channels called navigli, which Leonardo da Vinci helped design. Near the end of its course, it creates a delta at the southern part of which is Comacchio. The Po valley was the territory of the Roman Cisalpine Gaul, divided into Cispadane Gaul, the Po begins in the Alps, and is in Italy, and flows eastward. The river is subject to heavy flooding, consequently, over half its length is controlled with argini, or dikes. The slope of the valley decreases from 0. 35% in the west to 0. 14% in the east and it is characterized by its large discharge. The vast valley around the Po is called the Po Basin or Po Valley, in 2002, more than 16 million people lived there, at the time nearly ⅓ of the population of Italy. The two main uses of the valley are for industry and for agriculture, both major uses. The industrial centres, such as Turin and Milan, are located on higher terrain and they rely for power on the numerous hydroelectric stations in or on the flanks of the Alps, and on the coal/oil power stations which use the water of the Po basin as coolant. Drainage from the north is mediated through several large, scenic lakes, the streams are now controlled by so many dams as to slow the rivers sedimentation rate, causing geologic problems. The main products of the farms around the river are cereals including – unusually for Europe – rice, the latter method is the chief consumer of surface water, while industrial and human consumption use underground water. The Po Delta wetlands have been protected by the institution of two parks in the regions in which it is situated, Veneto and Emilia-Romagna. The Po Delta Regional Park in Emilia-Romagna, the largest, consists of four parcels of land on the bank of the Po. Executive authority resides in an assembly of the presidents of the provinces, the mayors of the comuni and they employ a Technical-Scientific Committee and a Park Council to carry out directives. In 1999 the park was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and was added to Ferrara, City of the Renaissance, the 53,653 ha of the park contain wetlands, forest, dunes and salt pans
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Rock Drawings in Valcamonica
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The stone carvings of Val Camonica are located in the Province of Brescia, Italy, and constitute the largest collections of prehistoric petroglyphs in the world. The collection was recognized by Unesco in 1979 and was Italys first recognized World Heritage Site, Unesco has formally recognized more than 140,000 figures and symbols, but new discoveries have increased the number of catalogued incisions to between 200,000 and 300,000. The petroglyphs are spread on all surfaces of the valley, but concentrated in the areas of Darfo Boario Terme, Capo di Ponte, Nadro, Cimbergo, the petroglyph tradition does not end abruptly. Engravings have been identified from the Roman period, medieval period and are possibly even contemporary, most of the cuts have been made using the martellina technique and lesser numbers obtained through graffiti. The figures are simply superimposed without apparent order. Others instead appear to have a relationship between them, for example, a picture of a religious rite or a hunting scene or fight. This approach explains the scheme of images, each of which is an ideogram that is not the real object, among the most-famous symbols found in Valcamonica is the so-called Rosa camuna, which was adopted as the official symbol of the region of Lombardy. In the 1960s, the archaeologist Emmanuel Anati, among the first to study the area. It compared the style and types of the symbols to identify possible correlations with the traditional historical periodization, the earliest rock carvings date back to epipaleolithic, several millennia after the retreat of the glacier that covered the Val Camonica. Those carvings were the work of passing nomadic hunters, following the migrations of their prey, the figures represented in fact depict large animals such as deer and elk, which are the typical prey of that period. Similar representations are present in the town park stone carvings of Luine, during the Neolithic period, agricultural practices spread in Val Camonica, correlated with the formation of the first sedentary settlements. Similar carvings are present in the Regional Reserve of Rock Engravings of Ceto, Cimbergo, the pertaining to the Neolithic of the schematic anthropomorphic figures, so called oranti, is questioned, as some scholars refer them to the Bronze Age. During the Copper Age, new symbols appeared, documenting the emergence of the wheel, the wagon, rocks were stained with celestial symbols, animals, weapons, depictions of plowing, chains of human-beings and other signs. These monuments, preserved mainly in the Archaeological Park of National Massi Cemmo and in that of Asinino-Anvòia, during the Bronze Age, engravings on rock outcrops took on the issue of weapons, reflecting the greater emphasis given them by the warriors in the camunian society of the time. Continuing emphasis was given to geometric shapes, in continuity with engravings from earlier eras, the engravings of the Iron Age are attributed to the people of Camunni and constitute about 70-80% of all census figures. These works manifest their ideals of masculinity and superiority. Dominant themes include representations of duels and human figures, even ones, flaunting their weapons, their muscles. There are also figures of cabins, labyrinths, footprints, hunting scenes, during the Roman domination of Val Camonica petroglyph activity suffered a sharp contraction, entering a phase of latency
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Minerva
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Minerva was the Roman goddess of wisdom and sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. She was born with weapons from the head of Jupiter, after impregnating the titaness Metis, Jupiter recalled a prophecy that his own child would overthrow him. Fearing that their child would grow stronger than he and rule the Heavens in his place, the titaness forged weapons and armor for her child while within the father-god, and the constant pounding and ringing gave him a headache. To relieve the pain, Vulcan used a hammer to split Jupiters head and, from the cleft, Minerva emerged, whole, adult, from the 2nd century BC onwards, the Romans equated her with the Greek goddess Athena. She was the goddess of music, poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, weaving. She is often depicted with her sacred creature, an owl usually named as the owl of Minerva, stemming from an Italic moon goddess *Meneswā, the Etruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name, *Menerwā, thereby calling her Menrva. It is assumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on this Etruscan mythology, Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to Greek Athena, like Athena, Minerva was born from the head of her father, Jupiter. The word mens is built from the Proto-Indo-European root *men- mind, the Etruscan Menrva was part of a holy triad with Tinia and Uni, equivalent to the Roman Capitoline Triad of Jupiter-Juno-Minerva. Minerva was the daughter of Jupiter, as Minerva Medica, she was the goddess of medicine and doctors. As Minerva Achaea, she was worshipped at Lucera in Apulia where votive gifts, in Fasti III, Ovid called her the goddess of a thousand works. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere and her worship was also spread throughout the empire—in Britain, for example, she was syncretized with the local goddess Sulis, who was often invoked for restitution for theft. The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day which is called, in the plural, Quinquatria, the fifth after the Ides of March, the nineteenth. A lesser version, the Minusculae Quinquatria, was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by the flute-players, in 207 BC, a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine Hill. Among others, its members included Livius Andronicus, the Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle Roman Republic. When it was founded, the emperor himself was present and was believed to be of divine nature as a result of its construction, Minerva is featured on the coinage of different Roman Emperors. She is often represented on the side of a coin holding an owl
38.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
39.
Guelphs and Ghibellines
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The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, respectively, in the Italian city-states of central and northern Italy. During the 12th and 13th centuries, rivalry between two parties formed a particularly important aspect of the internal politics of medieval Italy. The struggle for power between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire had arisen with the Investiture Controversy, which began in 1075, the division between the Guelphs and Ghibellines in Italy, however, persisted until the 15th century. Guelph is an Italian form of the name of the House of Welf, the names were likely introduced to Italy during the reign of Frederick Barbarossa. When Frederick conducted military campaigns in Italy to expand imperial power there, the Lombard League and its allies were defending the liberties of the urban communes against the Emperors encroachments and became known as Guelphs. The Ghibellines were thus the party, while the Guelphs supported the Pope. Broadly speaking, Guelphs tended to come from wealthy mercantile families, the Lombard League defeated Frederick at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. Frederick recognized the autonomy of the cities of the Lombard league under his nominal suzerainty. The division developed its own dynamic in the politics of medieval Italy, smaller cities tended to be Ghibelline if the larger city nearby was Guelph, as Guelph Republic of Florence and Ghibelline Republic of Siena faced off at the Battle of Montaperti,1260. Pisa maintained a staunch Ghibelline stance against her fiercest rivals, the Guelph Republic of Genoa, adherence to one of the parties could therefore be motivated by local or regional political reasons. Within cities, party allegiances differed from guild to guild, rione to rione, moreover, sometimes traditionally Ghibelline cities allied with the Papacy, while Guelph cities were even punished with interdict. Contemporaries did not use the terms Guelph and Ghibellines much until about 1250, at the beginning of the 13th century, Philip of Swabia, a Hohenstaufen, and his son-in-law Otto of Brunswick, a Welf, were rivals for the imperial throne. Philip was supported by the Ghibellines as a relative of Frederick I, Frederick II also introduced this division to the Crusader states in the Levant during the Sixth Crusade. After the death of Frederick II in 1250 the Ghibellines were supported by Conrad IV of Germany and later Manfred, King of Sicily, the Sienese Ghibellines inflicted a noteworthy defeat on Florentine Guelphs at the Battle of Montaperti. In that period the stronghold of Italian Ghibellines was the city of Forlì and that city remained with the Ghibelline factions, partly as a means of preserving its independence, rather than out of loyalty to the temporal power, as Forlì was nominally in the Papal States. Over the centuries, the papacy tried several times to control of Forlì. Essentially the two sides were now fighting either against German influence, or against the power of the Pope. In Florence and elsewhere the Guelphs usually included merchants and burghers and they also adopted peculiar customs such as wearing a feather on a particular side of their hats, or cutting fruit a particular way, according to their affiliation
40.
Holy Roman Emperor
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The Holy Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. From an autocracy in Carolingian times the title evolved into an elected monarchy chosen by the Prince-electors, until the Reformation the Emperor elect was required to be crowned by the Pope before assuming the imperial title. The title was held in conjunction with the rule of the Kingdom of Germany, in theory, the Holy Roman Emperor was primus inter pares among the other Catholic monarchs, in practice, a Holy Roman Emperor was only as strong as his army and alliances made him. Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, effectively became hereditary holders of the title, after the Reformation many of the subject states and most of those in Germany were Protestant while the Emperor continued to be Catholic. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last Emperor as a result of the collapse of the polity during the Napoleonic wars, from the time of Constantine I the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. In the west, the title of Emperor was revived in 800, as the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was known as the Investiture Controversy. After Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, no pope appointed an emperor again until the coronation of Otto the Great in 962. Under Otto and his successors, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, the various German princes elected one of their peers as King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. After Charles Vs coronation, all succeeding emperors were called elected Emperor due to the lack of papal coronation, the term sacrum in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope, the final Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empires final dissolution. The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was August Emperor of the Romans, the word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents. In German-language historiography, the term Römisch-deutscher Kaiser is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman Emperor on one hand, the English term Holy Roman Emperor is a modern shorthand for emperor of the Holy Roman Empire not corresponding to the historical style or title. Successions to the kingship were controlled by a variety of complicated factors, elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. The Electoral council was set at seven princes by the Golden Bull of 1356, another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire. After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the exception of Charles VII. Maximilian I and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope, Maximilian therefore named himself Elected Roman Emperor in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors, of his successors only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation
41.
Brescia
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Brescia is a city and comune in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, a few kilometres from the lakes Garda, with a population of 196,480, it is the second largest city in the region and the fourth of northwest Italy. The urban area of Brescia extends beyond the city limits and has a population of 672,822. The city is the capital of the Province of Brescia, one of the largest in Italy. Founded over 3,200 years ago, Brescia has been an important regional centre since pre-Roman times, Brescia is considered the industrial capital of Italy. The metallurgy and the production of tools and firearms are of particular economic significance, along with mechanical. In addition, Brescia is the setting for most of the action in Alessandro Manzonis 1822 play Adelchi, Brescia and its territory will be the European Region of Gastronomy in 2017. Various myths relate to the founding of Brescia, one assigns it to Hercules while another attributes its foundation as Altilia by a fugitive from the siege of Troy. According to another myth, the founder was the king of the Ligures, Cidnus, colle Cidneo was named after that version, and it is the site of the medieval castle. Others scholars attribute the founding of Brescia to the Etruscans, the Gallic Cenomani, allies of the Insubres, invaded in the 7th century BC, and used the town as their capital. The city became Roman in 225 BC, when the Cenomani submitted to the Romans, during the Carthaginian Wars, Brixia was allied with the Romans. During a Celtic alliance against the city remained fateful to the Romans, with their Roman allies the city remain and attacked and destroyed the Insubres by surprise. Subsequently, the city and the tribe entered the Roman world peacefully as faithful allies, in 89 BC, Brixia was recognized as civitas and in 41 BC, its inhabitants received Roman citizenship. Augustus founded a colony there in 27 BC, and he. Roman Brixia had at least three temples, an aqueduct, a theatre, a forum with another temple built under Vespasianus, when Constantine advanced against Maxentius in 312, an engagement took place at Brixia in which the enemy was forced to retreat as far as Verona. In 402, the city was ravaged by the Visigoths of Alaric I, during the 452 invasion of the Huns under Attila, the city was besieged and sacked. Forty years later, it was one of the first conquests by the Gothic general Theoderic the Great in his war against Odoacer, in 568, Brescia was taken from the Byzantines by the Lombards, who made it the capital of one of their semi-independent duchies. The first duke was Alachis, who died in 573, later dukes included the future kings of the Lombards Rothari and Rodoald, and Alachis II, a fervent anti-Catholic who was killed in battle at Cornate dAdda in 688
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