1.
Tereshkova (crater)
–
Tereshkova is a relatively small lunar impact crater on the far side of the Moon. It is located along the perimeter of the Mare Moscoviense. It is named for cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, the rim of this crater resembles a rounded hexagon in outline. There is a small, cup-shaped crater near the edge of the southern rim. The eastern ramparts of this crater merge with the edge of the Mare Moscoviense, the rim edge is worn, but only tiny craterlets pit the surface of the edge and the crater interior. By convention these features are identified on maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Tereshkova
Tereshkova (crater)
–
Oblique
Lunar Orbiter 5 image
Tereshkova (crater)
–
Oblique view from another angle from
Apollo 13
2.
Eastern Slavic naming customs
–
They are also featured in the non-Slavic Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan as a result of the expansion of Russia and the result of Russification. As with most cultures, a person has a name chosen by the parents. First names in East Slavic languages mostly originate from two sources, Orthodox church tradition and native pre-Christian Slavic lexicons, all first names are single, non-doubled. Doubled first names are a very rare foreign-influenced instance, most doubled first names are spelled with the dash. Being highly synthetic, Eastern Slavic languages treat personal names as grammatical nouns and this auxiliary stem may be identical to the word stem of the full name while most names have it derived unproductively. Most commonly, Russian philologists distinguish the forms of given names, The short name, historically also half-name, is the most simple. Some names, such as Zhanna, Mark, etc. do not possess short forms, in the latter case, one form is usually more informal than the other. Diminutive forms are produced from the name by means of various suffixes. Unlike the full name, a diminutive name carries a particular emotional attitude, depending on the nature of this attitude, nameforms can be subdivided in three broad groups, affectionate, familiar and slang. Typically formed by suffixes -еньк-, -оньк-, -ечк-, -ушк and it is often used to address children or intimate friends. Within a more official context, this form may be combined with honorific plural to address a female colleague. Colloquial diminutives are derived from short names by means of -к- suffix, expressing a highly familiar attitude, it may be considered rude or even pejorative outside of friendly context. Slang forms mostly exist for male names, being produced though suffixes -ян, -он and these suffixes give off the sense of male brotherhood once expressed by patronymic-only form of address in Soviet Union. Originating in criminal communities, these came into wide usage in Russia in the 1990s. During the days of revolutionary enthusiasm, as part of the campaign to rid Russia of bourgeois culture, there was a drive to invent new, as a result, a large number of Soviet children were given unusual or atypical names. The patronymic name is based on the first name of the father and is written in all legal, if used with the first name, the patronymic always follows it. The patronymic is formed by a combination of the fathers name, the suffix -ович is used for son, suffix -овна - for daughter. For example, if the name was Иван, then the patronymic will be Иванович for a son
Eastern Slavic naming customs
–
An example of an
ID document of a citizen of
Russia. The lower page includes the lines: Имя ("Name"), Фамилия ("Family name") and Отчество ("Patronymic").
Eastern Slavic naming customs
–
Marina Tsvetaeva, a Russian poet. The name "Marina" traditionally has no short form.
Eastern Slavic naming customs
–
Руслан (Ruslan), a character in
Alexander Pushkin 's poem
Ruslan and Ludmila. The short form for Руслан (Ruslan) is Руся (Rusya).
Eastern Slavic naming customs
–
Николай II (
Nicholas II), the last Russian emperor. In private communication,
his wife called him in the German manner, "Nicky", instead the East Slavic short variant Коля ("Kolya").
3.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
4.
Tutayevsky District
–
Tutayevsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the seventeen in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia. It is located in the central part of the oblast. The area of the district is 1,444 square kilometers and its administrative center is the town of Tutayev. Within the framework of administrative divisions, Tutayevsky District is one of the seventeen in the oblast, the town of Tutayev serves as its administrative center, despite being incorporated separately as a town of oblast significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Tutayevsky Municipal District, Закон №12-з от7 февраля2002 г «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Ярославской области и порядке его изменения», в ред. Закона №67-з от21 декабря2012 г, «О внесении изменений в отдельные законодательные акты Ярославской области и признании утратившими силу отдельных законодательных актов Ярославской области». Вступил в силу через шесть месяцев со дня официального опубликования, Опубликован, Губернские вести, №11,15 февраля2002 г. Постановление №34 от22 января2008 г, «Об описании границ административно-территориальных единиц Ярославской области и городских районов города Ярославля», в ред. Постановления №658 от2 сентября2008 г, «О внесении изменений в Постановление Губернатора области от22.01.2008 №34». Вступил в силу с22 января2008 г, Опубликован, Губернские вести, №7,30 января2008 г. Закон №65-з от21 декабря2004 г, «О наименованиях, границах и статусе муниципальных образований Ярославской области», в ред. Закона №59-з от28 декабря2011 г «Об изменении статуса рабочего посёлка Песочное Рыбинского района и о внесении изменений в отдельные законодательные акты Ярославской области», Вступил в силу через10 дней со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован, Губернские вести, №70,23 декабря2004 г
Tutayevsky District
–
The
Volga River in Tutayevsky District
Tutayevsky District
–
Tutayevsky District Тутаевский район (Russian)
5.
Yaroslavl Oblast
–
Yaroslavl Oblast is a federal subject of Russia, which is located in the Central Federal District, surrounded by Tver, Moscow, Ivanovo, Vladimir, Kostroma, and Vologda Oblasts. This geographic location affords the oblast the advantages of proximity to Moscow, additionally, the administrative center of the oblast—the city of Yaroslavl—is an intersection of major highways, railroads, and waterways. The climate of Yaroslavl Oblast is temperate continental, with long, cold and snowy winters, Average January temperature is about −12 °C, while average Julys is +18 °C. Formerly almost all territory was covered with conifer forest, but now a large portion of it has been replaced with birch-and-aspen secondary forests. Large animals have been reduced in numbers, but there are still some bears, wolves, foxes, moose. A great number of birds live and nest in the oblast. In cities, most common birds are pigeons, jackdaws, hooded crows, rooks, house sparrows, the Volga River flows through Yaroslavl Oblast, with two major dams constructed at Uglich and Rybinsk. Mineral resources are limited to construction materials and peat, there are also mineral water springs and wells. First people settled in the area of the modern day Yaroslavl Oblast during the Paleolithic Era with the end of the last glacial period, agriculture was introduced in the region not later than the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC with the arrival of the Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture. The oblast belonged to the core of the Russian lands since the early Middle Ages, Rostov, the oldest city in the region, was first mentioned in 862. It soon became the political and religious centers of the Northeast Kievan Rus. Many notable Rurikid princes had their fief in Rostov, among them were St. Boris and Yaroslav the Wise, in 1054 Rostov and other North-Eastern lands were inherited by Yaroslavs son Vsevolod who also ruled the southern Principality of Pereyaslavl. Remaining in their distant capital the princes of Pereyaslavl had to rule the province through their viceregents and that period was most memorable for the 1071 smerd rebellion led by still powerful magi of Yarsolavl during which bishop Leontius of Rostov was murdered. In early 12th century Rostov got its own prince, Yuri Dolgoruky and he moved his capital to Suzdal in 1125 diminishing the influence of Rostov as a result. During his reign Dolgoruky founded many cities of the Northeast Rus. Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky who succeeded his father Yury as a ruler of the Rostov-Suzdal lands in 1157 was the first Russian ruler to give up his claims for the thrones of Kiev and Pereyaslavl. He proclaimed himself a Grand Prince and moved his capital to the city of Vladimir near Suzdal marking the beginning of history of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, after the death of Andreys brother Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1212 Russian North-East entered a continuous stage of feudal fragmentation. Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pereslavl and Uglich became principalities on their own right still recognizing formal suzerainty of the Grand Princes of Vladimir, northeastern Rus was attacked by the Mongol-Tatar armies in the winter of 1238
Yaroslavl Oblast
–
Seat of the Oblast government in Sovetskaya Square
Yaroslavl Oblast
6.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
–
The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
–
Flag (1954–1991)
7.
Aviator
–
A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
Aviator
–
U.S. Army test pilot
Lt. F.W. "Mike" Hunter wearing a
flight suit in October 1942
Aviator
–
Hot air balloon pilot and passenger in basket
Aviator
–
Pilots landing a
Boeing 777
Aviator
–
F-16 pilot in flight
8.
Major General
–
Major general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the rank of sergeant major general. In the Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral. In some countries, including much of Eastern Europe, major general is the lowest of the officer ranks. In the old Austro-Hungarian Army, the general was called a Generalmajor. Todays Austrian Federal Army still uses the same term, see also Rank insignias of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces General de Brigade is the lowest rank amongst general officers in the Brazilian Army. AGeneral de Brigada wears two-stars as this is the level for general officers in the Brazilian Army. In tha Brazilian Air Force, the two-star, three-star and four-star rank are known as Brigadeiro, Major-Brigadeiro, see Military ranks of Brazil and Brigadier for more information. In the Canadian Armed Forces, the rank of major-general is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navys rank of rear-admiral, a major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier-general and commodore, prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal, instead. In the Canadian Army, the insignia is a wide braid on the cuff. It is worn on the straps of the service dress tunic. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as general and name, as are all general officers, major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars. In the Estonian military, the general rank is called kindralmajor. The Finnish military equivalent is kenraalimajuri in Finnish, and generalmajor in Swedish and Danish, the French equivalent to the rank of major general is général de division. In the French military, major général is not a rank but an appointment conferred on some generals, usually of général de corps darmée rank, the position of major général can be considered the equivalent of a deputy chief of staff. In the French Army, Major General is a position and the general is normally of the rank of corps general
Major General
–
Croatian Army general bojnik
Major General
–
Austrian Armed Forces Generalmajor
Major General
–
Portugal
9.
Soviet Air Force
–
The Soviet Air Forces was the official designation of one of the air forces of the Soviet Union. The other was the Soviet Air Defence Forces, the Air Forces were formed from components of the Imperial Russian Air Service in 1917, and faced their greatest test during World War II. The groups were involved in the Korean War, and dissolved along with the Soviet Union itself in 1991–92. Former Soviet Air Forces assets were divided into several air forces of former Soviet republics. March of the Pilots was its anthem, the All-Russia Collegium for Direction of the Air Forces of the Old Army was formed on 20 December 1917. This was a Bolshevik aerial headquarters initially led by Konstantin Akashev and it became the Directorate of the USSR Air Forces on 28 March 1924, and then the Directorate of the Workers-Peasants Red Army Air Forces on 1 January 1925. Gradually its influence on aircraft design became greater, from its earliest days, the force mimicked ground forces organization especially in the 1930s, by which time it was made up of air armies, aviation corps, aviation divisions, and aviation regiments. At first, the I-16 proved superior to any Luftwaffe fighters, however, the Soviets refused to supply the plane in adequate numbers, and their aerial victories were soon squandered because of their limited use. Later, Bf-109s delivered to Francos Spanish Nationalist air forces secured air superiority for the Nationalists, on 19 November 1939, VVS headquarters was again titled the Main Directorate of the Red Army Air Forces under the WPRA HQ. Between 1933 and 1938, the Soviet government planned and funded missions to break numerous world aviation records, not only did aviation records and achievements become demonstrations of the USSRs technological progress, they also served as legitimization of the socialist system. With each new success, Soviet press trumpeted victories for socialism, furthermore, Soviet media idolized record-breaking pilots, exalting them not only as role models for Soviet society, but also as symbols of progress towards the socialist-utopian future. The early 1930s saw a shift in focus away from collectivist propaganda. In the case of aviation, the government began glorifying people who utilized aviation technology instead of glorifying the technology itself. Pilots such as Valery Chkalov, Georgy Baydukov, Alexander Belyakov, in May 1937, Stalin charged pilots Chkalov, Baydukov, and Belyakov with the mission to navigate the first transpolar flight in history. On 20 June 1937, the aviators landed their ANT-25 in Vancouver, a month later, Stalin ordered the departure of a second crew to push the boundaries of modern aviation technology even further. The public reaction to the flights was euphoric. The media called the pilots Bolshevik knights of culture and progress, Soviet citizens celebrated Aviation Day on 18 August with as much zeal as they celebrated the October Revolution anniversary. Literature including poems, short stories, and novels emerged celebrating the feats of the aviator-celebrities, feature films like Victory, Tales of Heroic Aviators, and Valery Chkalov reinforced the positive hero imagery, celebrating the aviators individuality within the context of a socialist government
Soviet Air Force
–
Soviet
Tu-95 escorted by U.S. Navy
F-14 Tomcat
Soviet Air Force
–
Flag of the Soviet Air Force
Soviet Air Force
–
An air-to-air right underside rear view of a Soviet
MiG-25 Foxbat aircraft carrying four AA-6 Acrid missiles
Soviet Air Force
–
Soviet
MiG-29 Fulcrum fighter aircraft in 1989.
10.
Vostok 6
–
Vostok 6 was the first human spaceflight to carry a woman, cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, into space. The spacecraft was launched on June 16,1963, while Vostok 5 had been delayed by technical problems, Vostok 6s launch proceeded perfectly with no difficulties at all. Data collected during the mission was to better understanding of the female bodys reaction to spaceflight. Like other cosmonauts on Vostok missions, she maintained a log, took photographs. Her photographs of the horizon from space were used to identify aerosol layers within the atmosphere. Vostok 6 was the last flight of a Vostok 3KA spacecraft, the Soviet state television network broadcast live video of Tereshkova from a television camera inside the capsule, and she conversed with Premier Nikita Khrushchev over the radio. In Tereshkovas account of the mission in her postflight debriefing, she mentioned having assorted body pains and she vomited while attempting to eat, although she attributed this to the taste of the food rather than her physical condition. An official history of the Soviet manned space program published in 1973 described Tereshkovas physical condition and it was revealed in 2004 that an error in the control program made the spaceship ascend from orbit instead of descending. Tereshkova noticed the fault on the first day of the flight, the team on Earth provided Tereshkova with new data to enter into the descent program which corrected the problem. By request of Korolev, Tereshkova kept the secret for dozens of years. I kept silent, but Evgeny Vasilievich decided to make it public, so, I can easily talk about it now. At the site, in a park at the roadside, is a gleaming silver statue of Tereshkova soaring upward, with arms outstretched. The statue is wearing a spacesuit without a helmet, the capsule is now on display at the RKK Energia Museum in Korolyov. From September 2015 it forms part of the content of the Cosmonauts exhibition at the Science Museum, the Exhibition features many iconic objects from the Soviet space program. This was the final Vostok flight, mass,4,713 kg Apogee,231 km Perigee,180 km Inclination,64. 9° Period,87.8 minutes
Vostok 6
–
Model of the Vostok capsule with its upper stage
Vostok 6
11.
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
The title Hero of the Soviet Union was the highest distinction in the Soviet Union, awarded personally or collectively for heroic feats in service to the Soviet state and society. The award was established on May 5,1934, by the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union, earlier heroes were retroactively eligible for these items. A hero could be awarded the title again for a subsequent heroic feat with an additional Gold Star medal, an additional Order of Lenin was not given until 1973. The practice of awarding the title multiple times was abolished by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in 1988 during perestroika,44 foreign citizens were awarded the title. The title was given posthumously, though often without the actual Gold Star medal given. The title could be revoked only by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the total number of people who were awarded this title is 12,755. The great majority of them received it during World War II, sixty-five people were awarded the title for actions related to the Soviet-Afghan War, which lasted from 1979 until 1989. Valentina Grizodubova, a pilot, was the first woman to become a Hero of the Soviet Union for her international womens record for a straight-line distance flight. Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya, a Soviet partisan, was the first woman to become a Hero of the Soviet Union during World War II, in addition,101 people received the award twice. A second award entitled the recipient to have a bronze bust of his or her likeness with an inscription erected in his or her hometown. Two famous Soviet fighter pilots, Aleksandr Pokryshkin and Ivan Kozhedub were three times Heroes of the Soviet Union. A third award entitled the recipient to have his/her bronze bust erected on a pedestal in Moscow, near the Palace of the Soviets. The only individuals to receive the four times were Marshal Georgy Zhukov. The original statute of the Hero of the Soviet Union, however, did not provide for a fourth title, both Zhukov and Brezhnev received their fourth titles under controversial circumstances contrary to the statute, which remained largely unchanged until the award was abolished in 1991. Zhukov was awarded a time for his large accomplishments on the occasion of his 60th birthday on December 1,1956. There is some speculation that Zhukovs fourth Hero medal was for his participation in the arrest of Beria in 1953, brezhnevs four awards further eroded the prestige of the award because they were birthday gifts, on the occasions of his 60th, 70th, 72nd and 75th birthdays. Such practices halted in 1988 due to a decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, by the 1970s, the award had been somewhat devalued. Important political and military persons had been awarded on the occasions of their anniversaries rather than for any immediate heroic activity, all Soviet cosmonauts, starting from Yuri Gagarin, as well as foreign citizens who participated in Soviet cosmic program as cosmonauts, received Hero award for each flight
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Gold Star Medal of the Hero of the Soviet Union
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Marshal Georgy Zhukov (center) wearing three Hero of the Soviet Union medals and Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky (right) wearing two
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Hero-Fortress of Brest
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Hero-City of
Moscow
12.
Order of Lenin
–
The Order of Lenin, named after the leader of the Russian October Revolution, was the highest decoration bestowed by the Soviet Union. Those who were awarded the titles Hero of the Soviet Union and it was also bestowed on cities, companies, factories, regions, military units and ships. Corporate entities, various institutions and military units who received the said Order applied the full name of the order into their official titles. The order was established by the Central Executive Committee on April 6,1930, the first design of the Order of Lenin was sculpted by Pyotr Tayozhny and Ivan Shadr based on sketches by Ivan Dubasov. It was made by Goznak of silver with some lightly gold-plated features and it was a round badge with a central disc featuring Vladimir Lenins profile surrounded by smokestacks, a tractor and a building, possibly a power plant. A thin red-enamelled border and a circle of wheat panicles surrounded the disc, at the top was a gold-plated hammer and sickle emblem, and at the bottom were the Russian initials for USSR in red enamel. Only about 800 of this design were minted, the second design was awarded from 1934 until 1936. This was a gold badge, featuring an silver plated disc bearing Lenins portrait. The disc is surrounded by two golden panicles of wheat, and a red flag with LENIN in Cyrillic script, a red star is placed on the left and the hammer and sickle emblem at the bottom, both in red enamel. The third design was awarded from 1936 till 1943, design was same as previous, but central disc was gray enamelled and Lenins portrait was separate piece made of platinum fixed by rivets. The fourth design was awarded from 1943 till 1991, design was same as previous, but was worn as a medal suspended from a ribbon. The badge was worn by screwback on the left chest without ribbon. Later it was worn as a suspended from a red ribbon with pairs of yellow stripes at the edges. The ribbon bar is of the same design, the portrait of Lenin was originally a riveted silver piece. For a time it was incorporated into a gold badge. The first Order of Lenin was awarded to the newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda on 23 May 1930, also among the first ten recipients were five industrial companies, three pilots, and the Secretary to the Central Executive Committee Avel Enukidze. The first person to be awarded a second Order of Lenin was the pilot Valery Chkalov in 1936, another pilot, Vladimir Kokkinaki, became the first to receive a third Order in 1939. The first five recipients, a German and four Americans, received the award for helping in the reconstruction of Soviet industry
Order of Lenin
–
The Order of Lenin, type 1
13.
Order of the October Revolution
–
The Order of the October Revolution was instituted on October 31,1967, in time for the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution. It was conferred upon individuals or groups for services furthering communism or the state, or in enhancing the defenses of the Soviet Union, military and it is second highest Soviet order, after the Order of Lenin. Above it was a red flag bearing the words October Revolution in Russian, a Hammer and Sickle emblem was placed at the bottom. The badge was worn on the left chest with a red ribbon bearing five blue stripes at the centre, the Russian cruiser Aurora was itself awarded with the Order of the October Revolution, the only ship ever to have received the award. Military units and institutions receiving the award applied the name to their title upon its reception. Order of the October Revolution at the Directory of the orders, medals, Order of the October Revolution Reference Page
Order of the October Revolution
–
The Order of the October Revolution
Order of the October Revolution
–
1967
USSR commemorative stamp
14.
Order of Alexander Nevsky
–
It was originally established by the Soviet Union as a military honour during World War II, more precisely by Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of July 7,1942. Its statute was amended by Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of February 26,1947. The Order of Alexander Nevsky was reinstated by the Soviet Union, minus the words Imperial and Saint, for award to officers of the army for personal courage and resolute leadership. The Order was retained by the new Russian Federation following the dissolution of the USSR by Decision of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation 2557-I of March 20,1992 but was never awarded. The Soviet Order of Alexander Nevsky was worn on the side of the chest. The early Russian Federation Order of Alexander Nevsky was also worn on the side of the chest. The star had gold-plated rims and edges, the original Order was suspended by a ring through a suspension loop to an early Soviet rectangular mount covered by a red silk moiré ribbon. This was changed in 1943 to a stud and nut attachment on the reverse. The Soviet variants of the Order used the likeness of the actor Nikolay Cherkasov as Alexander Nevsky from Eisensteins 1938 film, as there were no known portraits of Nevsky made in his lifetime. The design of the early Russian Federation variant of the Order differed from the Soviet variant only in the abrogation of the hammer, the Order of Alexander Nevsky is a 40 mm wide gold plated ruby enameled cross pattée. Between each cross arm, a gold double-headed eagle, the State Emblem of the Russian Federation, in the center of the obverse, a circular convex medallion bearing the enameled figure of Prince Alexander Nevsky riding a white steed facing left. On the reverse center, from the end of the right arm of the cross to the left end of the left end of the cross. At the bottom of the reverse of the cross arm. The Order of Alexander Nevsky is secured to a standard Russian pentagonal mount by a ring through the suspension loop, the mount is covered by an overlapping silk moiré 24mm wide red ribbon with a central 1. 5mm wide yellow stripe
Order of Alexander Nevsky
–
Order of Alexander Nevsky (obverse)
Order of Alexander Nevsky
–
Early Soviet Variant
Order of Alexander Nevsky
–
Early Russian Federation Variant
Order of Alexander Nevsky
–
Politician -
Boris Vyacheslavovich Gryzlov
15.
Order of Honour (Russian Federation)
–
Its statute was amended by decree №19 of January 6,1999 and more lately by decree №1099 of January 7,2010 which defined its present status. The Russian Federation Order provides continuity from the Soviet Unions identically named Order, the Soviet Order of Honor was denoted by a gray yellow edged ribbon. The obverse bears a white enamelled central medallion bordered by a laurel wreath. On the otherwise plain reverse, two rivets and the serial number at the bottom. The individuals below are recipients of the Order of Honour. A
Order of Honour (Russian Federation)
–
Order of Honour
Order of Honour (Russian Federation)
–
Reverse of the Order of Honour
Order of Honour (Russian Federation)
–
Evgeny Mironov, Artistic Director of the Federal State Institution of Culture "The State Theatre of Nations," being awarded the Order of Honour by President
Dmitry Medvedev on December 29, 2011. (Photo www.kremlin.ru)
Order of Honour (Russian Federation)
–
Anatoly Alexandrov, Rector of the "Bauman" Moscow State Technical University being presented with the Order of Honour by President
Dmitry Medvedev on May 3, 2012. (Photo www.kremlin.ru)
16.
Order of Friendship
–
It can trace its lineage to the Soviet Order of Friendship of Peoples. The badge of the Order of Friendship is made of gilded silver and it is a pentagonal star created from diverging golden rays. On the obverse at the center of the star is a terrestrial globe, the globe is surrounded by a green enamelled wreath of olive branches. On the reverse is the inscription Peace and Friendship and the serial number of the individual award. The distance between opposite tips of the star is 44 mm, when worn in the presence of other Orders and medals of the Russian Federation, the Order of Friendship is located immediately after the Order of Honour
Order of Friendship
–
Order of Friendship (obverse)
Order of Friendship
–
Prince Michael of Kent receives the Order of Friendship from
Russian President Dmitry Medvedev on November 4, 2009 at the
Moscow Kremlin. (Photo www.kremlin.ru)
Order of Friendship
–
International Olympic Committee president
Jacques Rogge being awarded the Order of Friendship by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev on 22 November 2011 at the Moscow Kremlin. (Photo www.kremlin.ru)
Order of Friendship
–
Manfred Schmidt, Head of the Department for Crisis Management of the German
Interior Ministry, being decorated with the Order of Friendship by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev on 13 October 2010 at the Moscow Kremlin. (Photo www.kremlin.ru)
17.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
Russian language
–
Russian language street sign in
Russia.
Russian language
–
Russian minimarket in
Limassol, Cyprus; translation: "Teremok market. Russian goods. Phone number: 96 74 19 63"
Russian language
–
This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter
П.
Russian language
–
The
Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the second oldest
East Slavic book known, one of many medieval
illuminated manuscripts preserved in the
Russian National Library.
18.
Cosmonaut
–
An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists. Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, with the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created, the commercial astronaut. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of 100 kilometers. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles are awarded astronaut wings. As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these,24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon, the three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie. As of 17 November 2016, under the U. S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days in space, as of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman,377 days, dryden preferred cosmonaut, on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos, while the astro prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred astronaut, which survived by common usage as the preferred American term, when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to cosmonaut. In English-speaking nations, a space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron, meaning star, the first known use of the term astronaut in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Deaths Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier, for example, in Percy Gregs 1880 book Across the Zodiac, astronaut referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de lInfini of J. -H, rosny aîné, the word astronautique was used. The word may have inspired by aeronaut, an older term for an air traveler first applied to balloonists. An early use in a publication is Eric Frank Russells poem The Astronaut in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond, NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps
Cosmonaut
–
NASA Astronaut
Bruce McCandless II using a
Manned Maneuvering Unit outside
Space Shuttle Challenger on shuttle mission
STS-41-B in 1984.
Cosmonaut
–
Alan Shepard aboard
Freedom 7
Cosmonaut
–
Yuri Gagarin, first human in space (1961)
Cosmonaut
–
Valentina Tereshkova, first woman in space (1963)
19.
Engineer
–
Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
Engineer
–
An electrical engineer, circa 1950
Engineer
–
Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954
Engineer
–
NASA Launch Control Center Firing Room 2 as it appeared in the Apollo era
Engineer
–
The
Challenger disaster is held as a case study of
engineering ethics.
20.
Outer space
–
Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
Outer space
–
The original
Magdeburg hemispheres (lower left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right)
Outer space
–
The interface between the Earth's surface and outer space. The
Kármán line at a height of 100 km (62 mi) is shown. The layers of the atmosphere are drawn to scale. Objects within them, such as the International Space Station, are not.
Outer space
–
This is an artist's concept of the
metric expansion of space, where a volume of the Universe is represented at each time interval by the circular sections. At left is depicted the rapid
inflation from the initial state, followed thereafter by steady expansion to the present day, shown at right.
Outer space
–
Part of the
Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image showing a typical section of space containing galaxies interspersed by deep vacuum. Given the finite
speed of light, this view covers the last 13 billion years of the history of outer space.
21.
Skydiver
–
Parachuting, or skydiving, is a method of transiting from a high point to Earth with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent with the use of a parachute. It may involve more or less free-fall, a time during which the parachute has not been deployed, the first parachute jump in history was made by Andre-Jacques Garnerin, the inventor of the parachute, on October 22nd,1797. Garnerin tested his contraption by leaping from a hydrogen balloon 3,200 feet above Paris, garnerins parachute bore little resemblance to todays parachutes however as it was not packed into any sort of container and did not feature a ripcord. The first intentional freefall jump with a deployment was not made until over a century later by Leslie Irvin in 1919. While Georgia Broadwick made an earlier freefall in 1914 when her static line became entangled with her jump aircrafts tail assembly, Broadwick cut her static line and deployed her parachute manually, only as a means of freeing her self from the aircraft to which she had become entangled. The military developed parachuting technology as a way to save aircrews from emergencies aboard balloons and aircraft in flight, early competitions date back to the 1930s, and it became an international sport in 1952. Parachuting is performed as recreational activity, and a sport which is widely considered an extreme sport due to the risks involved. Manually exiting an aircraft and parachuting to safety has been used by aviators. While this method of escape is relatively rare in modern times, it was used in World War I by military aviators. In modern times, the most common means of escape from an aircraft in distress is via an ejection seat, said system is usually operated by the pilot, aircrew member, or passenger, by engaging an activation device manually. In most designs, this lead to the seat being propelled out of and away from the aircraft carrying the occupant with it. Once clear of the aircraft, the seat will deploy a parachute. Despite the perception of danger, fatalities are rare, about 21 skydivers are confirmed killed each year in the US, roughly one death for every 150,000 jumps. In the US and in most of the world, skydivers are required to carry two parachutes. The reserve parachute must be inspected and re-packed by a certified parachute rigger. Many skydivers use an automatic device that opens the reserve parachute at a pre-determined altitude if it detects that the skydiver is still in free fall. Depending on the country, AADs are often mandatory for new jumpers, most skydivers wear a visual altimeter, and an increasing number also use audible altimeters fitted to their helmets. One of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy, swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding at high-speed parallel to the ground during landing
Skydiver
–
Airmen of the
United States Air Force, assigned to the
720th Special Tactics Group, conduct a free-fall parachute jump
Skydiver
–
Hybrid formation
Skydiver
–
Tandem in freefall
Skydiver
–
Parachutists jumping from an
Ilyushin Il-76 of the
Ukraine Air Force (2014)
22.
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, abbreviated in English as CPSU, was the founding and ruling political party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The party was founded in 1912 by the Bolsheviks, a group led by Vladimir Lenin which seized power in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917. The party was dissolved on 29 August 1991 on Soviet territory soon after a failed coup détat and was abolished on 6 November 1991 on Russian territory. The highest body within the CPSU was the party Congress, which convened every five years, when the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest body. Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo, the Secretariat, and the Orgburo. The party leader was the head of government and held the office of either General Secretary, Premier or head of state, or some of the three offices concurrently—but never all three at the same time. The CPSU, according to its party statute, adhered to Marxism–Leninism, a based on the writings of Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx. The party pursued state socialism, under which all industries were nationalized, a number of causes contributed to CPSUs loss of control and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Some historians have written that Gorbachevs policy of glasnost was the root cause, Gorbachev maintained that perestroika without glasnost was doomed to failure anyway. Others have blamed the stagnation and subsequent loss of faith by the general populace in communist ideology. The Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the worlds first constitutionally socialist state, was established by the Bolsheviks in the aftermath of the October Revolution. Immediately after the Revolution, the new, Lenin-led government implemented socialist reforms, including the transfer of estates, in this context, in 1918, RSDLP became Russian Communist Party and remained so until 1997. Lenin supported world revolution he sought peace with the Central Powers. The treaty was voided after the Allied victory in World War I, in 1921, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy, a system of state capitalism that started the process of industrialization and recovery from the Civil War. On 30 December 1922, the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Russian Empire in the Soviet Union, on 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke, which incapacitated him and effectively ended his role in government. He died on 21 January 1924 and was succeeded by Joseph Stalin, after emerging victorious from a power struggle with Trotsky, Stalin obtained full control of the party and Stalinism was installed as the only ideology of the party. The partys official name was All-Union Communist Party in 1925, Stalins political purge greatly affected the partys configuration, as many party members were executed or sentenced for slave labour. Happening during the timespan of the Great Purge, fascism had ascened to power in Italy, seeing this as a potential threat, the Party actively sought to form collective security alliances with Anti-fascist western powers such as France and Britain
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
Khrushchev succeeded Stalin as the Soviet leader. His rule is best known for his liberalization of political and social life, and the end of terror as a means of social control
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
The Brezhnev era is commonly referred to by historians as the
Era of Stagnation, a term coined by CPSU General Secretary Gorbachev
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
–
Gorbachev, the last leader of the CPSU and the Soviet Union, as seen in 1986
23.
Collapse of the Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union was dissolved on December 26,1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and that evening at 7,32, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag. Previously, from August to December, all the individual republics, the week before the unions formal dissolution,11 republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol formally establishing the CIS and declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the USSR also signalled the end of the Cold War, some have joined NATO and the European Union. Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo on March 11,1985, Gorbachev, aged 54, was the youngest member of the Politburo. His initial goal as general secretary was to revive the Soviet economy, the reforms began with personnel changes of senior Brezhnev-era officials who would impede political and economic change. On April 23,1985, Gorbachev brought two protégés, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, into the Politburo as full members. He kept the power ministries happy by promoting KGB Head Viktor Chebrikov from candidate to full member and this liberalisation, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. Under Gorbachevs leadership, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1989 introduced limited competitive elections to a new central legislature, in May 1985, Gorbachev delivered a speech in Leningrad advocating reforms and an anti-alcohol campaign to tackle widespread alcoholism. Prices of vodka, wine, and beer were raised in order to make these drinks more expensive and a disincentive to consumers, unlike most forms of rationing intended to conserve scarce goods, this was done to restrict sales with the overt goal of curtailing drunkenness. Gorbachevs plan also included billboards promoting sobriety, increased penalties for public drunkenness, however, Gorbachev soon faced the same adverse economic reaction to his prohibition as did the last Tsar. The disincentivization of alcohol consumption was a blow to the state budget according to Alexander Yakovlev. Alcohol production migrated to the market, or through moonshining as some made bathtub vodka with homegrown potatoes. The purpose of these reforms, however, was to prop up the centrally planned economy, unlike later reforms. The latter, disparaged as Mr Nyet in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs, gromyko was relegated to the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, as he was considered an old thinker. In the fall of 1985, Gorbachev continued to bring younger, at the next Central Committee meeting on October 15, Tikhonov retired from the Politburo and Talyzin became a candidate. Finally, on December 23,1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party replacing Viktor Grishin, Gorbachev continued to press for greater liberalization. The CTAG Helsinki-86 was founded in July 1986 in the Latvian port town of Liepāja by three workers, Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss and its name refers to the human-rights statements of the Helsinki Accords
Collapse of the Soviet Union
–
Tanks at
Red Square during the
1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt
Collapse of the Soviet Union
–
Mikhail Gorbachev (1987 photo)
Collapse of the Soviet Union
–
Figure of Liberty on the
Freedom Monument in Riga, focus of 1986 Latvian demonstrations.
Collapse of the Soviet Union
–
The Dawn of Liberty monument in
Almaty (Alma-Ata).
24.
2014 Winter Olympics
–
Both the Olympics and 2014 Winter Paralympics were organized by the Sochi Organizing Committee. Sochi was selected as the host city in July 2007, during the 119th IOC Session held in Guatemala City and it was the first Olympics in Russia since the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. The Soviet Union was previously the host nation for the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow and these were the first Olympic Games under the International Olympic Committee presidency of Thomas Bach. A total of 98 events in 15 winter sport disciplines were held during the Games, in preparation, organizers focused on modernizing the telecommunications, electric power, and transportation infrastructures of the region. However, immediately following the ceremony, commentators evaluated the Games to have been successful overall. Allegations concerning the corruption of the anti-doping system possibly employed during the Games surfaced in 2015, rodchenkov stated that the FSB tampered with over 100 urine samples as part of a cover-up, and that a third of the Russian medals won at Sochi were the result of doping. La Gazzetta dello Sport reported the names of 15 athletes who are among the 28 under investigation, the Russian team potentially could be stripped of up to 12 Olympic medals among these athletes alone. Sochi was elected on 4 July 2007 during the 119th International Olympic Committee session held in Guatemala City, Guatemala, defeating bids from Salzburg, Austria and this is the first time that the Russian Federation has hosted the Winter Olympics. The Soviet Union was the host of the 1980 Summer Olympics held in, as of October 2013, the estimated combined cost of the 2014 Winter Olympics had topped US$51 billion. This amount included the cost for Olympic games themselves and cost of Sochi infrastructural projects, dmitry Kozak was the main overseer for the events in Sochi. The breakdown table below is based on a report that has analyzed the distribution of Olimpstroys $49.5 billion budget, estimates also suggest that additional unrecoverable operational costs could have added another $3 billion. He confirmed that the Organizing Committee had raised more than $500 million through marketing in the first five months of 2009, the Russian Government provided nearly 327 billion rubles for the total development, expansion and hosting of the Games. 192 billion rubles coming from the budget and 7 billion rubles from the Krasnodar Krai budget. The organizers expected to have a surplus of US$300 million when the Games conclude, Sochi 2014 is the 12th straight Olympics to outlaw smoking, all Sochi venues, Olympic Park bars and restaurants and public areas were smoke-free during the Games. It is also the first time that an Olympic Park has been built for hosting a winter games, the Sochi Olympic Park was built by the Black Sea coast in the Imeretinsky Valley, about 4 km from Russias border with Abkhazia/Georgia. The venues were clustered around a water basin on which the Medals Plaza is built. It also features The Waters of the Olympic Park, a fountain which served as the backdrop in the medals awards. Its primary use is to host the Formula One Russian Grand Prix, in January 2015, work began on adapting Fisht Olympic Stadium into an open-air football stadium to host matches during the 2018 FIFA World Cup
2014 Winter Olympics
–
Sochi from space
2014 Winter Olympics
–
Fans celebrating
Sochi's bid win
2014 Winter Olympics
–
Panoramic view of the Sochi Olympic Park
2014 Winter Olympics
–
Chairlift in
Krasnaya Polyana
25.
Olympic flag
–
The Olympic symbols are icons, flags and symbols used by the International Olympic Committee to elevate the Olympic Games. Some—such as the flame, fanfare, and theme—are more commonly used during Olympic competition, the Olympic motto is the hendiatris Citius, Altius, Fortius, which is Latin for Faster, Higher, Stronger. It was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin upon the creation of the International Olympic Committee in 1894, Coubertin borrowed it from his friend Henri Didon, a Dominican priest who was an athletics enthusiast. Coubertin said These three words represent a programme of moral beauty, the aesthetics of sport are intangible. The motto was introduced in 1924 at the Olympic Games in Paris, a more informal but well-known motto, also introduced by Coubertin, is The most important thing is not to win but to take part. Coubertin got this motto from a sermon by the Bishop of Pennsylvania during the 1908 London Games, the rings are five interlocking rings, colored blue, yellow, black, green and red on a white field, known as the Olympic rings. The symbol was designed in 1912 by Baron Pierre de Coubertin. He appears to have intended the rings to represent the five participating continents, Africa, Asia, America, Australia, according to Coubertin, the colors of the rings together with the white of the background included the colors composing every competing nations flag at the time. Upon its initial introduction, Coubertin stated the following in the August 1912 edition of Olympique, the six colors combined in this way reproduce the colours of every country without exception. This, truly, is an international emblem, the 1914 Congress was suspended due to the outbreak of World War I, but the symbol and flag were later adopted. They would first officially debut at the Games of the VII Olympiad in Antwerp, the symbols popularity and widespread use began during the lead-up to the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. The ceremony was celebrated but the stone was never removed and this has become known as Carl Diems Stone. This created a myth that the symbol had an ancient Greek origin, the rings would subsequently be featured prominently in Nazi images in 1936 as part of an effort to glorify the Third Reich. The current view of the International Olympic Committee is that the symbol reinforces the idea that the Olympic Movement is international and welcomes all countries of the world to join. As can be read in the Olympic Charter, the Olympic symbol represents the union of the five continents of the world, however, no continent is represented by any specific ring. Nevertheless, the logo of the Association of National Olympic Committees places the logo of each of its five continental associations inside the ring of the corresponding color, the Olympic flag was created by Pierre de Coubertin in 1914. There are specific Olympic flags that are displayed by cities that will be hosting the next Olympic games and these flags should not be confused with the larger Olympic flags designed and created specifically for each games, which are flown over the host stadium and then retired. The first Olympic flag was presented to the IOC at the 1920 Summer Olympics by the city of Antwerp, at the end of the Games, the flag could not be found and a new Olympic flag had to be made for the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris
Olympic flag
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The Olympic flag flying in
Victoria, Canada in recognition of the
2010 Winter Olympics in
Vancouver
Olympic flag
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Olympic Games
Olympic flag
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Flag of South Korea alongside an Olympic Flag in
Olympic Park, Seoul
Olympic flag
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The composer of the 1952 Olympic Fanfare,
Aarre Merikanto, at
Helsinki Olympic Stadium during the games.
26.
Belarus
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Its capital and most populous city is Minsk. Over 40% of its 207,600 square kilometres is forested and its strongest economic sectors are service industries and manufacturing. In the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Belarus declared independence as the Belarusian Peoples Republic, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922 and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland after the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921, during WWII, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years, in 1945 the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR. The parliament of the declared the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990. Alexander Lukashenko has served as the president since 1994. Belarus has been labeled Europes last dictatorship by some Western journalists, Lukashenko continued a number of Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy. Though not directly espousing communism like the five remaining communist countries of China, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam and North Korea, in 2000 Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, with some hints of forming a Union State. Over 70% of Belaruss population of 9.49 million resides in urban areas, more than 80% of the population is ethnic Belarusian, with sizable minorities of Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two official languages, Belarusian and Russian, the Constitution of Belarus does not declare any official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Belarus is the only European country to retain capital punishment in both law and practice, the name Belarus is closely related with the term Belaya Rus, i. e. White Rus. There are several claims to the origin of the name White Rus, an alternate explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic population. A third theory suggests that the old Rus lands that were not conquered by the Tatars had been referred to as white, other sources claim that, before 1267, the land not conquered by the Mongols was considered White Rus. The name Rus is often conflated with its Latin forms Russia and Ruthenia, in some languages, including German and Dutch, the country is generally called White Russia to this day. The Latin term Alba Russia was used again by Pope Pius VI in 1783 to recognize the Society of Jesus there, exclaiming Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem, approbo, approbo. The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey. During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used White Rus to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Belarus
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Stamp with the
Cross of St. Euphrosyne from 1992
Belarus
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Flag
Belarus
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Principalities of Kievan Rus'
Belarus
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Khatyn Memorial. The Nazis murdered civilians in 5,295 different localities in
occupied Soviet Belarus.
27.
Skydiving
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Parachuting, or skydiving, is a method of transiting from a high point to Earth with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent with the use of a parachute. It may involve more or less free-fall, a time during which the parachute has not been deployed, the first parachute jump in history was made by Andre-Jacques Garnerin, the inventor of the parachute, on October 22nd,1797. Garnerin tested his contraption by leaping from a hydrogen balloon 3,200 feet above Paris, garnerins parachute bore little resemblance to todays parachutes however as it was not packed into any sort of container and did not feature a ripcord. The first intentional freefall jump with a deployment was not made until over a century later by Leslie Irvin in 1919. While Georgia Broadwick made an earlier freefall in 1914 when her static line became entangled with her jump aircrafts tail assembly, Broadwick cut her static line and deployed her parachute manually, only as a means of freeing her self from the aircraft to which she had become entangled. The military developed parachuting technology as a way to save aircrews from emergencies aboard balloons and aircraft in flight, early competitions date back to the 1930s, and it became an international sport in 1952. Parachuting is performed as recreational activity, and a sport which is widely considered an extreme sport due to the risks involved. Manually exiting an aircraft and parachuting to safety has been used by aviators. While this method of escape is relatively rare in modern times, it was used in World War I by military aviators. In modern times, the most common means of escape from an aircraft in distress is via an ejection seat, said system is usually operated by the pilot, aircrew member, or passenger, by engaging an activation device manually. In most designs, this lead to the seat being propelled out of and away from the aircraft carrying the occupant with it. Once clear of the aircraft, the seat will deploy a parachute. Despite the perception of danger, fatalities are rare, about 21 skydivers are confirmed killed each year in the US, roughly one death for every 150,000 jumps. In the US and in most of the world, skydivers are required to carry two parachutes. The reserve parachute must be inspected and re-packed by a certified parachute rigger. Many skydivers use an automatic device that opens the reserve parachute at a pre-determined altitude if it detects that the skydiver is still in free fall. Depending on the country, AADs are often mandatory for new jumpers, most skydivers wear a visual altimeter, and an increasing number also use audible altimeters fitted to their helmets. One of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy, swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding at high-speed parallel to the ground during landing
Skydiving
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Airmen of the
United States Air Force, assigned to the
720th Special Tactics Group, conduct a free-fall parachute jump
Skydiving
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Hybrid formation
Skydiving
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Tandem in freefall
Skydiving
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Parachutists jumping from an
Ilyushin Il-76 of the
Ukraine Air Force (2014)
28.
Komsomol
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The All-Union Leninist Young Communist League, usually known as Komsomol, was a political youth organization in the Soviet Union. It is sometimes described as the division of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, although it was officially independent and referred to as the helper. The Komsomol in its earliest form was established in urban centers in 1918, during the early years, it was a Russian organization, known as the Russian Young Communist League, or RKSM. During 1922, with the unification of the USSR, it was reformed into an all-union agency and it was the final stage of three youth organizations with members up to age 28, graduated at 14 from the Young Pioneers, and at nine from the Little Octobrists. Before the February Revolution of 1917 the Bolsheviks did not display any interest in establishing or maintaining a youth division, after the Russian Civil War of 1917-1922 ended, the Soviet government under Lenin introduced a semi-capitalist economic policy to stabilize Russia’s floundering economy. This reform, the New Economic Policy, introduced a new policy of moderation and discipline. Lenin himself stressed the importance of education of young Soviet citizens in building a new society. The first Komsomol Congress met in 1918 under the patronage of the Bolshevik Party, Party intervention in 1922-1923 proved marginally successful in recruiting members by presenting the ideal Komsomolets as a foil to the bourgeois NEPman. However, the party was not very successful overall in recruiting Russian youth during the NEP period and this came about because of conflict and disillusionment among Soviet youth who romanticised the spontaneity and destruction characteristic of War Communism and the Civil War period. They saw it as their duty, and the duty of the Communist Party itself, however, the NEP had the opposite effect, after it started, many aspects of bourgeois social behavior began to reemerge. The contrast between the Good Communist extolled by the Party and the bourgeois capitalism fostered by NEP confused many young people, as a result, there was a major slump in interest and membership in the Party-oriented Komsomol. In March 1926, Komsomol membership reached a NEP-period peak of 1,750,000 members, only when Stalin came to power and abandoned the NEP in the first Five Year Plan did membership increase drastically. The youngest people eligible for Komsomol membership were fourteen years old, the upper age-limit for ordinary personnel was twenty-eight, but Komsomol functionaries could be older. Younger children joined the allied Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization, while membership was nominally voluntary, those who failed to join had no access to officially sponsored holidays and found it very difficult to pursue higher education. The Komsomol also served as a pool of labor and political activism. Active members received privileges and preferences in promotion, for example, Yuri Andropov, CPSU General Secretary in succession to Leonid Brezhnev, achieved political importance through work with the Komsomol organization of Karelia in 1940-1944. At its largest, during the 1970s, the Komsomol had tens of millions of members, the government, unions and the Komsomol jointly introduced Centers for Scientific and Technical Creativity for Youth. At the same time, many Komsomol managers joined and directed the Russian Regional, folklore quickly coined a motto, The Komsomol is a school of Capitalism, hinting at Vladimir Lenins Trade unions are a school of Communism
Komsomol
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1933 Komsomol poster. Caption says "Prepare for worthy successors to the Leninist Komsomol"
Komsomol
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All-Union Leninist Young Communist League Всесоюзный ленинский коммунистический союз молодёжи
Komsomol
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Komsomol poster urging youth to become pilots.
Komsomol
–
Monument to Courage, Firmness and Faithfulness of Members of the Komsomol in
Sevastopol
29.
Valery Bykovsky
–
Valery Fyodorovich Bykovsky is a retired Soviet cosmonaut who flew three manned space mission space flights, Vostok 5, Soyuz 22, and Soyuz 31. He was also backup for Vostok 3 and Soyuz 37, Bykovsky was the son of Fyodor Fyodorovich Bykovsky and Klavdia Ivanova. At age 14 Valery wanted to attend school, however, his father was not a proponent of this idea. A few days later Valery listened to a lecture regarding the Soviet Air Force Club that inspired him to pursue his dream of becoming a pilot, following this lecture Valery would begin flight theory lessons when he turned 16 at the Moscow City Aviation Club. When he was 18 Bykovsky graduated aviation school and enrolled in the Kachinsk Military Aviation Academy, Bykovsky graduated the academy at 21 years old and received the rank of lieutenant. At 25 he became a jet pilot and later became a pilot. At 26 years old he started his training at Zhukovsky Military Engineering academy. Bykovsky’s most famous took place in 1963 aboard Vostok 5 where he would famously rendezvous with first female cosmonaut Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova. During his orbit aboard Vostok 5, Bykovsky was also made a member of the communist party, Bykovsky set a space endurance record when he spent five days in orbit aboard Vostok 5 in 1963 where his callsign was Hawk. Although this flight duration has long since surpassed by crews of more than one person. Bykovsky was to have commanded the original Soyuz 2 mission, which was cancelled due to problems with Soyuz 1, many of his later years in the space programme were involved with promoting the Intercosmos programme amongst the worlds Socialist nations. He retired in 1988 and then spent three years as the Director of the House of Soviet Science and Culture in Berlin, Bykovsky was also a keen sportsman, Service in the Air Force made us strong, both physically and morally. All of us cosmonauts took up sports and PT seriously when we served in the Air Force, I know that Yuri Gagarin was fond of ice hockey. He liked to play goal keeper, gherman Titov was a gymnastics enthusiast, Andran Nikolayev liked skiing, Pavel Popovich went in for weight lifting. I dont think I am wrong when I say that sports became a fixture in the life of the cosmonauts, Valery Bykovsky was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union, the Order of Lenin, the Order of the Red Star, and numerous other medals and foreign orders. Tsiolkovsky Academy of Sciences Medal yes Lavo, ISBN 5-217-02942-0 Testing of rocket and space technology - the business of my life Events and facts - A. I. Encyclopedia of life and creativity - edited by C. A. Lopota, S. P. Korolev,2014 ISBN 978-5-906674-04-3 the official website of the city administration Baikonur - Honorary citizens of Baikonur Media related to Valeri Bykovski at Wikimedia Commons
Valery Bykovsky
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Valery Fyodorovich Bykovsky
Valery Bykovsky
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A 1963 Soviet postage stamp showing Valery Bykovsky and Vostok 5.
Valery Bykovsky
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Valery Bykovsky and East German astronaut
Sigmund Jähn
Valery Bykovsky
–
Bykovsky and
Valentina Tereshkova with children, ca 1963
MajGen, Soviet AF
listen); born 6 March 1937) is a retired Russian cosmonaut, engineer, and politician. She is the first woman to have flown in space, having been selected from more than 400 applicants and five finalists to pilot Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963, she completed 48 orbits of the Earth in her three days in space.
