1.
List of cities in Serbia
–
Also villages with the municipal rights have been added to the list. Cities Cities in administrative sense are defined by the Law on Territorial Organization, the territory with the city status usually has more than 100,000 inhabitants, but is otherwise very similar to municipality. Also, the presidents of the municipalities are referred to as mayors in everyday usage. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own, as with a municipality, the territory of a city is composed of a city proper and surrounding villages. The capital Belgrade is the city on the level of a district. All other cities are on the municipality level and are part of a district, City municipalities The city may or may not be divided into city municipalities. Six cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac, Vranje, competences of cities and city municipalities are divided. The city municipalities of these six cities also have their assemblies, the two largest city municipalities by number of residents are the city municipality of Novi Sad and New Belgrade. The city of Kragujevac had its own city municipalities from 2002 until 2008, in 2013, the city municipality of Sevojno within the city of Užice was established. It does not include municipalities in Kosovo created by UNMIK after 1999, the census was not conducted in Kosovo, which is under administration of UNMIK, so the population numbers are not given for the municipalities in Kosovo. According to the criteria, the settlements in the table are classified as urban. These criteria are not limited to the settlement size, but also include the percentage of residents engaged in agriculture, thus, not all towns in statistical sense are greater than villages, and they are not always municipality centers. Note that the population of the city municipalities of some cities were not presented as unique, ^ The city of Novi Sad is consisted of two city municipalities, City municipality of Novi Sad and Petrovaradin. ^ The city of Niž is consisted of five city municipalities, Medijana, Palilula, Pantelej, Crveni Krst, ^ The city of Vranje is consisted of two city municipalities, City municipality of Vranje and Vranjska Banja. ^ The city of Požarevac is consisted of two city municipalities, City municipality of Požarevac and Kostolac, ^ Priština is an administrative city according to the Law, but Serbia does not exercise its laws on Kosovo. ^ The seat of the municipality is Dragaš
List of cities in Serbia
List of cities in Serbia
–
Novi Sad
List of cities in Serbia
–
Niš
2.
Water mill
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A watermill or water mill is a mill that utilizes hydropower. It is a structure that uses a wheel or water turbine to drive a mechanical process such as milling, rolling. Such processes are needed in the production of material goods, including flour, lumber, paper, textiles. Thus watermills may be comprise gristmills, sawmills, paper mills, textile mills, hammermills, trip hammering mills, rolling mills, wire drawing mills. The former type can be divided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot. Another way to water mills is by an essential trait about their location, tide mills use the movement of the tide. The earliest evidence of a wheel is probably the Perachora wheel. The earliest written reference is in the technical treatises Pneumatica and Parasceuastica of the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium, the British historian of technology M. J. T. The sakia gear is, already developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd-century BC Hellenistic wall painting in Ptolemaic Egypt. The Greek geographer Strabon reports in his Geography a water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira, Asia Minor, before 71 BC. The Roman engineer Vitruvius has the first technical description of a watermill, dated to 40/10 BC and he also seems to indicate the existence of water-powered kneading machines. The Greek epigrammatist Antipater of Thessalonica tells of an overshot wheel mill around 20 BC/10 AD. He praised for its use in grinding grain and the reduction of human labour, Hold back your hand from the mill, you grinding girls, even if the cockcrow heralds the dawn, sleep on. If we learn to feast toil-free on the fruits of the earth, the Roman encyclopedist Pliny mentions in his Naturalis Historia of around 70 AD water-powered trip hammers operating in the greater part of Italy. There is evidence of a mill in 73/4 AD in Antioch. It is likely that a stamp mill was used at Dolaucothi to crush gold-bearing quartz. The stamps were operated as a batch of four working against a large conglomerate block, similar anvil stones have been found at other Roman mines across Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal. The 1st-century AD multiple mill complex of Barbegal in southern France has been described as the greatest known concentration of power in the ancient world
Water mill
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Watermill of
Braine-le-Château, Belgium (12th century)
Water mill
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Interior of the
Lyme Regis watermill, UK (14th century)
Water mill
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Watermill in
Jahodná (Slovakia).
Water mill
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Model of a Roman type
Roman water-powered grain-mill described by
Vitruvius. The
millstone (upper floor) is powered by an
undershot waterwheel by the way of a gear mechanism (lower floor)
3.
Petnica
–
Petnica is a small village near Valjevo, Serbia. According to the census of 2002, there were 614 inhabitants, Petnica was founded at the beginning of the 15th century. The oldest known document is Petnica Psalms from 1488, which mentions not only the existence of the village of Petnica. The Turks burned the monastery in the 18th century, but the church, when digging foundations for building stations, excavators discovered the remains of the old cemetery in Petnica that were transferred to todays church. Today, in the yard of a large research station in Petnica. The village is notable for, Petnica Cave, a cave, the cave and its immediate surroundings are the oldest evidence of the life of people in western Serbia. Archaeological research of the began in the 19th century when the first research was performed by Josif Pančić. In addition to value, the cave has great speleological and paleontological value. The cave consists of a nearly 600-metre-long channel and a number of chambers and it is divided into two parts – Upper and Lower cave. Material from explorations and excavation of the cave contained number of weapons, Petnica lake Pocibrava, a meeting place for swimmers and fishermen. Petnica Science Center Petnica Swimming Pool Complex Water bottling plant Petnica Science Centre Petnica on Valjevo za vas
Petnica
–
Panorama – Fishing on lake Petnica
Petnica
–
Petnica
Petnica
–
Petnica cave
Petnica
–
Weekend cottage in Petnica
4.
River Gradac
–
The Gradac is a river in western Serbia, a tributary of the Kolubara. It cuts a canyon in south-north direction with a length of 22.7 km and its measured water course has a length of about 28 km and a total drop of 187 m. The source of the river Gradac is situated at the foot of the Povlen mountain, the Gradac river gorge, with its source tributaries, the special characteristics and the degree of preservation, is one of the less well known natural values of Serbia. However, it is highly rated among exponents of nature protection. It lies south of Valjevo and influent in the Kolubara directly, the river gorge is the habitat of a number of rare plant and animal species. In the river live brook trout, chub, barbel, the biggest attraction of Gradac river are undoubtedly the otters. Along the river lay a number of resorts and beaches including Livadica, Ploce, Kriva Vrbe, along the river are several watermills and fish ponds located. The railroad from Belgrade to Bar passes through the Gradac river gorge, Gradac is a home to a variety of animals from poisonous snakes to otters. Here are a few live in or about the river. Mammals, Hedgehog, Forest Mouse, Red Squirrel, Bank Vole, Deer, Rabbit, Wild Boar, Fox, birds, Finch, Blackbird, Jay, Quail, Krestel, Tawny Owl, other owls. Fish, Stream Trout, Lappet, Brown Barbell, Wagtail, snakes, Viper, Aesculapius snake, Water snake. You can also come across turtles and frogs, the gorge of the river has more than 70 karst caves. The Degurić cave is, according to the latest research, the longest and, with its characteristics, in the caves, traces of palaeolithic, and middle ages ancient times have been discovered. List of rivers in Serbia The Gradac river / Official web site of the Municipality of Valjevo
River Gradac
–
Mill on the river Gradac
River Gradac
–
Gradac river bridge
River Gradac
–
Gradac Dam on river lower flow
River Gradac
–
Middle part of the flow
5.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
6.
Serbia
–
Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
Serbia
–
Clay figure from
Vinča culture, 4000–4500 BC, British Museum
Serbia
–
Flag
Serbia
–
Felix Romuliana,
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Serbia
–
Temnić inscription, is one of the oldest records of
Old Church Slavonic Cyrillic script from the territory of Serbia.
7.
Subdivisions of Serbia
–
Autonomous provinces Serbia has two autonomous provinces, Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo and Metohija in the south. The province of Vojvodina has its own Assembly and Government of Vojvodina and it enjoys autonomy on certain matters, such as infrastructure, science, education and culture. The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija has been transferred to the administration of UNMIK since June 1999, Central Serbia The Central Serbia is the area that lies between the autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo and Metohija and it was known under that name until 2009. It was not a division, and it did not have any regional authority of its own. In 2009, the National Assembly of Serbia adopted the Law on Equal Territorial Development that formed 7 statistical regions in the territory of Serbia, the Law was amended on 7 April 2010, reducing the number of regions from seven to five. The previously formed region of Eastern Serbia was merged with Southern Serbia, districts are not defined by the Law on Territorial Organisation, but are organised under the Governments Enactment of 29 January 1992. Serbia is divided into 29 districts, while the city of Belgrade presents a district of its own, municipalities Serbia is divided into 147 municipalities and 27 cities, which form the basic units of local government. Each municipality has its own assembly, a president, public service property. Municipalities usually have more than 10,000 inhabitants, municipalities comprise local communities, which mostly correspond to settlements in the rural areas. Urban areas are divided into local communities. Their roles include communication of elected representatives with citizens, organization of citizen initiatives related with public service. They are presided over by councils, elected in semi-formal elections, the role of local communities is far more important in rural areas, due to proximity to municipal centers, many urban local communities are defunct. Cities Cities are another type of local self-government, territories with the status of city usually have more than 100,000 inhabitants, but are otherwise very similar to municipalities. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own, only cities have mayors, although the presidents of the municipalities are often referred to as mayors in everyday usage. The city may or may not be divided into city municipalities, five cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac and Vranje comprise several municipalities, divided into urban and suburban areas. Competences of cities and their municipalities are divided and this move is not recognized by Serbia, but is recognized by the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo. According to the new subdivision, Kosovo is divided into 7 districts and 37 municipalities
Subdivisions of Serbia
–
The five statistical regions of Serbia
8.
List of districts of Serbia
–
The districts of Serbia, officially called administrative districts are the first level administrative subdivisions of the country. Districts are the units of Serbia, comprising several municipalities and cities each. They are defined by the Government of Serbias Enactment of 29 January 1992, Districts are regional centers of state authority and they do not have any form of self-government. They run affairs in the name of the Government, there are 29 districts in Serbia. The only part of Serbia that is not part of any district is the territory of the City of Belgrade which has a special status, every districts has its seat in the largest city of the district. The Slavic word okrug denotes administrative subdivision in some states and its etymology is similar to the German Kreis, circle, okrug is literally something encircling. In the subdivisions of Serbia, the term is translated as district, the territorial organisation of Serbia is regulated by the Law on Territorial Organization, adopted by the National Assembly on 29 December 2007. According to the Law, the organization of the republic comprises municipalities and cities, the City of Belgrade with special status. Districts are not mentioned in law but are defined by the Government of Serbias Enactment of 29 January 1992. They are defined as the districts as regional centers of state authority, Serbia is divided into 29 districts, plus the City of Belgrade. The City of Belgrade is not part of any district, but has a status very similar to that of a district. Serbian laws treat Kosovo and Metohija as integral part of Serbia, the Enactment defines five districts on the territory of Kosovo. But, since 1999, following the Kosovo War Kosovo is under United Nations administration of UNMIK, in 2000, the UNMIK administration changed territorial organisation on the territory of Kosovo. All five districts were abolished, and seven new districts were created, Serbian government does not recognize this move, and accepts only five pre-2000 districts. Five of Serbian Districts are on the territory of Kosovo, comprising 28 municipalities and 1 city, in 2000, UNMIK created 7 new districts and 30 municipalities. Serbia does not exercise sovereignty over this polity, for the UNMIK districts and the districts of Kosovo, see Districts of Kosovo. Because the Serbian government has no control over Kosovo since it declared independence, for current demographic information about Kosovo, see Kosovos 2011 census. Administrative divisions of Serbia Municipalities and cities of Serbia Cities and towns of Serbia Cities, towns and villages of Vojvodina Populated places of Serbia ISO 3166-2, RS Notes References
List of districts of Serbia
–
Serbian Districts Сербиан четврти (
Serbian) Serbian četvrti
9.
Kolubara District
–
The Kolubara District is one of eight administrative districts of Šumadija and Western Serbia. It occupies the part of western Serbia. According to the 2011 census results, it has a population of 174,513 inhabitants, the administrative center of the Kolubara District is Valjevo, on the banks of the Kolubara River. The district encompasses the municipalities of, Osečina Ub Lajkovac Valjevo Mionica Ljig According to the last official census done in 2011, prevailing industries in this region are, metal industry, agricultural production and food processing industry. The major tourism resorts in the district are, the Divčibare, administrative divisions of Serbia Districts of Serbia Note, All official material made by Government of Serbia is public by law
Kolubara District
–
Location of Kolubara District in Serbia
10.
Socialist Party of Serbia
–
The Socialist Party of Serbia is a political party in Serbia that identifies itself as a democratic socialist and social democratic party. Following its foundation, the SPS demanded strict loyalty to its leader, Milošević, by top party officials, anyone who went against policy as defined by the party leadership could face sanctions or expulsion. The party won the first elections in Serbia with 194 out of 250 seats and 77. 6% of the popular vote, from 1992 it governed in coalition with other parties – initially with the Serbian Radical Party, and from 1993 with the New Democracy Party. They also contested elections in coalition with Yugoslav Left, a party led by Miloševićs wife Mirjana Marković, with the ousting of Milošević in 2000, the party became a part of the opposition. In the 2003 Serbian general elections, the party won 7. 6% of the vote and 22 out of 250 seats in the National Assembly of Serbia. In 2004, however, its candidate in the election, Ivica Dačić. In 2007 parliamentary elections, the Socialist Party of Serbia won 16 seats with 227,580 or 5. 64% of votes and it formed a sole parliamentary group, with Ivica Dačić as president and Žarko Obradović as vice-president. It won 14 seats outright while a seat was given to its new partner, the Movement of Veterans of Serbia and non-partisan Borka Vučić. The coalition won 23 seats with 313,896 or 7.58 percent of votes, SPS and its coalition partners entered post-election coalition with the For a European Serbia group. The SPS is a coalition member with the Serbian Progressive Party in the Serbian government. The SPS was formed as a coalition of the League of Communists of Serbia and the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Serbia, and Slobodan Milošević was elected its present. This course was a factor in the splintering of the Yugoslav Communist party, the political programme of the SPS has stated its intention to develop Serbia as a socialist republic, founded on law and social justice. In power however, the party enacted policies that were negative to workers rights, the SPS advocated the transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy, with both public and private sectors. The party endorsed the principle of equality of all the Yugoslav peoples. From 1990 to 1993, the party endorsed supporting the Serbs in Bosnia & Herzegovina, as Croatia and Bosnia declared independence, the involvement by the SPS as a ruling party in Belgrade had become more devoted to helping the external Serbs run their own independent entities. The SPS was in coalition with the nationalist Serbian Radical Party at the time, Milošević demanded the self-determination of Serbs in the Republic of Macedonia. In 1998, five years after a split between the SPS and the Radicals, the party returned to its more successful coalition with the Serbian Radical Party as Kosovo-Albanian separatism was on the rise. In addition, the party engaged in discussions with Croatian and Bosnian leaders, the SPS however was unwilling to grant secession of any territory from FR Yugoslavia which formed in 1992
Socialist Party of Serbia
–
Slobodan Milošević
Socialist Party of Serbia
–
Ivica Dačić has led the Socialist Party since 2006
Socialist Party of Serbia
Socialist Party of Serbia
11.
Municipalities and cities of Serbia
–
The municipalities and cities of Serbia are the second level administrative subdivisions of the country. Serbia is divided into 147 municipalities and 27 cities, forming the basic level of local government, also, the city of Belgrade has a status of separate statistical region. Municipalities and cities are the units of Serbia, and they form 29 districts in groups. They are defined by the Government of Serbias Enactment of 29 January 1992, a city may and may not be divided into city municipalities depending on their size. Currently, there are six cities in Serbia with city municipalities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac, Užice and Vranje comprise several city municipalities each, divided into urban, Municipalities Like in many other countries, municipalities are the basic entities of local government in Serbia. The head of the municipality is the President of the municipality, while the power is held by the Municipal council. Municipal assembly is elected on local elections, while the President, Municipalities have their own property and budget. Only the cities officially have mayors, although the presidents are often informally referred to as such. The territory of a municipality is composed of a town and surrounding villages, the municipality bears the name of the seat town. Only one municipality does not share the name with the seat town and this municipality is located in Kosovo, and thus exists only on paper. The territory of the municipality was merged with part of the Municipality of Prizren in 2000 by UNMIK to form new Municipality of Dragaš and this move is not recognised by Serbian Government. Cities and city municipalities Cities are another type of local self-government, the territory with the city status usually has more than 100,000 inhabitants, but is otherwise very similar to municipality. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own, only the cities have mayors, although the presidents of the municipalities are often referred to as mayors in everyday usage. As with a municipality, the territory of a city is composed of a city proper, every city is part of a district. The exception is the capital Belgrade, which is not part of any district, the city may or may not be divided into city municipalities. Six cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac, Vranje, competences of cities and city municipalities are divided. The city municipalities of these six cities also have their assemblies, the two largest city municipalities by number of residents are the City municipality of Novi Sad and New Belgrade. The city of Kragujevac had its own city municipalities from 2002 until 2008, in 2013, the city municipality of Sevojno within the city of Užice was established
Municipalities and cities of Serbia
–
Districts and municipalities of Serbia including Serbia's claim over Kosovo
12.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
13.
Central European Summer Time
–
It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
Central European Summer Time
–
light blue
14.
Telephone numbers in Serbia
–
Regulation of the telephone numbers in Serbia is under the responsibility of the Regulatory Agency of Electronic Communication and Mail Services, independent from the government. The country calling code of Serbia is +381, the country has an open telephone numbering plan, with most numbers consisting of a 2- or 3-digit calling code and a 6-7 digits of customer number. The country calling code of Serbia is +381, Serbia and Montenegro received the code of +381 following the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. Montenegro switched to +382 after its independence in 2006, so +381 is now used only by Serbia, for domestic calls,0 must be dialed before the area code. For calls from Serbia, the prefix for international calls was 99, Calling code areas in Serbia have been largely unchanged since the time of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. As Socialist Republic of Serbia had been assigned codes starting with 1,2 and 3, Calling code areas, Until 2013, Telekom Srbija had a monopoly on fixed telephony services. The calling codes are assigned to the using the following scheme. However, since 2011 customers can change the operator and retain the old calling code, thus, calling codes do not necessary reflect the operator. It is not possible, however, to transfer a number to a land-based operator. The following special telephone numbers are valid across the country, On 21 May 2012 and this also applied to 976,985,987 and 9860. 112 redirects to 192 on mobile phones, the dialing code for Kosovo is +383. Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, but retained the +381 calling code for fixed telephony until 2016, dialing code +383 started to be allocated on 15 December 2016. Republic Telecommunication Agency Telephone services in Serbia Telecommunications in Serbia
Telephone numbers in Serbia
–
Location of Serbia
15.
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia
–
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia are issued using a two-letter region code, followed by three or four-digit numeric and a two-letter alpha license code, separated by a hyphen. The region code and the code are separated by the shield of Serbia. A blue field is placed along the side edge, as in European Union countries. License numeric code contains combination of three digits, while two letter code is made of combination of letters using Serbian Latin alphabet order, with addition of letters X, Y and W. The standard dimensions of a Serbian license plates are 520.5 ×112.9 mm, issuance of current license plates started on January 1,2011 and they will be used alongside the old ones during the transitional period until the end of 2011. g. The letter in the middle is denoting the status of the owner and these are issued for agricultural vehicles, e. g. tractors, or construction vehicles. These plates consists of two-letter region code, coat of arms of Serbia and these plates had green background and black letters. Slow traffic vehicles use yellow background plates, the format is like older format of Serbia, it is two-letter regional code, then numbers. Older plates for slow traffic vehicles had white background and almost exactly like agriculture plates, it is regional letters at top on the plates, trailer plates is reversed format of the civilian license plates. It is serial letter, then numbers and then regional code, older trailers had up to six characters then regional code. Military plates had just one letters, then coat of arms, older military plates had a code indicating the branch was on, then one letters and then four numbers. Police plates had the letters П and then six numbers, older plates had letters M Mopeds use plates exactly like an older Serbian plates before 2011. Temporary plates had the letters RPE then regional code then numbers, older plates had the letters RP, then numbers, year of expiration and then number denoting the region. UNHCR plates use blue font then had the letters UNHCR and then numbers and this plate has been replaced by diplomatic plates. Exceptional vehicles had a red background and white letters, UNPF plates had the letters UNPF and then numbers. This plate is no longer issued, dealer plates had the regional letters on the top and then numbers. Military reserve plates had military branch was on and then 5 numbers, portal posvećen registraciji vozila Registracija vozila Nove tablice od 2011, cena 40 evra. Pravilnik o registraciji motornih i priključnih vozila Car Transport in Serbia
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia
–
Serbian registration plate, issued since 2011
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia
–
Geographical distribution of license plate codes in Serbia
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia
–
Vehicle registration plate from the town of Vrbas
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia
–
Old registration plate, issued until 2011
16.
Serbian Cyrillic
–
The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet is an adaptation of the Cyrillic script for the Serbian language, developed in 1818 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić. It is one of the two used to write standard modern Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, the other being Latin. During the same period, Croatian linguists led by Ljudevit Gaj adapted the Latin alphabet, in use in western South Slavic areas, using the same principles. As a result of this joint effort, Cyrillic and Latin alphabets for Serbo-Croatian have a complete one-to-one congruence, with the Latin digraphs Lj, Nj, and Dž counting as single letters. Vuks Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in Serbia in 1868, and was in exclusive use in the country up to the inter-war period. Both alphabets were co-official in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in Serbia, Cyrillic is seen as being more traditional, and has the official status. It is also a script in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro, along with Latin. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was used as a basis for the Macedonian alphabet with the work of Krste Misirkov, Cyrillic is in official use in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbian language in Croatia is officially recognized as a minority language, however, Cyrillic is an important symbol of Serbian identity. In Serbia, official documents are printed in Cyrillic only even though, according to a 2014 survey, Glagolitic appears to be older, predating the introduction of Christianity, only formalized by Cyril and expanded to cover non-Greek sounds. Cyrillic was created by the orders of Boris I of Bulgaria by Cyrils disciples, the earliest form of Cyrillic was the ustav, based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures and letters from the Glagolitic alphabet for consonants not found in Greek. There was no distinction between capital and lowercase letters, the literary Slavic language was based on the Bulgarian dialect of Thessaloniki. Part of the Serbian literary heritage of the Middle Ages are works such as Vukan Gospels, St. Savas Nomocanon, Dušans Code, Munich Serbian Psalter, the first printed book in Serbian was the Cetinje Octoechos. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić fled Serbia during the Serbian Revolution in 1813, there he met Jernej Kopitar, a linguist with interest in slavistics. Kopitar and Sava Mrkalj helped Vuk to reform the Serbian language and he finalized the alphabet in 1818 with the Serbian Dictionary. Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which was published in 1868 and he wrote several books, Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica and Pismenica serbskoga jezika in 1814, and two more in 1815 and 1818, all with the alphabet still in progress. In his letters from 1815-1818 he used, Ю, я, Ы and Ѳ, in his 1815 song book he dropped the Ѣ. The alphabet was adopted in 1868, four years after his death
Serbian Cyrillic
–
Serbian Cyrillic, from Comparative orthography of European languages. Source:
Vuk Stefanović Karadžić "Srpske narodne pjesme" (Serbian folk poems),
Vienna, 1841
Serbian Cyrillic
–
Serbian Cyrillic
Serbian Cyrillic
–
Vuk Karadžić
Serbian Cyrillic
–
Vuk's dictionary
17.
Kolubara
–
The Kolubara, is a 123 km-long river in western Serbia, it is an eastern tributary to the Sava river. Kolubara originates as Obnica in the Podgorina region of Western Serbia, the Obnica is 25 km long. Jablanica also originates from the Povlen mountain, just few kilometers away from Obnica and it curves around Parač mountain and next to the village of Balinović, before it meets Obnica in Valjevo. This is also the beginning of the 90 km long region of the Kolubara valley, at Valjevo, the Kolubara receives the river Gradac from the right and forms the Valjevo valley between the surrounding mountains, in which it spills in several parallel flows. At Slovac, near the confluence of the tributary of the Toplica, the Kolubara carved the epigenetic Slovačka sutjeska. Upper Kolubara constitutes most of the modern Kolubara District of Serbia, due to the floods, even though its valley is densely populated, there are no settlements on the river itself, until it reaches Obrenovac, few kilometers before it empties into the Sava. Lower Kolubara itself is divided in two sub-regions, the Kolubara coal basin and the Obrenovac micro-region.200 km². It is estimated that coal deposits are as much as 22 billion tons, with coal layers being to 50 m deep, major mines are Rudovci, Kolubara and Kosmaj, with many surface digs being developed lately. A series of coal based power stations are built in the basin, including Kolubara, Nikola Tesla B-1 and Nikola Tesla B-2. Because of its importance for industry and economy in general, the municipality of Lazarevac, after three years, on September 19,2007 the river course between Vreoci and Veliki Crljeni was transferred to the new artificial river bed. This will allow the opening of a new surface coal field Veliki Crljeni in September 2008 with an estimated coal reserves of over 30 million tons. The mining projects at Kolubara have been plagued with corruption, in 2011,16 current and former members of Elektroprivreda Srbije, in addition to this, resettlement procedures for affected local communities were, according to civil society organizations, not executed in accordance with Serbian law. Due to the lots of long tributaries which create branchy system within the drainage area. It belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin, the river is not navigable, but its valley is very important for transportation. Here are located Belgrade-Valjevo road, parts of Belgrade-Šabac road, Ibarska magistrala, the Kolubara was the site of one of the major battles on the Balkans in the World War I, the Battle of Kolubara in 1914. Serbia Energy - Internet Resource on Energy and Mining in Serbia www. serbia-energy. eu * Mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition, Prosveta, marković, Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije, Svjetlost-Sarajevo, ISBN 86-01-02651-6 List of rivers in Serbia
Kolubara
–
Kolubara River in Valjevo
Kolubara
–
Duke Zivojin Misic statue, near Kolubara river, Valjevo. Zivojin Misic was a general of
Serbian first army during the
Battle of Kolubara, a significant Serbian victory, that took place near Kolubara river in Valjevo.
18.
Sava
–
The Sava is a river in Central and Southeastern Europe, a right tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia, along the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its central part is a border of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. The Sava forms the border of the Balkan Peninsula. The Sava is 990 kilometres long, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka headwater rising in Zelenci and it is the greatest tributary of the Danube by volume of water, and second-largest after Tisza in terms of catchment area and length. It drains a significant portion of the Dinaric Alps region, through the tributaries of Drina, Bosna, Kupa, Una, Vrbas, Lonja, Kolubara, Bosut. The Sava is one of the longest rivers in Europe and among a handful of European rivers of that length that do not drain directly into a sea. The population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8,176,000, the Sava is navigable for larger vessels from the confluence of the Kupa River in Sisak, Croatia, approximately two-thirds of its length. The Sava River is formed from the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka headwaters in northwest Slovenia, the Sava Dolinka rises at the Zelenci Pools near Kranjska Gora, Slovenia, in a valley separating the Julian Alps from the Karavanke mountain range. The spring is located near the Slovene-Italian border at 833 metres above sea level, the Sava Dolinka spring is fed by groundwater possibly exhibiting bifurcation of source karst aquifer to the Sava and Soča basins. Nadiža creek, a losing stream flowing nearby, is the source of Zelenci Pools water. The Sava Dolinka is considered the Savas initial, 45-kilometre segment, the Sava Bohinjka originates in Ribčev Laz, at the confluence of the Jezernica, a short watercourse flowing out from Lake Bohinj and the Mostnica River. The watercourse flows 41 kilometres —including the length of the Savica—east to Radovljica, downstream from the confluence, the river is referred to as the Sava. The Sava is located in Southeast Europe, flowing through Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and its total length is 990 kilometres, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka and the 945-kilometre Sava proper. As a right tributary of the Danube, the river belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is also the largest tributary of the Danube by discharge. The river course is used to describe the northern boundary of the Balkans. Before the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, the river was located completely inside Yugoslav borders, downstream of Radovljica, the Sava proceeds southeast towards Kranj. Between Kranj and Medvode, its course comprises the Lake Trboje and the Lake Zbilje reservoirs, built for the Mavčiče, the Sava then flows through the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, where another reservoir is located on the river, adjacent to the Tacen Whitewater Course
Sava
–
Sava River in
Belgrade,
Serbia
Sava
–
Zelenci —spring of
Sava Dolinka
Sava
–
Sava at
Litija
Sava
–
Save gorge between Ljubljana and Trbovlje
19.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
Neolithic
–
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
Neolithic
–
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Neolithic
–
Female figure from
Tumba Madžari,
Republic of Macedonia
Neolithic
–
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
20.
Ancient Rome
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Rome
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Rome
–
Roman Republic
Ancient Rome
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Rome
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
21.
Moesia
–
Moesia was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans, along the south bank of the Danube River. It included most of the territory of modern-day Serbia and the parts of the modern Republic of Macedonia, as well Northern Bulgaria. In ancient geographical sources, Moesia was bounded to the south by the Haemus and Scardus mountains, to the west by the Drinus river, on the north by the Donaris, the region was inhabited chiefly by Thracians, Dacians, Illyrian and Thraco-Illyrian peoples. The name of the region comes from Moesi, Thraco-Dacian peoples who lived there before the Roman conquest, parts of Moesia belonged to the polity of Burebista, a Getae king who established his rule over a large part of the Northern Balkans between 82 BC and 44 BC. He led plunder and conquest raids across Central and Southeastern Europe, after his assassination in an inside plot, the empire was divided into several smaller states. The region, however, was not organized as a province until the last years of Augustus reign, in 6 AD, mention is made of its governor, as a province, Moesia was under an imperial consular legate. In 86 AD the Dacian king Duras ordered his troops to attack Roman Moesia, each was governed by an imperial consular legate and a procurator. From Moesia, Domitian began planning future campaigns into Dacia and by 87 he started an offensive against Dacia. Therefore, in the summer of 87, Fuscus led five or six legions across the Danube. The campaign against the Dacians ended without an outcome, and Decebalus. Emperor Trajan later arrived in Moesia, and he launched his first military campaign into the Dacian Kingdom c, march–May 101, crossing to the northern bank of the Danube River and defeating the Dacian army near Tapae, a mountain pass in the Carpathians. Trajans troops were mauled in the encounter, however, and he put off further campaigning for the year to heal troops, reinforce, during the following winter, King Decebalus launched a counter-attack across the Danube further downstream, but this was repulsed. Trajans army advanced further into Dacian territory and forced King Decebalus to submit to him a year later, Trajan returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title Dacicus. The victory was celebrated by the Tropaeum Traiani, however, Decebalus in 105 undertook an invasion against Roman territory by attempting to stir up some of the tribes north of the river against the empire. Trajan took to the field again and after building with the design of Apollodorus of Damascus his massive bridge over the Danube, sometime around 272, at the Moesian city of Naissus or Nissa, future emperor Constantine I was born. During administrative reforms of Emperor Diocletian, both of the Moesian provinces were reorganized, in the same time, Moesia Inferior was divided into Moesia Secunda and Scythia Minor. Moesia Secundas main cities included Marcianopolis, Odessus, Nicopolis, Abrittus, Durostorum, Transmarisca, Sexaginta Prista and Novae, the garrison of Moesia Secunda included Legio I Italica and Legio XI Claudia, as well as independent infantry units, cavalry units, and river flotillas. The Notitia Dignitatum lists its units and their bases as of the 390s CE, units in Scythia Minor included Legio I Iovia and Legio II Herculia
Moesia
–
The Roman empire in the time of
Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD), showing, on the lower
Danube river, the
imperial provinces of Moesia Superior (Serbia) and Moesia Inferior (N. Bulgaria/coastal Romania), and the 2
legion deployed in each in 125
22.
Bosnia
–
Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
Bosnia
–
Mogorjelo, ancient Roman suburban Villa Rustica from the 4th century, near
Čapljina
Bosnia
–
Flag
Bosnia
–
Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque in
Sarajevo dating from 1531
Bosnia
–
Bosniak resistance against the
Austro-Hungarian military intervention in 1878
23.
Belgrade
–
Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and its name translates to White city. The urban area of the City of Belgrade has a population of 1.34 million, one of the most important prehistoric cultures of Europe, the Vinča culture, evolved within the Belgrade area in the 6th millennium BC. In antiquity, Thraco-Dacians inhabited the region, and after 279 BC Celts conquered the city and it was conquered by the Romans during the reign of Augustus, and awarded city rights in the mid-2nd century. In 1521, Belgrade was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and became the seat of the Sanjak of Smederevo and it frequently passed from Ottoman to Habsburg rule, which saw the destruction of most of the city during the Austro-Ottoman wars. Belgrade was again named the capital of Serbia in 1841, northern Belgrade remained the southernmost Habsburg post until 1918, when the city was reunited. As a strategic location, the city was battled over in 115 wars, Belgrade was the capital of Yugoslavia from its creation in 1918, to its final dissolution in 2006. Belgrade has an administrative status within Serbia and it is one of five statistical regions of Serbia. Its metropolitan territory is divided into 17 municipalities, each with its own local council, City of Belgrade covers 3. 6% of Serbias territory, and 22. 5% of the countrys population lives within its administrative limits. It is classified as a Beta- global city, chipped stone tools found at Zemun show that the area around Belgrade was inhabited by nomadic foragers in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras. Some of these belong to the Mousterian industry, which are associated with Neanderthals rather than modern humans. Aurignacian and Gravettian tools have also discovered there, indicating occupation between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago. The first farming people to settle in the region are associated with the Neolithic Starčevo culture, there are several Starčevo sites in and around Belgrade, including the eponymous site of Starčevo. The Starčevo culture was succeeded by the Vinča culture, a more sophisticated farming culture that grew out of the earlier Starčevo settlements which is named for a site in the Belgrade region. Evidence of early knowledge about Belgrades geographical location comes from ancient myths, the rock overlooking the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers has been identified as one of the place in the story of Jason and the Argonauts. The Paleo-Balkan tribes of Thracians and Dacians ruled this area prior to the Roman conquest, Belgrade was inhabited by a Thraco-Dacian tribe Singi, after the Celtic invasion in 279 BC, the Scordisci took the city, naming it Singidūn. In 34–33 BC the Roman army led by Silanus reached Belgrade, jovian reestablished Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, ending the brief revival of traditional Roman religions under his predecessor Julian the Apostate. In 395 AD, the passed to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
24.
Ottoman Empire
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Empire
–
Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Empire
–
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
25.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
First World War
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Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
First World War
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Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
First World War
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This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
First World War
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Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
26.
Battle of Kolubara
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The Battle of Kolubara was fought between Austria-Hungary and Serbia in November and December 1914, during the Serbian Campaign of World War I. The Serbs withdrew from Belgrade on 29–30 November, and the city fell under Austro-Hungarian control. On 2 December, the Serbian Army launched a surprise counter-attack all along the front, Valjevo and Užice were retaken by the Serbs on 8 December and the Austro-Hungarians retreated to Belgrade, which 5th Army commander Liborius Ritter von Frank deemed to be untenable. The Austro-Hungarians abandoned the city between 14 and 15 December and retreated back into Austria-Hungary, allowing the Serbs to retake their capital the following day, both the Austro-Hungarians and the Serbs suffered heavy casualties, with more than 20,000 dead on each side. The defeat humiliated Austria-Hungary, which had hoped to occupy Serbia by the end of 1914, on 22 December, Potiorek and von Frank were relieved of their respective commands, and the 5th and 6th armies were merged into a single 5th Army of 95,000 men. On 28 June 1914, Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo, the assassination precipitated the July Crisis, which led Austria-Hungary to issue an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July on suspicion that the assassination had been planned in Belgrade. The Austro-Hungarian government made the ultimatum intentionally unacceptable to Serbia, Belgrade was shelled the following day, marking the beginning of World War I. Fighting in Eastern Europe began with the first Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia in early August 1914, the number of Austro-Hungarian troops assigned to the invasion was far smaller than the 308, 000-strong force intended when war was declared. On the other hand, the Serbs could muster some 450,000 men to oppose the Austro-Hungarians upon full mobilization, the main elements to face the Austro-Hungarians were the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and Užice armies, with a combined strength of approximately 180,000 men. Petar Bojović, Stepa Stepanović, Pavle Jurišić Šturm and Miloš Božanović commanded the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and Užice armies, the Balkan Wars had only just concluded and Serbia was still recovering. Over 36,000 Serbian soldiers had killed and 55,000 seriously wounded. Few recruits had been gained from the acquired territories, and the Serbian Army had been stretched by the need to garrison them against Albanian insurgents. To compound matters, the Serbs were dangerously short of artillery and their supply problems also extended to more basic items. Many soldiers lacked any other than a standard issue greatcoat. Rifles were also in short supply. It was estimated that full mobilization would see some 50,000 Serbian soldiers with no equipment at all, the Austro-Hungarians, on the other hand, possessed an abundance of modern rifles and had twice as many machine guns and field guns as the Serbs. They also had better stocks of munitions, as well as much better transport, the Serbs had a slight advantage over the Austro-Hungarians as many of their soldiers were experienced veterans of the Balkan Wars and better trained than their Austro-Hungarian counterparts. Serb soldiers were highly motivated, which compensated in part for their lack of weaponry
Battle of Kolubara
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A map depicting the third Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, November–December 1914.
Battle of Kolubara
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Serbian soldiers marching through the countryside, c. 1914.
Battle of Kolubara
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Aftermath of the Austro-Hungarian bombardment of
Šabac, October 1914.
Battle of Kolubara
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Austro-Hungarian soldiers stand beside captured Serbian artillery.
27.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
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Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
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The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
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Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
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Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
28.
1999 NATO bombing of Valjevo
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The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia was the North Atlantic Treaty Organisations military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. The air strikes lasted from March 24,1999 to June 10,1999, NATO claimed that the Albanian population in Kosovo were being persecuted by FRY forces, Serbian police, and Serb paramilitary forces, and that military action was needed to force the FRY to stop. NATO countries attempted to gain authorization from the United Nations Security Council for military action, NATO launched a campaign without UN authorization, which it described as a humanitarian intervention. The FRY described the NATO campaign as a war of aggression against a sovereign country that was in violation of international law because it did not have UN Security Council support. The bombing killed between 489 and 528 civilians, and destroyed bridges, industrial plants, public buildings, private businesses, as well as barracks, the NATO bombing marked the second major combat operation in its history, following the 1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was the first time that NATO had used military force without the approval of the UN Security Council, after its autonomy was quashed, Kosovo was faced with state organized oppression, from the early 1990s, Albanian language radio and television were restricted and newspapers shut down. Kosovar Albanians were fired in large numbers from public enterprises and institutions, including banks, hospitals, in June 1991 the University of Priština assembly and several faculty councils were dissolved and replaced by Serbs. Kosovar Albanian teachers were prevented from entering school premises for the new year beginning in September 1991. Later, Kosovar Albanians started an insurgency against Belgrade when the Kosovo Liberation Army was founded in 1996, armed clashes between two sides broke out in early 1998. A NATO-facilitated ceasefire was signed on 15 October, but both sides broke it two months later and fighting resumed, after the Rambouillet Accords broke down on 23 March with Yugoslav rejection of an external peacekeeping force, NATO prepared to install the peacekeepers by force. Operation Allied Force predominantly used an air campaign to destroy Yugoslav military infrastructure from high altitudes. After the third day of bombing, NATO had destroyed almost all of its strategic military targets in Yugoslavia. Despite this, the Yugoslav Army continued to function and to attack Kosovo Liberation Army insurgents inside Kosovo, mostly in the regions of Northern and Southwest Kosovo. The NATO air forces also targeted infrastructure, such as plants, water-processing plants. Commentators have debated whether the capitulation of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War of 1999 resulted solely from the use of air power, the Rand Corporation examined the issue in a study. According to John Keegan, the capitulation of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War marked a point in the history of warfare. It proved that a war can be won by air power alone, by comparison, diplomacy had failed before the war, and the deployment of a large NATO ground force was still weeks away when Slobodan Milošević agreed to a peace deal. As for why air power should have been capable of acting alone and these normally come together only rarely, but all occurred during the Kosovo War, Bombardment needs to be capable of causing destruction while minimising casualties
1999 NATO bombing of Valjevo
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Novi Sad on fire, 1999
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
1999 NATO bombing of Valjevo
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Wesley Clark served as the
Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)
1999 NATO bombing of Valjevo
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Yugoslav Ministry of Defence building damaged during
NATO bombing
1999 NATO bombing of Valjevo
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People crossing Danube after destruction of all three bridges in Novi Sad
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