1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
Indiana
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Indiana /ɪndiˈænə/ is a U. S. state located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th U. S. state on December 11,1816, before becoming a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Indiana has an economy with a gross state product of $298 billion in 2012. Indiana has several areas with populations greater than 100,000. The states name means Land of the Indians, or simply Indian Land and it also stems from Indianas territorial history. On May 7,1800, the United States Congress passed legislation to divide the Northwest Territory into two areas and named the section the Indiana Territory. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a resident of Indiana is officially known as a Hoosier. The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were the Paleo-Indians, divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were nomads who hunted large game such as mastodons. They created stone tools made out of chert by chipping, knapping and flaking, the Archaic period, which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, such new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of notches. They made ground-stone tools such as axes, woodworking tools. During the latter part of the period, they built mounds and middens. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC, afterward, the Woodland period took place in Indiana, where various new cultural attributes appeared. During this period, the people created ceramics and pottery, an early Woodland period group named the Adena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle portion of the Woodland period, the Hopewell people began developing long-range trade of goods, nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops as corn and squash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD, the Mississippian culture emerged, lasting from 1000 until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to their cosmology, with mounds and plazas defining ceremonial
5.
Porter County, Indiana
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Porter County is a county located in the U. S. state of Indiana. As of 2010, the population was 164,343 and this county is part of Northwest Indiana as well as the Chicago metropolitan area. Porter County is the site of the Indiana Dunes, an area of ecological significance, a museum called the Hour Glass located in Ogden Dunes, contains exhibits that document the ecological significance. The area of Indiana which became Porter County was occupied by an Algonquian people named by the archeologist as the Huber-Berrien. This was a culture that arrived after the glaciers retreated somewhere around 15,000 years ago. The Huber-Berrien people were a subsistence society, the native people of this area were next recorded during the Iroquois Wars as being Potawatomi and Miami. The trading post system used by the French and then the English encouraged native people to live in villages along major waterways. Therefore, there are no recorded villages within the current boundaries of Porter County and it was not until 1830 when Chiquas town and Tassinong appear on maps and in records. Chiquas town is located a mile east of Valparaiso on State Route 2, Tassinong is south of Valparaiso about 5 miles on State Route 49 at Baums Bridge Road, the main route across the Great Kankakee Marsh. Porter County was formed in 1836, from 1832 to 1836, the area that was to become Porter County was part of La Porte County. It was named for Capt. David Porter, naval officer during the Barbary Wars and the War of 1812. According to the 2010 census, the county has an area of 521.78 square miles, of which 418.15 square miles is land and 103.63 square miles is water. The highest point, at 870 feet, is in northeastern Jackson Township near County Road East 950 North, the lowest point, at 585 feet, is along the Lake Michigan shoreline. Westchester Public Library has its branch, the Thomas Library, in Chesterton with a branch. Average monthly precipitation ranged from 1.82 inches in February to 4.66 inches in June, the county government is a constitutional body, and is granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana, and by the Indiana Code. County Council, The county council is the branch of the county government and controls all the spending. Representatives are elected from county districts, the council members serve four-year terms. They are responsible for setting salaries, the budget and special spending
6.
Center Township, Porter County, Indiana
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Center Township is one of twelve townships in Porter County, Indiana. As of the 2010 census, its population was 43,267, Center Township was organized in 1836, and named for its location at the geographic center of Porter County. The largest community in the township is Valparaiso, Center Township is served by the Valparaiso Community Schools. Their high school is Valparaiso High School, Valparaiso is also the home of Valparaiso University. Indiana Township Association United Township Association of Indiana Township Trustee Website Center Township Trustee Charles Conover Facebook Page
7.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
8.
Central Time Zone
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The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
11.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
12.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
13.
Potawatomi
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The Pottawatomi /ˌpɑːtəˈwɑːtəmiː/, also spelled Pottawatomie and Potawatomi, are a Native American people of the Great Plains, upper Mississippi River and Western Great Lakes region. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a member of the Algonquian family, the Potawatomi called themselves Neshnabé, a cognate of the word Anishinaabe. The Potawatomi were part of an alliance, called the Council of Three Fires, with the Ojibwe. In the 19th century, they were pushed to the west by European/American encroachment in the late 18th century, under Indian Removal, they eventually ceded many of their lands, and most of the Potawatomi relocated to Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory, now in Oklahoma. Some bands survived in the Midwest and today are recognized as tribes. In Canada, some bands are recognized by the government as First Nations, the English Potawatomi is derived from the Ojibwe Boodewaadamii. The Potawatomi name for themselves is Bodéwadmi, a cognate of the Ojibwe form and their name means those who keep/tend the hearth-fire, which refers to the hearth of the Council of Three Fires. The word comes from to keep/tend the hearth-fire, which is bodewadm in the Potawatomi language, alternatively, the Potawatomi call themselves Neshnabé, a cognate of Ojibwe Anishinaabe, meaning Original People. The Potawatomi are first mentioned in French records, which suggest that in the early 17th century, during the Beaver Wars they fled to the area around Green Bay to escape attacks by both the Iroquois and the Neutral Nation, who were seeking expanded hunting grounds. As an important part of Tecumsehs Confederacy, Potawatomi warriors took part in Tecumsehs War, the War of 1812 and their alliances switched repeatedly between Great Britain and the United States as power relations shifted between the nations, and they calculated effects on their trade and land interests. At the time of the War of 1812, a band of Potawatomi inhabited the area near Fort Dearborn, george Ronan, the first graduate of West Point to be killed in combat, died in this ambush. The incident is referred to as the Fort Dearborn Massacre, a Potawatomi chief named Mucktypoke, counseled his fellow warriors against the attack. Later he saved some of the captives who were being ransomed by the Potawatomi. The French period of contact began with early explorers who reached the Potawatomi in western Michigan and they also found the tribe located along the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin. By the end of the French period, the Potawatomi had begun a move to the Detroit area, leaving the large communities in Wisconsin. Madouche during the Fox Wars Millouisillyny Onanghisse at Green Bay Otchik at Detroit The British period of contact began when France ceded its lands after the defeat in the French, pontiacs Rebellion was an attempt by Native Americans to push the British and other European settlers out of their territory. The Potawatomi captured every British frontier garrison but the one at Detroit, the Potawatomi nation continued to grow and expanded westward from Detroit, most notably in the development of the St. Joseph villages adjacent to the Miami in southwestern Michigan. The Wisconsin communities continued and moved south along the Lake Michigan shoreline, nanaquiba at Detroit Ninivois at Detroit Peshibon at St. Joseph Washee at St
14.
Sauk Trail
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The Sauk Trail began as a Native American trail running through Illinois, Indiana and Michigan in the United States. From west to east, the trail ran from Rock Island on the Mississippi River to the Illinois River near modern Peru then along the bank of that river to Joliet. Then it ran northeasterly to La Porte and into southern Michigan running through Niles, Three Rivers, Ypsilanti, there is a suggestion that sections of the trail followed the southern boundary between the dense forest and the mixed grassland regions. The presence of a trailway along the same path indicates that the Native Americans may have been using a long established game trail. Henry Schoolcraft, at present-day Michigan City, Indiana, in 1820, describes the trail, as a horse path, which is considerably traveled by traders, hunters. And said that a stranger could not follow it without the services of a guide because of the side trails. The Sauk Trail intersected many important trails and early roads including the trails to Vincennes, to Green Bay, to Fort Wayne and to Little Traverse Bay. In Illinois, not much is known about the exact path, settler accounts note that where the Rock River joined the Mississippi River was the beginning of a native path that continued eastwards to Chicago. Further, US6, via 159th street and then 9th and 10th streets eventually links to US12 which is a portion of the Sauk Trail that ultimately ends in Detroit. Additionally, US6 parallels, at points, the Illinois and Des Plaines rivers paths. River banks were used as native pathways. Another possibility, although unlikely, could be the current path of Interstate 80, as it runs through the general area. The transition of the trail from Illinois to Indiana is uncertain, as its been established that the trail ran through what is today Valparaiso, then into La Porte and onto Michigan, it likely roughly followed Rte 30 before transitioning to Rte 2. In Michigan, the trail has been associated with the route of the modern US Highway 12 since 1962, before that year, saginaw Trail, another trail named after the Sac Media related to Sauk Trail at Wikimedia Commons
15.
Rock Island, Illinois
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Rock Island is a city in and the county seat of Rock Island County, Illinois, United States. The original Rock Island, from which the city name is derived, is the largest island on the Mississippi River and it is now called Arsenal Island. The population was 39,018 at the 2010 census, located on the Mississippi River, it is one of the Quad Cities, along with neighboring Moline, East Moline, and the Iowa cities of Davenport and Bettendorf. The Quad Cities has a population of about 380,000, the city is home to Rock Island Arsenal, the largest government-owned weapons manufacturing arsenal in the US, which employs 6,000 people. Theres a wide variety of housing available in Rock Island including historic homes, new downtown condos, new construction in the heart of the city, the Rock Island-Milan School District, Rockridge School District along with private schools, serve the city. The District has art galleries and theaters, nightclubs and coffee shops, golf courses, parks, a casino, botanical center, marina, historic tours, bike paths, and festivals offer entertainment opportunities. In 2015 Rock Island was ranked the 32nd Best Small City in the based on economic health, affordability. Rock Island made the list of the nations 25 Most Affordable Housing Markets and this area has been a fortuitous place first for settlement and then for steamboat traffic, bridges, and railroads. Various Native American tribes occupied this area for thousands of years before settlement, by the early nineteenth century, it was occupied chiefly by the historic Sauk tribe. Their major village of Saukenuk was located on the side of Rock Island. After the War of 1812, the United States built Fort Armstrong on the island for defensive reasons in 1816, Saukenuk was the birthplace of the Sauk war chief Black Hawk, for whom the Black Hawk War of 1831–1832 was named. Fort Armstrong served as the US militarys headquarters for the war, today the Black Hawk State Historic Site, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, includes much of the site of the original village of Saukenuk. The park includes a museum and a number of hiking trails along the Rock River, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad was founded here in 1851. It was informally known as the Rock Island Line, as part of later nineteenth-century development, two first-class hotels, the Harper House and the Rock Island House were built in town. Rock Island Arsenal has manufactured military equipment and ordnance for the U. S. Army since the 1880s, the railroad was liquidated in bankruptcy in 1980. The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River was built between Arsenal Island and Davenport in 1856, two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton collided with the bridge, caught fire, and damaged the bridge. The owner of the Effie Afton sued the company for damages. This test case was appealed to the United States Supreme Court, although the original bridge is long gone, a monument exists on Arsenal Island marking the Illinois side
16.
Detroit
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Detroit is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Michigan, the fourth-largest city in the Midwest and the largest city on the United States–Canada border. It is the seat of Wayne County, the most populous county in the state, the municipality of Detroit had a 2015 estimated population of 677,116, making it the 21st-most populous city in the United States. Roughly one-half of Michigans population lives in Metro Detroit alone, the Detroit–Windsor area, a commercial link straddling the Canada–U. S. Border, has a population of about 5.7 million. Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States, the City of Detroit anchors the second-largest economic region in the Midwest, behind Chicago, and the thirteenth-largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a tunnel and various bridges, Detroit was founded on July 24,1701 by the French explorer and adventurer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and a party of settlers. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region, with expansion of the American automobile industry in the early 20th century, the Detroit area emerged as a significant metropolitan region within the United States. The city became the fourth-largest in the country for a period, in the 1950s and 1960s, suburban expansion continued with construction of a regional freeway system. A great portion of Detroits public transport was abandoned in favour of becoming a city in the post-war period. Due to industrial restructuring and loss of jobs in the auto industry, between 2000 and 2010 the citys population fell by 25 percent, changing its ranking from the nations 10th-largest city to 18th. In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777 and this resulted from suburbanization, corruption, industrial restructuring and the decline of Detroits auto industry. In 2013, the state of Michigan declared an emergency for the city. Detroit has experienced urban decay as its population and jobs have shifted to its suburbs or elsewhere, conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces since the 2000s and allowed several large-scale revitalisations. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, paleo-Indian people inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago. In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi, for the next hundred years, virtually no British, colonist, or French action was contemplated without consultation with, or consideration of the Iroquois likely response. When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, the 1798 raids and resultant 1799 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately, and by 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400, by 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec
17.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
18.
David Porter (naval officer)
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David Porter was an officer in the United States Navy in the rank of captain and the honorary title of commodore. Porter commanded a number of U. S. naval ships and he saw service in the First Barbary War, the War of 1812 and in the West Indies. On July 2,1812, Porter hoisted the banner Free trade, the phrase resonated with many Americans and became a standard summary of U. S. war aims in 1812. Porter was later court martialed, he resigned and then joined, during the First Barbary War Porter was 1st lieutenant of Enterprise, New York and Philadelphia and was taken prisoner when Philadelphia ran aground in Tripoli harbor October 31,1803. After his release on June 3,1805, he remained in the Mediterranean as acting captain of USS Constitution, Porter married Evalina Anderson, and they had 10 children who survived, including six sons. One of these, David Dixon Porter, later became an admiral in the U. S. Navy, the older David Porter Sr. met and befriended another naval veteran of the Revolution, George Farragut, from Spanish Minorca. In late spring 1808, David Porter Sr. suffered sunstroke, and Farragut took him into his home, already weakened by tuberculosis, he died on June 22,1808. Elizabeth Farragut died of yellow fever the same day, motherless, the Farragut children were to be placed with friends and relatives. In 1809 he moved with Porter to Washington, where he met Secretary of the Navy Paul Hamilton, when James went to sea soon after with his adoptive father, he changed his name from James to David, and it is as David Glasgow Farragut that he is remembered. Porter served in the Quasi war with France and he was appointed a midshipman on 16 April 1798. He was assigned to the USS Constellation under the command of John Rodgers and he was promoted to lieutenant on 8 October 1799. As lieutenant he served as second in command of the schooner USS Experiment during the action of 1 January 1800 and he was promoted to master commandant on 22 April 1806 and was in charge of the naval forces at New Orleans from 1808 to 1810. With the outbreak of the War of 1812, Porter was promoted to captain on 2 July 1812 and was assigned as commander of USS Essex and he sailed out of New York harbor with the banner, Free trade and sailors rights flying from the foretopgallant mast. Captain Porter achieved fame by capturing the first British warship of the conflict, HMS Alert, in February 1813 he sailed Essex around Cape Horn and cruised the Pacific warring on British whalers. Porters first action in the Pacific was the capture of the Peruvian vessel Nereyda, over the next year, Porter would capture 12 whaleships and 360 prisoners. In June 1813, Porter released his prisoners, on the condition that they not fight against the United States until they were exchanged for American prisoners of war. Porters usual tactic was to raise British colors to allay the British captains suspicions, then once invited on board, he would reveal his true allegiance and purpose. From 1815 to 1822, he was a member of the Board of Navy Commissioners, while in the West Indies suppressing piracy, Porter invaded the town of Fajardo, Puerto Rico to avenge the jailing of an officer from his fleet
19.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
20.
Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway
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It included the current Norfolk Southern-owned Fort Wayne Line east of Crestline, Ohio, to Pittsburgh, and the Fort Wayne Secondary, owned by CSX, from Crestline west to Tolleston in Gary, Indiana. CSX leased its portion in 2004 to the Chicago, Fort Wayne. It was organized on June 15, and construction began on July 4,1849, the first section, from Allegheny City west to New Brighton, opened July 30,1851. Extensions opened to New Galilee on October 22 and Enon Valley November 19, on November 27,1851, a section between Salem and Alliance, Ohio, was completed, not yet connected to the rest. On December 8, the east section was extended west to East Palestine, Ohio, further sections opened January 3,1852, west to Columbiana, and on January 6 the gap between Columbiana and Salem was filled. In conjunction with the Cleveland and Pittsburgh Railroad, connecting at Alliance, on March 11,1852, an extension west to Massillon was opened with an excursion. On August 10,1852, an extension from Massillon west to Wooster opened. The line west to Mansfield was finished April 8,1853, with this it formed part of a through line to Cincinnati via the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad. Work began on August 16,1854, on the Fort Wayne Railroad Bridge over the Allegheny River to extend the O&P into Pittsburgh to connect with the Pennsylvania Railroad, the bridge opened September 22,1857, with a temporary station at Penn Street and Tenth Street. The Ohio and Indiana Railroad was chartered in Ohio on March 26,1850 and it was organized July 4,1850, and work began in February 1852. Some of the capital was gained from a merger with the Great Western Railroad of Ohio in 1851, on August 26,1853, the line opened from Crestline west to Bucyrus, and a continuation west to Forest opened in early January 1854. On June 10 the line opened west to Delphos, and on October 31 the full line to Fort Wayne was completed, opening the next day. The Fort Wayne and Chicago Railroad was chartered in Indiana on May 11,1852 and it was chartered February 5,1853, in Illinois. The first section opened in February 1856 from Fort Wayne to Columbia City, on July 26,1856, the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Rail Road was formed as a consolidation of the Fort Wayne and Chicago, Ohio and Indiana, and Ohio and Pennsylvania Railroads. Extensions opened west to Warsaw September 28, Plymouth November 10, Englewood, Illinois on November 29,1858, on January 1,1859, trains started running to Chicago, with a terminal at the future location of Union Station. The part west of Plymouth was built with rails removed from the New Portage Railroad, from the early days, the Pennsylvania Railroad had been involved with the project, supplying funds. Once the Fort Wayne Railroad Bridge at Pittsburgh was finished in 1857, in 1858 the PFW&C began using the first Union Station in Pittsburgh, shared with the PRR. On July 1,1859, the PFW&C defaulted on its debts and it was reorganized as the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway February 26,1862
21.
Gary, Indiana
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Gary is a city in Lake County, Indiana, United States,25 miles from downtown Chicago, Illinois. The population of Gary was 80,294 at the 2010 census, from the middle of the twentieth century to the present, Gary has experienced drastic population loss, falling by 55 percent from its peak of 178,320 in 1960. Gary is adjacent to the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and borders Lake Michigan, the city is known for its large steel mills, and for being the birthplace of The Jackson 5 music group. Gary, Indiana, was founded in 1906 by the United States Steel Corporation as the home for its new plant, the city was named after lawyer Elbert Henry Gary, who was the founding chairman of the United States Steel Corporation. Gary was the site of civil unrest in the Steel Strike of 1919, on October 4,1919, a riot broke out on Broadway, the main north-south street through downtown Gary, between striking steel workers and strike breakers brought in from outside. Three days later, Indiana governor James P. Goodrich declared martial law, shortly thereafter, over 4,000 federal troops under the command of Major General Leonard Wood arrived to restore order. The jobs offered by the industry provided Gary with very rapid growth. At that time,19. 3% of the population was classified as foreign-born, Gary was also becoming increasingly racially diverse, with 17. 8% of the population classified as black, and 3. 5% as Mexican. Garys fortunes have risen and fallen with those of the steel industry, the growth of the steel industry brought prosperity to the community. Broadway was known as a center for the region. Department stores and architecturally significant movie houses were built in the downtown area, in the 1960s, like many other American urban centers reliant on one particular industry, Gary entered a spiral of decline. Garys decline was brought on by the growing overseas competitiveness in the steel industry, the U. S. Steel Gary Works employed over 30,000 in 1970, declined to just 6,000 by 1990, and further declined to 5,100 in August of 2015. As the city declined, crime increased, rapid racial change occurred in Gary during the late 20th century. Non-whites were primarily restricted to live in the Midtown section just south of downtown, Gary had one of the nations first African-American mayors, Richard G. Hatcher, and hosted the ground-breaking 1972 National Black Political Convention. Since the 1930s, Gary had developed a reputation as a city due to rampant political corruption, racial violence & segregation, labor unrest. In the 1960s through the 1980s, surrounding localities such as Merrillville and Crown Point experienced rapid growth, including new homes. Owing to white flight, economic distress, and a perception of skyrocketing crime, many middle-class, in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Gary had the highest percentage of African-Americans of U. S. cities with a population of 100,000 or more, 84%. This no longer applies to Gary since the population of the city has now fallen well below 100,000 residents, as of 2013, the Gary Department of Redevelopment has estimated that one-third of all homes in the city are unoccupied and/or abandoned
22.
Interstate 65
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Interstate 65 is a major Interstate Highway in the central United States. As with most interstates that end in a five, it is a major cross-country, north-south route, I-65 connects several major metropolitan areas in the Midwest and Southern United States. It connects the four largest cities in Alabama and it also serves as one of the main north-south routes through Nashville, Tennessee, Louisville, Kentucky, and Indianapolis, Indiana, each a major metropolitan area in each respective state. In the state of Alabama, I-65 passes through or near four of the major metropolitan areas, Mobile, Montgomery, Birmingham. I-65 begins its path northward in Mobile at its junction with I-10, from I-10, I-65 runs west of downtown Mobile and through the northern suburbs of the city before turning northeasterly towards Montgomery. In Montgomery, I-65 connects with the terminus of I-85. In Birmingham, I-65 has an interchange with I-20/I-59, north of downtown, I-22 branches off I-65 towards Memphis. From Birmingham, I-65 continues north, crossing the Tennessee River near Decatur, a few miles north of the river, it interchanges with I-565, a short spur route which provides access to Huntsville. It then continues out of the Tennessee Valley to the state of Tennessee. I-65 enters Tennessee from the south near the town of Ardmore, then it reaches the outer parts of Columbia and making its way to Saturn Parkway, which brings travelers to the town of Spring Hill. I-65 then continues on to reach I-840 and progresses until it intersects SR96 at Franklin, then the highway goes through Brentwood, Nashville, Madison, Goodlettsville, White House, and then close to Portland, this highway passes into the state of Kentucky. I-65 enters the state five miles south of Franklin, throughout its length, it passes near Mammoth Cave National Park, Bernheim Forest, the National Corvette Museum and the Fort Knox Military Reservation. I-65 has intersections with four of the parkways in the state, the first major junction is with the William H. Natcher Parkway at Bowling Green, followed by the Cumberland Parkway north of the city between Smiths Grove and Park City. At Elizabethtown, it has two more interchanges with the Wendell H. Ford Western Kentucky Parkway and the Martha Layne Collins Bluegrass Parkway. I-65 also has interchanges with I-265, I-264, I-64, the widest stretch of Interstate 65 in its entirety is in Louisville at Kentucky Route 1065, where the main line is 14 lanes wide. The highway crosses the Ohio River into Indiana on the John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge, the latter bridge opened in October 2016 as part of the Ohio River Bridges Project. Prior to the project, the Kennedy Bridge carried traffic in both directions, the project also included reconstruction of the I-65/I-64/I-71 convergence interchange just south of the Kennedy Bridge, plus renovating the older span to carry six lanes of southbound traffic. At one time, the stretch of I-65 from Louisville to Elizabethtown was a road bearing the Kentucky Turnpike name
23.
Interstate 80
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Interstate 80 is a transcontinental limited-access highway in the United States that runs from downtown San Francisco, California, to Teaneck, New Jersey, in the New York City Metropolitan Area. The highway was designated in 1956 as one of the routes of the Interstate Highway System. Its final segment was opened to traffic in 1986 and it is the second-longest Interstate Highway in the United States, following I-90. I-80 is the Interstate Highway that most closely approximates the route of the historic Lincoln Highway, from near Chicago east to near Youngstown, Ohio, I-80 is a toll road, containing the majority of both the Indiana Toll Road and the Ohio Turnpike. I-80 runs concurrently with I-90 from near Portage, Indiana, to Elyria, in Pennsylvania, I-80 is known as the Keystone Shortway, a non-tolled freeway that crosses rural north-central portions of the state on the way to New Jersey and New York City. I-80 begins at an interchange with U. S. Route 101 in San Francisco and it then heads northeast through Vallejo, Sacramento, and the Sierra Nevada mountains before crossing into Nevada. A portion of the route through Pinole involved the experimental transplantation of the rare species Santa Cruz tarweed in the right-of-way, in Nevada, I-80 traverses the northern portion of the state. The Nevada portion of I-80 follows the paths of the Truckee and Humboldt rivers, the Interstate also follows the historical routes of the California Trail, First Transcontinental Railroad, and Feather River Route throughout portions of the state. I-80 in Nevada closely follows, and at points directly overlaps, the original route of the Victory Highway, State Route 1. After crossing Utahs western border in Wendover, I-80 crosses the desolate Bonneville Salt Flats west of the Great Salt Lake, the longest stretch between exits on an Interstate Highway is located between Wendover and Knolls, with 37.4 miles between those exits. This portion of I-80, crossing the Great Salt Lake Desert, is flat and straight, dotted with large warning signs about driver fatigue. It ascends Parleys Canyon and passes within a few miles of Park City as it follows a route through the mountains towards the junction with the terminus of the western section of I-84. From the junction it continues up Echo Canyon and on towards the border with Wyoming, the route of the Utah section of I-80 is defined in Utah Code Annotated § 72-4-113. In Wyoming, I-80 reaches its maximum elevation of 8,640 feet above sea level at Sherman Summit, near Buford, farther west in Wyoming, the Interstate passes through the dry Red Desert and over the Continental Divide. I-80 enters Nebraska west of Bushnell, the western portion of I-80 in Nebraska runs very close to the state of Colorado, without entering the state. The intersection of I-76 and I-80 is visible from the Colorado–Nebraska state line, from its intersection with I-76 to Grand Island, I-80 lies in the valley of the South Platte River and the Platte River. Along this length, the road does not vary from a straight line by more than a few yards. After Lincoln, I-80 turns northeast towards Omaha and it then crosses the Missouri River in Omaha to enter the state of Iowa
24.
Interstate 90
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Interstate 90 is a transcontinental freeway, and the longest Interstate Highway in the United States at 3,020.54 miles. Its western terminus is in Seattle, at Edgar Martinez Drive S. near Safeco Field and CenturyLink Field, I-90 crosses the Continental Divide over Homestake Pass just east of Butte, Montana. East of the Wisconsin-Illinois border, much of I-90 follows several toll roads, the Interstate is not tolled through some segments in downtown Chicago, Greater Cleveland, and the rest of Northeast Ohio, Pennsylvania, and through brief sections near Buffalo, Albany, and Boston. Erie, Pennsylvania, Madison, Wisconsin, Billings, Montana, the western I-90 terminus is in the SoDo neighborhood of Seattle. I-90 eastbound begins at exit 2B, Edgar Martínez Drive S and 4th Avenue S. I-90 westbound exit 2B ends at Edgar Martínez Dr and 4th Ave near Safeco Field, as well as 4th Ave just north of S. Royal Brougham Way near CenturyLink Field, about a block east of the entrance to the Port of Seattles container shipping terminal 46, the tunnel that carries I-90 under the Mount Baker Ridge is on the National Register of Historic Places. The east portal of the tunnel is constructed as a bas relief concrete sculpture and they are the second and fifth longest such bridges, respectively. Forty miles east of Bellevue, I-90 traverses the Cascade Ranges Snoqualmie Pass and it intersects I-82 shortly after exiting the mountains and crosses the Columbia River on the Vantage Bridge at mile post 137. After entering Spokane near mile post 279, it enters Idaho eighteen miles later, since 1980, I-90 from Seattle to Thorp was designated the Mountains to Sound Greenway to protect its outstanding scenic and cultural resources. The Washington section of I-90 is defined in the Revised Code of Washington, the small town of Wallace still prides itself on having what was the last stop light in the Rocky Mountains on I-90. As a result, the government was forced, at great expense, to reroute the freeway to the northern edge of downtown. That section of I-90 opened in September 1991, a bicycle path is routed beneath part of that segment. In the period between 1995 and 1999, there was no numbered speed limit on I-90 in Montana, the speed limit was simply defined as reasonable and prudent as determined on a case-by-case basis by the Montana Highway Patrol. The speed limit in Montana is now 80 mph, from the west I-90 enters Montana on the summit of Lookout Pass. It passes between the Gallatin and Bridger mountain ranges over Bozeman Pass between Bozeman and Livingston and it follows the Yellowstone River from Livingston to Billings where it connects the suburbs of Laurel and Lockwood with the rest of the Billings area. In Lockwood it intersects with I-94s western terminus and turns south, South of Hardin it passes the site of the Battle of the Little Bighorn at Crow Agency on the Crow Indian Reservation. Montana boasts the longest stretch of I-90, ranging just over 551 miles, I-90 enters the state of Wyoming from the north after splitting off from I-94 in Billings, Montana. The first major town is Sheridan where it heads southbound and it then goes across the Powder River Basin toward Gillette, Moorcroft, and Sundance where it shares alignments with both US14 and US16
25.
Interstate 94
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Interstate 94 is an east–west Interstate Highway connecting the Great Lakes and Intermountain regions of the United States. I-94s western terminus is in Billings, Montana, at a junction with I-90 and it lies along the primary overland route from Seattle to Toronto. I-94 is the eighth longest Interstate highway and the longest Interstate highway whose number does not end in a 0 or a 5, I-94 intersects with I-90 several times, at its western terminus, near Madison, Wisconsin, in Chicago, and in Lake Station, Indiana. I-94 begins at Billings and travels northeastward toward Glendive before exiting the state to the east, the Highway is notable for following the Yellowstone River from Billings through Glendive. Beyond the western terminus of I-94, I-90 connects westbound I-94 travelers to points west such as Butte and Seattle, the route enters at Beach and passes through the Badlands near Medora. A public rest area about seven miles east of Medora provides a view, especially at sunset. The highway intersects with the Enchanted Highway 11 miles east of Dickinson at exit 72, at New Salem, it passes Salem Sue, a 38-foot high sculpture of a Holstein cow and is clearly visible from I-94 on the south side of the road. A drive up the road to Sue will take visitors to a point where you can see a panoramic landscape for many miles. Between Mandan and Bismarck, I-94 crosses the Missouri River with a view of the Northern Pacific/BNSF Railroad Bridge on the side of the road. At Steele, it passes the worlds largest sculpture of a sand hill crane, at Jamestown, it passes the worlds largest sculpture of the buffalo named Dakota Thunder, which is 28 feet tall and is visible from I-94 on the north side of the road. The highway reaches Fargo, before the Red River, leaving Fargo, ND and entering Moorhead, MN, I-94 crosses the Red River. East of the Moorhead airport, the travels in a northwest-southeast trajectory past Fergus Falls, Alexandria, and St. Cloud on the way to the Twin Cities. The road crosses the Mississippi River in Minneapolis between the Prospect Park and Seward neighborhoods, the highway joins Minneapolis and St. Paul together where it meets MN Highway 280. In the Twin Cities, the routing of the highway is politically charged, primarily through many historic working-class and African-American neighborhoods. In Saint Paul, the routing of I-94 is set through and displaces the historic Rondo neighborhood, east of Saint Paul, I-94 leaves Minnesota between Lakeland, MN and Hudson, WI, while crossing the St. Croix River. Interstate 94 enters Wisconsin east of the Twin Cities at Hudson and it passes Eau Claire before turning southeastward and joining with Interstate 90 in Tomah and Interstate 39 in Portage. I-94 leaves I-90 and I-39 near Madison and resumes its path toward Milwaukee before turning south and heading to Chicago. In the state of Illinois, I-94 runs south from Wisconsin to Indiana via downtown Chicago and it is tolled on the Tri-State Tollway to the I-94/I-294 split, it then runs east to the Edens Expressway, where it turns south through the city of Chicago
26.
Amtrak
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Founded in 1971 to take over most of the remaining U. S. passenger rail services, it is partially government funded yet operated and managed as a for-profit corporation. Amtrak serves more than 500 destinations in 46 states and three Canadian provinces, operating more than 300 trains each day over 21,300 miles of track, some track sections allow trains to run as fast as 150 mph. In fiscal year 2015, Amtrak served 30.8 million passengers and had $2.185 billion in revenue, nearly two-thirds of passengers come from the 10 largest metropolitan areas, 83% of passengers travel on routes shorter than 400 miles. Its headquarters is at Union Station in Washington, D. C, the name Amtrak is a portmanteau of the words America and trak, the latter itself a sensational spelling of track. From the mid-19th century until about 1920, nearly all intercity travelers in the United States moved by rail, historically, U. S. passenger trains were owned and operated by the same privately owned companies that operated freight trains. About 65,000 railroad passenger cars operated in 1929, from 1920 into the later 20th century, passenger rails popularity diminished and there was a series of pullbacks and tentative recoveries. Rail passenger revenues declined dramatically between 1920 and 1934 because of the rise of the automobile, in the same period, many travelers were lost to interstate bus companies such as Greyhound Lines. However, in the mid-1930s, railroads reignited popular imagination with service improvements and new, diesel-powered streamliners, such as the gleaming silver Pioneer Zephyr and Flying Yankee. Even with the improvements, on a basis, traffic continued to decline. World War II broke the malaise, passenger traffic soared sixfold thanks to troop movements, in 1946, there remained 45 percent fewer passenger trains than in 1929, and the decline quickened despite railroad optimism. Passengers disappeared and so did trains, few trains generated profits, most produced losses. Broad-based passenger rail deficits appeared as early as 1948, and by the mid-1950s, by 1965, only 10,000 rail passenger cars were in operation,85 percent fewer than in 1929. Passenger service was provided on only 75,000 miles of track, the 1960s also saw the end of railway post office revenues, which had helped some of the remaining trains break even. The causes of the decline of rail in the United States were complex. Until 1920, rail was the practical form of intercity transport. By 1930, the companies had constructed, with private funding. In 1916, the amount of track in the United States peaked at 254,251 miles, some rail routes had been built primarily to facilitate the sale of stock in the railroad companies, they were redundant from the beginning. These were the first to be abandoned as the financial positions deteriorated
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Calumet (Amtrak)
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The Calumet, also commonly called the Valpo Local, was a 43. 6-mile passenger train route operated by Amtrak between Chicago and Valparaiso, Indiana. Despite Amtraks mandate to provide intercity service, the Calumet was a commuter train. Transferred from Conrail in 1979, the route was shared with Amtraks Broadway Limited until 1990. From April 1,1871, until January 1,1920, after that it returned to direct operation by the Pennsylvania Railroad until February 1,1968, when the PRR was merged into Penn Central Transportation. The bankrupt Penn Central merged into Conrail on April 1,1976, the route was also served by the daily Broadway Limited to New York City, and on October 1,1981, the daily Capitol Limited to Washington, DC, began using it. At first the Valpo Local was served by two trains, the Calumet and the Indiana Connection, the Indiana Connection was discontinued first. Amtrak announced that it would discontinue the Calumet on December 31, representative Peter J. Visclosky introduced H. R.5660 to require Amtrak to continue operations until July 1,1991 to allow time for the State of Indiana to consider subsidizing the route. Indiana decided not to pay the required $1.5 million a year, the ChicaGo Dash express bus to Chicago, which operates during weekday rush hours, has for its Valparaiso terminal a parking lot adjacent to Franklin House and former rail station. On August 1,2004, the Chicago, Fort Wayne and Eastern Railroad started freight operations over the old route of the Calumet and beyond. A $350,000 study is being conducted in 2017 to assess the return of service to Valparaiso, with the new service running as far as Fort Wayne. The Calumet and Indiana Connection were assigned numbers between 321 and 324, with odd numbers running westbound and even numbers eastbound, trains made the following station stops, Illinois Chicago Englewood State Line Indiana Whiting Standard Mahoning Indiana Harbor Buffington Gary Broadway Hobart Wheeler Valparaiso 1990 timetable
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Commuter rail
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Trains operate following a schedule, at speeds varying from 50 to 200 km/h. Distance charges or zone pricing may be used and they primarily serve lower density suburban areas, and often share right-of-way with intercity or freight trains. Some services operate only during peak hours and others uses fewer departures during off peak hours, average speeds are high, often 50 km/h or higher. These higher speeds better serve the longer distances involved, some services include express services which skip some stations in order to run faster and separate longer distance riders from short-distance ones. The general range of commuter trains distance varies between 15 and 200 km, sometimes long distances can be explained by that the train runs between two or several cities. Distances between stations may vary, but are much longer than those of urban rail systems. In city centers the train either has a station or passes through the city centre with notably fewer station stops than those of urban rail systems. Toilets are often available on trains and in stations. Their ability to coexist with freight or intercity services in the same right-of-way can drastically reduce system construction costs, however, frequently they are built with dedicated tracks within that right-of-way to prevent delays, especially where service densities have converged in the inner parts of the network. Most such trains run on the standard gauge track. Some light rail systems may run on a narrower gauge, some countries, including Finland, India, Pakistan, Russia, Brazil and Sri Lanka, as well as San Francisco in the USA and Melbourne and Adelaide in Australia, use broad gauge track. The fact that the terminology is not standardised across countries further complicates matters, most S-bahns typically behave like commuter rail with most trackage not separated from other trains, and long lines with trains running between cities and suburbs rather than within a city. The distances between stations however, are usually short, in larger systems there is usually a high frequency metro-like central corridor in the city center where all the lines converge into. Typical examples of large city S-Bahns include Munich and Frankfurt, S-Bahns do also exist in some mid-size cities like Rostock and Magdeburg but behave more like typical commuter rail with lower frequencies and very little exclusive trackage. A similar network exists in Copenhagen called the S-tog, in Hamburg and Copenhagen, other, diesel driven trains, do continue where the S-Bahn ends. Regional rail usually provides rail services between towns and cities, rather than purely linking major population hubs in the way inter-city rail does, Regional rail operates outside major cities. Unlike Inter-city, it stops at most or all stations between cities and it provides a service between smaller communities along the line, and also connections with long-distance services at interchange stations located at junctions or at larger towns along the line. Alternative names are local train or stopping train, examples include the former BRs Regional Railways, Frances TER, Germanys DB Regio and South Koreas Tonggeun services
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U.S. Route 30
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U. S. Route 30 is an east–west main route of the system of United States Numbered Highways, with the highway traveling across the northern tier of the country. It is the third longest U. S. route, after U. S. Route 20, the western end of the highway is at Astoria, Oregon, the eastern end is in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Despite long stretches of parallel and concurrent Interstate Highways, it has managed to avoid the decommissioning that has happened to other long haul routes such as U. S. Route 66. Much of the historic Lincoln Highway, the first road across America, became part of US30, it is still known by that name in many areas. The west end of US30 is at an intersection with U. S. Route 101 at the end of the Astoria–Megler Bridge in downtown Astoria, Oregon. It heads east to Portland, where it uses a section of freeway built for the canceled Interstate 505. From there it heads around the side of downtown on Interstate 405. Most of the rest of the route is concurrent with I-84, with only about 70 miles, under 1/5 of its length, off the freeway. Upon entering Idaho, US30 runs along its old route through Fruitland. It leaves at Bliss and soon crosses the Snake River, running south of it through Twin Falls and Burley before crossing it again, at the split with Interstate 86, US30 continues east with I-86 almost to its end at Pocatello. US30 cuts southeast through downtown Pocatello to Interstate 15, where it heads south to McCammon, there it exits and heads east and southeast, not parallel to an Interstate for the first time since Portland, into Wyoming. The Thousand Springs Scenic Byway is a section of old US30 in southern Idaho between the towns of Bliss and Buhl, dipping down into the Hagerman Valley and a canyon of the Snake River. These springs are outlets from the Snake River Aquifer, which flows through thousands of miles of porous volcanic rock and is one of the largest groundwater systems in the world. The aquifer is believed to be fed by the Lost River which disappears into lava flows near Arco, in Wyoming, US30 heads southeast through Kemmerer to Granger, where it joins Interstate 80 across southern Wyoming. It is also here that it joins the historic Lincoln Highway, from the state line to Grand Island, US30 closely parallels I-80. East of Grand Island, US30 diverges from I-80 and runs northeast towards Columbus on a parallel to the Platte River. At Columbus, it turns east towards Schuyler and Fremont and crosses the Missouri River into Iowa east of Blair, US30 crosses Iowa from west to east approximately 20 miles north of Interstate 80. Between Missouri Valley and Denison, the runs in a southwest-to-northeast direction
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Indiana State Road 2
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State Road 2 in the U. S. State of Indiana is an east–west route running from the Illinois border at Illinois Route 17 east to the outskirts of South Bend, Indiana at the U. S. Route 20/U. S. Route 31 freeway, also known as the St. Joseph Valley Parkway and this is a distance of 80.98 miles. SR2 begins at the Illinois–Indiana State Line where Illinois Route 17 ends, SR2 heads northeast toward U. S. Route 41 and is concurrent with US41 for 2.64 miles. It then heads east toward Lowell, beyond Lowell there is a concurrency with State Road 55. About 4 miles to the east, SR2 joins U. S. Route 231, after SR2 leaves US231 it heads north-northeast toward Valparaiso. SR2 enters Valpariso from the southwest and joins U. S. Route 30, at the State Road 49 exit, SR2 joins SR49 north. Soon after SR2 leaves SR49 and heads northeast toward LaPorte, passing though Westville, there is a short concurrency with U. S. Route 421. SR2 enters LaPorte from the west along with State Road 39, in downtown LaPorte SR2 has an intersection with U. S. Route 35, here, SR39 is concurrent with US35. From this point, SR2 is a divided highway. SR2 heads northeast from LaPorte to Rolling Prairie where it meets US20, here, US20 and SR2 switch alignments at a lighted intersection, US20 follows the north and west legs of the intersection, while SR2 follows the south and east legs. On the west side of South Bend, SR2 ends at an interchange with US20, SR2 has been largely replaced by the Indiana Toll Road and by US20. SR2 appears to be part of an old alignment from Kankakee, Illinois to South Bend, in Valparaiso, SR2 has been rerouted around the downtown and central business districts of the city. Instead of traveling through the city along Washington Street, SR2 shares portions of the routes of US30, several times in its history, SR2 has run along the path of the Lincoln Highway. Until the completion of the St. Joseph Valley Parkway around the South Bend – Elkhart area, SR2 continued to downtown South Bend, SR2 originally followed the Lincoln Highway to Fort Wayne before U. S. Route 33 supplanted it east of downtown South Bend. Part of SR 2s former routing is now State Road 933
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Indiana State Road 49
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State Road 49 in the U. S. State of Indiana is a state highway in northwest Indiana. It runs from just north of Chesterton, at the intersection with U. S. Route 12 south, to an interchange,10 miles northeast of Rensselaer. This is a distance of about 44.15 miles, the southern terminus of SR49 is in Wheatfield at State Road 14. SR49 heads north from Wheatfield toward Valparaiso, just south of Valparaiso SR49 becomes a divided highway. Then in Valparaiso SR49 has an interchange with U. S. Route 30, after the US30 interchange, SR49 and State Road 2 have an interchange. Then SR49 leaves Valparaiso heading north toward Chesterton having an interchange with U. S. Route 6, Interstate 80/Interstate 90/Indiana Toll Road, Interstate 94, U. S. Route 20, US12 is the northern terminus of SR49. Before 1926, SR49 was a named Liberty Way from Kouts to Valparaiso, after 1926, SR49 was a two-lane highway from Valparaiso to Chesterton, known as Old State Road 49. When the Valparaiso Bypass was completed the old route was decommissioned and turned over to the City of Valparaiso, the City of Chesterton, Indiana State Road 149 Indiana State Road 249
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Valparaiso Moraine
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The Valparaiso Moraine is a terminal moraine that forms an immense U around the Lake Michigan basin in North America. It is a band of high, hilly terrain made up of glacial till and it begins near the border of Wisconsin and Illinois and extends south through Lake, McHenry, Cook, DuPage and Will counties in Illinois, and then turns southeast, entering Indiana. From this point, the moraine curves northeast through Lake, Porter and it continues into Michigan as far as Montcalm County. It was formed during the Crown Point Phase of the Wisconsin glaciation, at this time the glacier covering the area had grown thin, so it was restrained by the dolomite rock layers of the Lake Michigan basin. Where the glacier stopped, glacial till and sand was deposited, after the Valparaiso Moraine was formed, the glacier retreated and formed the Tinley Moraine. Many towns in northwest Indiana and northeast Illinois are named after the Valparaiso Moraine or the Tinley Moraine, also, many small creeks or rivers start in the Valparaiso Moraine. The moraine itself was named after the city of Valparaiso, Indiana, the Valparaiso Moraine forms part of the Saint Lawrence River Divide, bounding the Great Lakes Basin. The Valparaiso Moraine formed as the first major moraine of the Cary substage of the Wisconsin Glacial period, there are three minor moraines that have been identified in northeastern Illinois, the Minooka, Rockdale, and Manhattan. Within the arc created by the Valparaiso Moraine are two younger Cary substage moraines of the Tinley Moraine and the Lake Border Moraine, younger still is the Port Huron system, which occurs in the northern portion of the Lake Michigan Basin. The Cary substage dates to around 30,000 years before present, the Valparaiso system includes five moraines north of Chicago. The most northerly reach is to the headwaters of the Fox River in Waukesha County, the moraine angles to the south and east, reaching the headwaters of the Des Plaines River west of Kenosha, Wisconsin, in the county of the same name. The moraine forms a portion of the eastern divide of the Fox River Basin. The moraine continues southward along the Des Plaines River following the route of the modern Tri-State Tollway around the west side of Chicago. Where the Des Plaines River bends to the west and forms the Illinois River, in this area, the moraine has widened out towards the south and east, becoming a broad plain covering large portions of Will and Kankakee counties. Turning eastward, the moraine enters Indiana, the moraine is 17 miles wide as it passes through Lake County, Indiana, covering nearly half of the countys midsection. As it passes through Porter County, Indiana, it is under the city of Valparaiso, through Indiana, the moraine forms a continental divide between the drainage of the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River. The moraine then turns northeast, passing just north of La Porte, Indiana, upon entering Michigan the moraine forms much of the shoreline of Lake Michigan northward through St. Joseph. The inner border is less than 15 miles and at its closest approach is only about 6 miles from Lake Michigan, the system is from 5 miles or 6 miles up to nearly 20 miles
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Glacial period
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A glacial period is an interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the hand, are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods. The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago, the Holocene epoch is the current interglacial. A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state, within the Quaternary glaciation, there have been a number of glacials and interglacials. The last glacial period was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, occurring in the Pleistocene epoch, the glacial advance reached its maximum extent about 18,000 BP. In Europe, the ice sheet reached northern Germany, since orbital variations are predictable, computer models that relate orbital variations to climate can predict future climate possibilities. Work by Berger and Loutre suggests that the current warm climate may last another 50,000 years
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Kame
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Kames are often associated with kettles, and this is referred to as kame and kettle topography. According to White, kames were formed by meltwater which deposited more or less washed material at places in. At places the material is very well washed and stratified, at others it is more poorly washed, Kame gravels thus tend to be variable and range from fine to coarse grained and even to cobbly and boulder. With the melting of the glacier, streams carry sediment to glacial lakes, however, with the continuous melting of the glacier, the kame delta eventually collapses on to the land surface, furthering the kame and kettle topography. Kame terraces are found along the side of a glacial valley and are stratified deposits of meltwater streams flowing between the ice and the adjacent valley side. These kame terraces tend to look like long flat benches, with a lot of pits on the surface made by kettles. They tend to slope downvalley with gradients similar to the surface along which they formed. Kames are sometimes compared to drumlins, but their formation is distinctively different, a drumlin is not originally shaped by meltwater, but by the ice itself and has a quite regular shape. It occurs in fine-grained material, such as clay or shale, not in sands, and drumlins usually have concentric layers of material, as the ice successively plasters new layers in its movement. Kames are not normally located in proximity to one another, however in Edmonton, Alberta, numerous kames are found nearby, the Fonthill Kame in southern Ontario is in a densely populated area. Examples can also be found in Wisconsin and at the Sims Corner Eskers and they are also located in Mendon Ponds Park, SE of Rochester, NY. This park is on the National Registry of Natural Landmarks due to geological history & presence of significant kames, in Ontario, there are two provincial parks, both designated as IUCN category the nature reserves, which were created to protect important and undisturbed kame features. They are Minnitaki Kames Provincial Park and Bonheur River Kame Provincial Park, drumlin Esker Glacial Kame Culture Glacial landforms Moraine Outwash fan Easterbrook, Don J. Surface Processes and Landforms. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, tarbuck, Edward J. Frederick K. Lutgens. Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geography, upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall. Don Mills, Ontario, Oxford University Press
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Glacial erratics
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A glacial erratic is a piece of rock that differs from the size and type of rock native to the area in which it rests. Erratics take their name from the Latin word errare, and are carried by glacial ice, Erratics can range in size from pebbles to large boulders such as Big Rock in Alberta. Geologists identify erratics by studying the surrounding the position of the erratic. Erratics are significant because, They can be transported by glaciers and their lithographic origin can be traced to the parent bedrock, allowing for confirmation of the ice flow route. They can be transported by ice rafting and this allows quantification of the extent of glacial flooding resulting from ice dam failure which release the waters stored in proglacial lakes such as Lake Missoula. Erratics released by ice-rafts that were stranded and subsequently melt, dropping their load, Erratics dropped by icebergs melting in the ocean can be used to track Antarctic and Arctic-region glacial movements for periods prior to record retention. Also known as dropstones, these can be correlated with ocean temperatures and levels to better understand, and examination of their mineralogical character leads the identification of their sources…. In geology, an erratic is material moved by forces from one location to another. Erratics are formed by ice erosion resulting from the movement of ice. Glaciers erode by multiple processes, abrasion/scouring, plucking, ice thrusting, glaciers crack pieces of bedrock off in the process of plucking, producing the larger erratics. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood, producing smaller glacial till. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, evidence supports another option for creation of erratics as well, rock avalanches onto the upper surface of the glacier. Rock avalanche–supraglacial transport occurs when the glacier undercuts a rock face, the characteristics of rock avalanche–supraglacial transport includes, Monolithologic composition - a cluster of boulders of similar composition are frequently found in close proximity. Commingling of the multiple lithologies normally present throughout the basin, has not occurred. Angularity - the supraglacially transported rocks tend to be rough and irregular, the sides of boulders are roughly planar, suggesting that some surfaces may be original fracture planes. Great size - the size distribution of the boulders tends to be skewed toward larger boulders than those produced subglacially, surficial positioning of the boulders - the boulders are positioned on the surface of glacial deposits, as opposed to partially or totally buried. Orientations - the boulders may be enough that original fracture planes can be matched. Locations of the boulder trains - the boulders appear in rows, Erratic materials may be transported by multiple glacier flows prior to their deposition, which can complicate the reconstruction of the glacial flow
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1860 United States Census
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The United States Census of 1860 was the eighth Census conducted in the United States starting June 1,1860, and lasting five months. It determined the population of the United States to be 31,443,321, the total population included 3,953,761 slaves, representing 12. 6% of the total population. By the time the 1860 census returns were ready for tabulation, as a result, Census Superintendent Joseph C. G. Kennedy and his staff produced only an abbreviated set of public reports, without graphic or cartographic representations. The statistics did allow the Census staff to produce a display, including preparing maps of Southern states. These maps displayed militarily vital topics, including population, slave population, predominant agricultural products. The 1860 census Schedule 1 was one of two schedules that counted the population of the United States, the other was Schedule 2, aggregate data for small areas, together with compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System. National data reveals that farmers made up nearly 10% of utilized occupations, farm laborers represent the next highest percent with 3. 2%, followed by general laborers at 3. 0%. More localized data shows that other occupations were common, in the town of Essex, Massachusetts, a large section of the women in the labor force were devoted to shoe-binding, while for men the common occupations were farming and shoe-making. IPUMS data also notes that the share of the population that had enrolled in school or marked as Student stood at 0. 2%. The census of 1860 was the last in which much of Southern wealth was held as slaves—still legally considered property, G. G. Kennedy U. S. Federal Cens us Mortality Schedules 1850-1880 Adam Goodheart, The Census of Doom, NY Times
