1.
Spray painting
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Spray painting is a painting technique where a device sprays a coating through the air onto a surface. The most common types employ compressed gas—usually air—to atomize and direct the paint particles, Spray guns evolved from airbrushes, and the two are usually distinguished by their size and the size of the spray pattern they produce. Airbrushes are hand-held and used instead of a brush for detailed work such as photo retouching, painting nails or fine art, air gun spraying uses equipment that is generally larger. It is typically used for covering large surfaces with a coating of liquid. Spray guns can be automated or hand-held and have interchangeable heads to allow for different spray patterns. Single color aerosol paint cans are portable and easy to store, in 1949, Edward Seymour developed a type of spray painting, aerosol paint, that could be delivered via a compressed aerosol in a can. This process occurs when paint is applied to an object through the use of a spray gun. The air gun has a nozzle, paint basin, and air compressor, when the trigger is pressed the paint mixes with the compressed air stream and is released in a fine spray. Due to a range of nozzle shapes and sizes, the consistency of the paint can be varied. The shape of the workpiece and the desired paint consistency and pattern are important factors when choosing a nozzle, the three most common nozzles are the full cone, hollow cone, and flat stream. There are two types of air-gun spraying processes, in an automatic process the gun head is attached to a mounting block and delivers the stream of paint from that position. The object being painted is usually placed on rollers or a turntable to ensure overall equal coverage of all sides, high volume low pressure is similar to a conventional spray gun using a compressor to supply the air, but the spray gun itself requires a lower pressure. A higher volume of air is used to aerosolise and propel the paint at lower air pressure, the result is a higher proportion of paint reaching the target surface with reduced overspray, materials consumption, and air pollution. A regulator is often required so that the air pressure from a compressor can be lowered for the HVLP spray gun. Alternatively a turbine unit can be used to propel the air without the need for an air line running to the compressor, a rule of thumb puts two thirds of the coating on the substrate and one third in the air. True HVLP guns use 8–20 cfm, and a compressor with a minimum of 5 horsepower output is required. HVLP spray systems are used in the automotive, decorative, marine, architectural coating, furniture finishing, scenic painting and cosmetic industries. Like HVLP, Low volume low pressure spray guns also operate at a lower pressure and this is a further effort at increasing the transfer efficiency of spray guns, while decreasing the amount of compressed air consumption
2.
Graffiti
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Graffiti are writing or drawings that have been scribbled, scratched, or painted illicitly on a wall or other surface, often within public view. Graffiti range from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and they have existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, in modern times, paint and marker pens have become the most commonly used graffiti materials. In most countries, marking or painting property without the property owners permission is considered defacement and vandalism, Graffiti may also express underlying social and political messages and a whole genre of artistic expression is based upon spray paint graffiti styles. Within hip hop culture, graffiti have evolved alongside hip hop music, b-boying, unrelated to hip-hop graffiti, gangs use their own form of graffiti to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Controversies that surround graffiti continue to create disagreement amongst city officials, law enforcement, both graffiti and its occasional singular form graffito are from the Italian word graffiato. Graffiti is applied in art history to works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface, a related term is sgraffito, which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was used by potters who would glaze their wares. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, the word originates from Greek γράφειν — graphein — meaning to write. The term graffiti referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, use of the word has evolved to include any graphics applied to surfaces in a manner that constitutes vandalism. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD, the first known example of modern style graffiti survives in the ancient Greek city of Ephesus. Local guides say it is an advertisement for prostitution, located near a mosaic and stone walkway, the graffiti shows a handprint that vaguely resembles a heart, along with a footprint and a number. This is believed to indicate that a brothel was nearby, with the handprint symbolizing payment, the ancient Romans carved graffiti on walls and monuments, examples of which also survive in Egypt. Graffiti in the world had different connotations than they carry in todays society concerning content. One inscription gives the address of a woman named Novellia Primigenia of Nuceria, another shows a phallus accompanied by the text, mansueta tene. Etched on the surface of the Mirror Wall, they contain pieces of prose, poetry, the majority of these visitors appear to have been from the elite of society, royalty, officials, professions, and clergy. There were also soldiers, archers, and even some metalworkers, the topics range from love to satire, curses, wit, and lament. Many demonstrate a high level of literacy and a deep appreciation of art. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there, one reads, Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems
3.
Defacement (vandalism)
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Defacement is a type of vandalism that involves damaging the appearance or surface of something. The object of damage may be architecture, books, paintings, iconoclasm led to the defacement of many religious artworks. Defacing could also be one of the techniques that many designers use. “For designer who want a non-modernist and individual portfolio, an illegible grunge typeface becomes a method of self-identity”. A lot of Stefan Sagmeister work demonstrate this technique very well, the Lou Reed CD cover by Stefan, Having a photo of Reed himself as a background for the designer to start writing the note along with Reed face. As the user use handwriting note and sketching through the work, it’s giving the work itself become more unique. Sometimes the use of this technique might be mistaken as vandalism to the original work, where the designer scribble over the cover image with a black marker pen, so it looks like someone has vandalized the image. Another unique using of defacement technique is the CD cover for APC by Jean Touitou, where the designer wrote the title, volume number, and date with her own hand writing on the pre-print blank CD. Not only about writing and sketching is in the form of vandalism, the cover using the spray of gold color is not considered an act of vandalism at all but the customer may also sense the personal unique of each cover that had been spray gold in different way. Most of these style like the vandalism, could also be seen as a form of art work. According to Susan A. Phillips, an idea originally refer from the Greek word “graphien, which could relate to how defacing work. An example of this can is in the work of an artist group called Bank created a work Fax-bak in 1990, the artist collects the gallery press release and then make a marking as this was an essay of student, then they faxed it back to the gallery. Vandalism of art Website defacement Odling-Smee Anne the new handmade graphics, retrieved in March 9,2016 from https, //web. archive. org/web/20151224065925/http, //www. motinternational. com/artists/bank/ Susan A. Philips. Graffiti Definition, The dictionary of art, retrieved in March 9,2016 from www. graffiti. org/faq/graf. def. html
4.
Age of Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
5.
Vandals
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The Vandals are believed to have migrated from southern Scandinavia to the area between the lower Oder and Vistula rivers during the 2nd century BC and to have settled in Silesia from around 120 BC. They are associated with the Przeworsk culture and were possibly the people as the Lugii. Around 400 the Vandals were pushed westwards again, this time by the Huns, in 409, the Vandals crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula, where their main groups, the Hasdingi and the Silingi, settled in Gallaecia and Baetica respectively. In 429, under king Genseric, the Vandals entered North Africa, by 439 they established a kingdom which included the Roman province of Africa as well as Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta and the Balearic Islands. They fended off several Roman attempts to recapture the African province and their kingdom collapsed in the Vandalic War of 533–4, in which Justinian I managed to reconquer the province for the Eastern Roman Empire. Renaissance and Early Modern writers characterized the Vandals as barbarians, sacking and looting Rome and this led to the use of the term vandalism to describe any senseless destruction, particularly the barbarian defacing of artwork. However, modern historians tend to regard the Vandals during the period from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages as perpetuators, not destroyers. The connection would be that Vendel is the homeland of the Vandals prior to the Migration Period. Further possible homelands of the Vandals in Scandinavia are Vendsyssel in Denmark, the etymology of the name may be related to a Germanic verb *wand- to wander. The Germanic mythological figure of Aurvandil shining wanderer, dawn wanderer, evening star, much has forwarded the theory that the tribal name Vandal reflects worship of Aurvandil or the Dioscuri, probably involving an origin myth that the Vandalic kings were descended from Aurvandil. Some medieval authors applied the ethnonym Vandals to Slavs, Veneti, Wends and it was once thought that the Slovenes were the descendants of the Vandals, but this is not the view of modern scholars. The Vandals are believed to have migrated from southern Scandinavia to the area between the lower Oder and Vistula somewhere in the 2nd century BC, and to have settled in Silesia from around 120 BC. The earliest mention of the Vandals is from Pliny the Elder, tribes within this category who he mentions are the Burgundiones, Varini, Carini, and the Gutones. Most archaeologists and historians identify the Vandals with the Przeworsk culture, the bearers of the Przeworsk culture mainly practiced cremation, with occasional inhumation. The Lugii have been identified by historians as the same people as the Vandals. The Lugii are mentioned by Strabo, Tacitus and Ptolemy as a group of tribes living between the Vistula and the Oder. Neither Strabo, Tacitus or Ptolemy mentions the Vandals, while Pliny the Elder mentions the Vandals, according to John Anderson, the Lugii and Vandili are designations of the same tribal group, the latter an extended ethnic name, the former probably a cult-title. By the end of the 2nd century, the Vandals were divided in two main groups, the Silingi and the Hasdingi, with the Silingi being associated with Silesia
6.
Germanic peoples
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The Germanic peoples are an ethno-linguistic Indo-European group of Northern European origin. They are identified by their use of Germanic languages, which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age, the term Germanic originated in classical times when groups of tribes living in Lower, Upper, and Greater Germania were referred to using this label by Roman scribes. Tribes referred to as Germanic by Roman authors generally lived to the north, in about 222 BCE, the first use of the Latin term Germani appears in the Fasti Capitolini inscription de Galleis Insvbribvs et Germ. This may simply be referring to Gaul or related people, the term Germani shows up again, allegedly written by Poseidonios, but is merely a quotation inserted by the author Athenaios who wrote much later. Somewhat later, the first surviving detailed discussions of Germani and Germania are those of Julius Caesar, from Caesars perspective, Germania was a geographical area of land on the east bank of the Rhine opposite Gaul, which Caesar left outside direct Roman control. This usage of the word is the origin of the concept of Germanic languages. In other classical authors the concept sometimes included regions of Sarmatia, also, at least in the south there were Celtic peoples still living east of the Rhine and north of the Alps. Caesar, Tacitus and others noted differences of culture which could be found on the east of the Rhine, but the theme of all these cultural references was that this was a wild and dangerous region, less civilised than Gaul, a place that required additional military vigilance. Caesar used the term Germani for a specific tribal grouping in northeastern Belgic Gaul, west of the Rhine. He made clear that he was using the name in the local sense and these are the so-called Germani Cisrhenani, whom Caesar believed to be closely related to the peoples east of the Rhine, and descended from immigrants into Gaul. Caesar described this group of both as Belgic Gauls and as Germani. Gauls are associated with Celtic languages, and the term Germani is associated with Germanic languages, but Caesar did not discuss languages in detail. It has been claimed, for example by Maurits Gysseling, that the names of this region show evidence of an early presence of Germanic languages. The etymology of the word Germani is uncertain, the likeliest theory so far proposed is that it comes from a Gaulish compound of *ger near + *mani men, comparable to Welsh ger near, Old Irish gair neighbor, Irish gar- near, garach neighborly. Another Celtic possibility is that the name meant noisy, cf. Breton/Cornish garm shout, however, here the vowel does not match, nor does the vowel length ). Others have proposed a Germanic etymology *gēr-manni, spear men, cf. Middle Dutch ghere, Old High German Ger, Old Norse geirr. However, the form gēr seems far too advanced phonetically for the 1st century, has a vowel where a short one is expected. The term Germani, therefore, probably applied to a group of tribes in northeastern Gaul who may or may not have spoken a Germanic language
7.
Sack of Rome (455)
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The sack of 455 was the second of three sacks of Rome, it was conducted by the Vandals, who were then at war with the usurping Western Roman Emperor Petronius Maximus. In the 440s, the Vandal king Genseric and the Roman Emperor Valentinian III, had betrothed their children, Huneric and Eudocia, to strengthen their alliance, in 455 Valentinian was killed, and Petronius Maximus rose to the throne. Petronius married Valentinians widow, Licinia Eudoxia, and had his son Palladius marry Eudocia and this move, however, damaged Genserics ambitions. The king of the Vandals claimed that the betrothal between Huneric and Eudocia was an invalidation of his peace treaty with Valentinian, and set sail to attack Rome. Before approaching the city, the Vandals knocked down all of the citys aqueducts, upon the Vandal arrival, according to the chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine, Pope Leo I requested that Genseric not destroy the ancient city nor murder its inhabitants. Genseric agreed and the gates of Rome were thrown open to him, Maximus, who fled rather than fight the Vandal warlord, was killed by a Roman mob outside the city, possibly together with his son Palladius. There is, however, some debate over the severity of the Vandal sack, the sack of 455 is generally seen as being more thorough than the Visigothic sack of 410, because the Vandals plundered Rome for fourteen days whereas the Visigoths spent only three days in the city. The cause of most controversy, however, is the claim that the sack was relatively clean, in there was little murder and violence. This interpretation seems to stem from Prospers claim that Leo managed to persuade Genseric to refrain from violence, however, Victor of Vita records how many shiploads of captives arrived in Africa from Rome, with the purpose of being sold into slavery. Similarly, the Byzantine historian Procopius reports that at least one church was burnt down, Procopius, The Vandalic War in The History of the Wars, Books III & IV, trans. The Fifth Century Chroniclers, Prosper, Hydatius and the Gallic Chronicler of 452 — for Prospers hagiographic portrayal of Leo, Victor of Vita, History of the Vandal Persecution, trans. The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilisation pp.17 &189
8.
Genseric
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During his nearly 50 years of rule, he raised a relatively insignificant Germanic tribe to the status of a major Mediterranean power. After he died, they entered a decline and eventual collapse. He might have been invited by the Roman governor Bonifacius, who wished to use the strength of the Vandals in his struggle against the imperial government. Genseric caused great devastation as he moved eastward from the Strait of Gibraltar across Africa and he turned on Bonifacius, defeated his army in 430, and then crushed the joint forces of the Eastern and Western empires that had been sent against him. In 435 Genseric concluded a treaty with the Romans under which the Vandals retained Mauretania, in a surprise move on October 19,439, Genseric captured Carthage, striking a devastating blow at imperial power. In a 442 treaty with Rome, the Vandals were recognized as the independent rulers of Byzacena, seizing Sicily in 440 AD and later the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica, and Malta, Genseric’s fleet soon came to control much of the western Mediterranean. His most famous exploit, however, was the capture and plundering of Rome in June 455. Subsequently the King defeated two major efforts by the Romans to overthrow him, that of the emperor Majorian in 460, after dying in Carthage at the great age of 88, Genseric was succeeded by his son Huneric. Genseric was a son of King Godigisel, he is assumed to have been born near Lake Balaton around 389. After Gunderics death in 428, Genseric was elected king and he immediately began to seek ways of increasing the power and wealth of his people, who then resided in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica in southern Hispania. The Vandals had suffered greatly from attacks from the more numerous Visigothic federates, in fact, he seems to have started building a Vandal fleet even before he became king. In 428 Genseric was attacked from the rear by a force of Suebi under the command of Heremigarius who had managed to take Lusitania. This Suebi army was defeated near Mérida and its leader Hermigario drowned in the Guadiana River while trying to flee, taking advantage of a dispute between Boniface, Roman governor of North Africa, and Aetius, Genseric ferried all of his people across to Africa in 429. Once there, he won many battles over the weak and divided Roman defenders and quickly overran the territory now comprising modern Morocco and his Vandal army laid siege to the city of Hippo Regius, taking it after 14 months of bitter fighting. On October 19,439, noting that the forces of the Western Empire were heavily involved in Gaul, Genseric took possession of Carthage, stewart Oost observes, Thus he undoubtedly achieved what had been his purpose since he first crossed to Africa. The Romans were caught unaware, and Genseric captured a part of the western Roman navy docked in the port of Carthage. The Catholic bishop of the city, Quodvultdeus, was exiled to Naples, nevertheless, Genseric gave freedom of religion to the Catholics, while insisting that the regimes elite follow Arianism. The common folk had low taxes under his reign, as most of the tax pressure was on the rich Roman families, added to his own burgeoning fleet, the Kingdom of the Vandals now threatened the Empire for mastery of the western Mediterranean Sea
9.
Goths
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The Goths were an East Germanic people, two of whose branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe. In the Gothic language they were called the Gut-þiuda, most commonly translated as Gothic people, gut-þiudai, or Gutans Inferred from gen. pl. gutani in Pietroassa inscription. In Old Norse they were known as the Gutar or Gotar, in Latin as the Gothi, the exact origin of the ancient Goths is unknown. Evidence of them before they interacted with the Romans is limited, Modern academics have generally abandoned this theory. Today, the Wielbark culture is thought to have developed from earlier cultures in the same area, archaeological finds show close contacts between southern Sweden and the Baltic coastal area on the continent, and further towards the south-east, evidenced by pottery, house types and graves. Rather than a migration, similarities in the material cultures may be products of long-term regular contacts. However, the record could indicate that while his work is thought to be unreliable. Sometime around the 1st century AD, Germanic peoples may have migrated from Scandinavia to Gothiscandza, early archaeological evidence in the traditional Swedish province of Östergötland suggests a general depopulation during this period. However, there is no evidence for a substantial emigration from Scandinavia. Upon their arrival on the Pontic Steppe, the Germanic tribes adopted the ways of the Eurasian nomads, the first Greek references to the Goths call them Scythians, since this area along the Black Sea historically had been occupied by an unrelated people of that name. The earliest known material culture associated with the Goths on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea is the Wielbark culture, centered on the modern region of Pomerania in northern Poland. This culture replaced the local Oxhöft or Oksywie culture in the 1st century, the culture of this area was influenced by southern Scandinavian culture beginning as early as the late Nordic Bronze Age and early Pre-Roman Iron Age. In Eastern Europe they formed part of the Chernyakhov culture and it has been suggested that the Goths maintained contact with southern Sweden during their migration. In the first attested incursion in Thrace, the Goths were mentioned as Boranoi by Zosimus, the first incursion of the Roman Empire that can be attributed to Goths is the sack of Histria in 238. Several such raids followed in subsequent decades, in particular the Battle of Abrittus in 251, led by Cniva, at the time, there were at least two groups of Goths, the Thervingi and the Greuthungs. Goths were subsequently recruited into the Roman Army to fight in the Roman-Persian Wars. The Moesogoths settled in Thrace and Moesia, the first seaborne raids took place in three subsequent years, probably 255-257. An unsuccessful attack on Pityus was followed in the year by another
10.
John Dryden
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John Dryden was an English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who was made Englands first Poet Laureate in 1668. He is seen as dominating the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in circles as the Age of Dryden. Walter Scott called him Glorious John, Dryden was born in the village rectory of Aldwincle near Thrapston in Northamptonshire, where his maternal grandfather was rector of All Saints. He was a cousin once removed of Jonathan Swift. As a boy Dryden lived in the village of Titchmarsh. In 1644 he was sent to Westminster School as a Kings Scholar where his headmaster was Dr. Richard Busby, having recently been re-founded by Elizabeth I, Westminster during this period embraced a very different religious and political spirit encouraging royalism and high Anglicanism. Whatever Drydens response to this was, he respected the headmaster. As a humanist public school, Westminster maintained a curriculum which trained pupils in the art of rhetoric and this is a skill which would remain with Dryden and influence his later writing and thinking, as much of it displays these dialectical patterns. The Westminster curriculum included weekly translation assignments which developed Drydens capacity for assimilation and this was also to be exhibited in his later works. Busby had first prayed for the King and then locked in his schoolboys to prevent their attending the spectacle, in 1650 Dryden went up to Trinity College, Cambridge. Though there is specific information on Drydens undergraduate years, he would most certainly have followed the standard curriculum of classics, rhetoric. In 1654 he obtained his BA, graduating top of the list for Trinity that year, in June of the same year Drydens father died, leaving him some land which generated a little income, but not enough to live on. Returning to London during the Protectorate, Dryden obtained work with Cromwells Secretary of State and this appointment may have been the result of influence exercised on his behalf by his cousin the Lord Chamberlain, Sir Gilbert Pickering. At Cromwells funeral on 23 November 1658 Dryden processed with the Puritan poets John Milton, shortly thereafter he published his first important poem, Heroic Stanzas, a eulogy on Cromwells death which is cautious and prudent in its emotional display. In 1660 Dryden celebrated the Restoration of the monarchy and the return of Charles II with Astraea Redux, in this work the interregnum is illustrated as a time of anarchy, and Charles is seen as the restorer of peace and order. After the Restoration, as Dryden quickly established himself as the poet and literary critic of his day. Along with Astraea Redux, Dryden welcomed the new regime with two more panegyrics, To His Sacred Majesty, A Panegyric on his Coronation and To My Lord Chancellor and these, and his other nondramatic poems, are occasional—that is, they celebrate public events. Thus they are written for the rather than the self
11.
Vandalism of art
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Vandalism of art refers to intentional damage of an artwork. The object, usually exhibited in public, becomes damaged as a result of the act and this may distinguish it from art destruction and iconoclasm, where it may be wholly destroyed and removed, and art theft, or looting. Numerous acts of vandalism against art exhibits are known and some objects, such as Mona Lisa, Night Watch, many vandals were diagnosed with a mental disorder and some, such as Hans-Joachim Bohlmann, had a history of attacking artworks. A vast amount of damage consists of leaving a minor scratch, a chewing gum, a pencil mark and so on. More visible acts of vandalism were premeditated, as the tool of destruction – a knife, paint, in most cases, the artworks were restored. Restorations were costly and time-consuming and in cases were followed by shielding the artwork from future attacks. The term vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, the term originated from the invasion of Rome in 455 by the East Germanic tribe of Vandals, which resulted in destruction of numerous artworks, and was quickly adopted across Europe. Hans-Joachim Bohlmann was a German serial vandal, between 1977 and 2006, he damaged over 50 paintings worth more than 270 million Deutsche Marks by Rubens, Rembrandt, Dürer and other artists. Bohlmann had a personality disorder and was treated in various psychiatric hospitals since a young age, in most acts, he sprayed paintings with sulfuric acid, targeting faces of the personages. Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci has long been attracting vandals and is one of the best-protected artworks. In 1956, the part of the painting was severely damaged when a vandal doused the painting with acid while it was on display at a museum in Montauban. The use of glass has shielded the Mona Lisa from more recent attacks. In April 1974, a woman, upset by the museums policy for the disabled, sprayed red paint at the painting while it was on display at the Tokyo National Museum. In both cases, the painting was undamaged, Rembrandts Night Watch is one of the most popular paintings at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. It is viewed by about 4,000 to 5,000 visitors daily with its estimated at $925,000 in the 1970s. The painting was vandalized on several occasions, on 13 January 1911, an unemployed navy cook tried to cut it with a knife, but could not cut through the thick varnish on the painting. In 1975, William de Rijk, a school teacher. The day before, de Rijk had been turned away from the museum because he arrived after closing time, after the event, he was identified with a mental disorder, he was sent to a psychiatric hospital and committed suicide there on 21 April 1976
12.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Blois
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The Roman Catholic Diocese of Blois, is a diocese of the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic church in France. The diocese lies in western France, and encompasses the department of Loir-et-Cher, since 2002 it has been a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Tours. On 1 July 1697 Pope Innocent XII canonically erected the Bishopric of Blois from territory of the Diocese of Chartres, the Concordat of 1802 gave Loir-et-Cher to the Diocese of Orléans, and in 1822 the Diocese of Blois was re-established. Monseigneur de Thémines, who was Bishop of Blois in 1776, series episcoporum Ecclesiae catholicae, quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo. Ratisbon, Typis et Sumptibus Georgii Josephi Manz, hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi V. Patavii, Messagero di S. Antonio. Hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi VI, le clergé de France, ou tableau historique et chronologique des archevêques, évêques, abbés, abbesses et chefs des chapitres principaux du royaume, depuis la fondation des églises jusquà nos jours. Les évêques et les archevêques de France depuis 1682 jusquà1801, source This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed
13.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
14.
Gustave Courbet
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Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and his independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator, Courbets paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects, Courbets subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character, landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes and still lifes. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune, Gustave Courbet was born in 1819 to Régis and Sylvie Oudot Courbet in Ornans. Being a prosperous farming family, anti-monarchical feelings prevailed in the household, Courbets sisters, Zoé, Zélie and Juliette, were his first models for drawing and painting. After moving to Paris he often returned home to Ornans to hunt, fish and he went to Paris in 1839 and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse. An independent spirit, he left, preferring to develop his own style by studying the paintings of Spanish, Flemish and French masters in the Louvre. Among his paintings of the early 1840s are several self-portraits, Romantic in conception, trips to the Netherlands and Belgium in 1846–47 strengthened Courbets belief that painters should portray the life around them, as Rembrandt, Hals and other Dutch masters had. By 1848, he had gained supporters among the younger critics, Courbet achieved his first Salon success in 1849 with his painting After Dinner at Ornans. The work, reminiscent of Chardin and Le Nain, earned Courbet a gold medal and was purchased by the state, the gold medal meant that his works would no longer require jury approval for exhibition at the Salon—an exemption Courbet enjoyed until 1857. In 1849-50, Courbet painted Stone-Breakers, which Proudhon admired as an icon of peasant life, the painting was inspired by a scene Courbet witnessed on the roadside. He later explained to Champfleury and the writer Francis Wey, It is not often that one encounters so complete an expression of poverty and so, right then, I told them to come to my studio the next morning. Courbets work belonged neither to the predominant Romantic nor Neoclassical schools, instead, he maintained that the only possible source for living art is the artists own experience. He and Jean-Francois Millet would find inspiration painting the life of peasants, Courbet painted figurative compositions, landscapes, seascapes, and still lifes. He courted controversy by addressing issues in his work, and by painting subjects that were considered vulgar, such as the rural bourgeoisie, peasants. His work, along with that of Honoré Daumier and Jean-François Millet and he depicted the harshness in life, and in so doing challenged contemporary academic ideas of art. The Salon of 1850–1851 found him triumphant with The Stone Breakers, the Burial, one of Courbets most important works, records the funeral of his grand uncle which he attended in September 1848
15.
Paris Commune
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The Paris Commune was a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. Following the defeat of Emperor Napoleon III in September 1870, the French Second Empire swiftly collapsed, in its stead rose a Third Republic at war with Prussia, which laid siege to Paris for four months. A hotbed of radicalism, Frances capital was primarily defended during this time by the often politicized. In February 1871 Adolphe Thiers, the new executive of the French national government, signed an armistice with Prussia that disarmed the Army. Soldiers of the Communes National Guard killed two French army generals, and the Commune refused to accept the authority of the French government, the regular French Army suppressed the Commune during La semaine sanglante beginning on 21 May 1871. Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx, on 2 September 1870, after Frances unexpected defeat at the Battle of Sedan in the Franco-Prussian War, Emperor Napoleon III surrendered to the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. When the news reached Paris the next day, shocked and angry crowds came out into the streets, Empress Eugénie de Montijo, the Emperors regent, fled the city, and the Government of the Second Empire swiftly collapsed. Republican and radical deputies of the National Assembly went to the Hôtel de Ville, proclaimed the new French Republic, though the Emperor and the French Army had been defeated at Sedan, the war continued. The German army marched swiftly toward Paris, in Paris, however, the republican candidates dominated, winning 234,000 votes against 77,000 for the Bonapartists. Only about 40,000 were employed in factories and large enterprises, most were employed in industries in textiles, furniture. There were also 115,000 servants and 45,000 concierges, in addition to the native French population, there were about 100,000 immigrant workers and political refugees, the largest number being from Italy and Poland. The working class and immigrants suffered the most from the lack of activity due to the war. The Commune resulted in part from growing discontent among the Paris workers and this discontent can be traced to the first worker uprisings, the Canut Revolts, in Lyon and Paris in the 1830s. Many Parisians, especially workers and the classes, supported a democratic republic. They also wanted a more just way of managing the economy, if not necessarily socialist, socialist movements, such as the First International, had been growing in influence with hundreds of societies affiliated to it across France. In early 1867, Parisian employers of bronze-workers attempted to de-unionize their workers and this was defeated by a strike organized by the International. Later in 1867, a public demonstration in Paris was answered by the legal dissolution of its executive committee. The International had considerable influence even among unaffiliated French workers, particularly in Paris, the killing of journalist Victor Noir incensed Parisians, and the arrests of journalists critical of the Emperor did nothing to quiet the city
16.
Napoleon III
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the only President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and he was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution, during the first years of the Empire, Napoleons government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859, thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his came to be known as the Liberal Empire. Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly, Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with Frances other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize, womens education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and he was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War and his regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France, at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, on the other hand, his armys intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the power of Prussia. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies, the French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 20–21 April 1808. His presumed father was Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleons wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, as empress, Joséphine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis married Hortense when he was twenty-four and she was nineteen and they had a difficult relationship, and only lived together for brief periods
17.
Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
18.
Tuileries Palace
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The Tuileries Palace was a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, built in 1564, it was gradually extended until it closed off the western end of the Louvre courtyard and displayed an immense façade of 266 metres. After the accidental death of Henry II of France in 1559 and she sold the medieval Hôtel des Tournelles, where her husband had died, and began building the palace of Tuileries in 1564, using architect Philibert de lOrme. The name derives from the tile kilns or tuileries which had occupied the site. The palace was formed by a range of long, narrow buildings. During the reign of Henry IV, the building was enlarged to the south, so it joined the long gallery, the Grande Galerie. During the reign of Louis XIV major changes were made to the Tuileries Palace, from 1659 to 1661 it was extended to the north by the addition of the Théâtre des Tuileries. From 1664 to 1666 the architect Louis Le Vau and his assistant François dOrbay made other significant changes, a new grand staircase was installed in the entrance of the north wing of the palace, and lavishly decorated royal apartments were constructed in the south wing. The kings rooms were on the floor, facing toward the Louvre. At the same time, Louis gardener, André Le Nôtre, the Court moved into the Tuileries Palace in November 1667, but left in 1672, and soon thereafter went to the Palace of Versailles. The Tuileries Palace was virtually abandoned and used only as a theatre, the boy-king Louis XV was moved from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace on 1 January 1716, four months after ascending to the throne. He moved back to Versailles on 15 June 1722, three months before his coronation, both moves were made at the behest of the Regent, the duc dOrléans. The king also resided at the Tuileries for short periods during the 1740s, on 6 October 1789, during the French Revolution, Louis XVI and his family were forced to leave Versailles and brought to the Tuileries where they were kept under surveillance. For the next two years the palace remained the residence of the king. The Tuileries covered riding ring, the Salle du Manège, home to the royal equestrian academy, the royal family tried to escape after dark, on 20 June 1791, but were captured at Varennes and brought back to the Tuileries. The Paris National Guard defended the King, but the daughter of King Louis XVI claimed that many of the guard were already in favor of the revolution, in November 1792, the Armoire de fer incident took place at the Tuileries palace. This was the discovery of a place at the royal apartments. The incident created a scandal that served to discredit the King
19.
Raphael Lemkin
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Raphael Lemkin was a lawyer of Polonized-Jewish descent who is best known for coining the word genocide and initiating the Genocide Convention. Lemkin coined the word genocide in 1943 or 1944 from the rooted words genos, Lemkin was born Rafał Lemkin on 24 June 1900 in Bezwodne, a village near the town of Wolkowysk in the Russian Empire. He grew up in a Polonized Jewish family on a farm near Wolkowysk and was one of three children born to Joseph Lemkin and Bella née Pomeranz. His father was a farmer and his mother a highly intellectual woman who was a painter, linguist, Lemkin and his two brothers were home schooled by their mother. Lemkin apparently came across the concept of mass atrocities while, at the age of 12, reading Quo Vadis by Henryk Sienkiewicz, during World War I, the Lemkin family farm was located in an area of fighting between Russian and German troops. The family buried their books and valuables before taking shelter in a nearby forest, during the fighting, artillery fire destroyed their home and German troops seized their crops, horses and livestock. Lemkins brother Samuel eventually died of pneumonia and malnutrition while the family remained in the forest, after graduating from a local trade school in Białystok he began the study of linguistics at the Jan Kazimierz University of Lwów. He was a polyglot, fluent in nine languages and reading fourteen, Lemkin then moved on to Heidelberg University in Germany to study philosophy, returned to Lwów to study law in 1926, becoming a prosecutor in Warsaw at graduation. From 1929 to 1934, Lemkin was the Public Prosecutor for the court of Warsaw. In 1930 he was promoted to Deputy Prosecutor in a court in Brzeżany. Lemkin, working with Duke University law professor Malcolm McDermott, translated the The Polish Penal Code of 1932 from Polish to English. In 1934 Lemkin, under pressure from the Polish Foreign Minister for comments made at the Madrid conference, resigned his position, while in Warsaw, Lemkin attended numerous lectures organized by the Free Polish University, including the classes of Emil Stanisław Rappaport and Wacław Makowski. In 1937, Lemkin was appointed a member of the Polish mission to the 4th Congress on Criminal Law in Paris and he barely evaded capture by the Germans and traveled through Lithuania to reach Swedenby the early spring of 1940 where he lectured at the University of Stockholm. He spent much time in the library of Stockholm, gathering, translating and analysing the documents he collected. Lemkins work led him to see the destruction of the nations over which Germans took control as an overall aim. Some documents Lemkin analysed had been signed by Hitler, implementing ideas of Mein Kampf on Lebensraum, with the help of his pre-war associate McDermott, Lemkin received permission to enter the United States, arriving in 1941. Although he managed to save his life, he lost 49 relatives in the Holocaust, they were among over 3 million Polish Jews, some members of his family died in areas annexed by the Soviet Union. The only European members of Lemkins family who survived the Holocaust were his brother, Elias, Lemkin did however successfully help his brother and family to emigrate to Montreal, Canada in 1948
20.
Jus gentium
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The ius gentium is not a body of statute law or a legal code, but rather customary law thought to be held in common by all gentes in reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct. Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire, canon law also contributed to the European ius gentium, in classical antiquity, the ius gentium was regarded as an aspect of natural law, as distinguished from civil law. Thus the Roman people observes partly its own law and partly the common law of all mankind. As a form of law, the ius gentium was regarded as innate in every human being. Cicero distinguished between things that are written and those that are unwritten but upheld by the ius gentium or the mos maiorum, in his treatise De officiis, he regards the ius gentium as a higher law of moral obligation binding human beings beyond the requirements of civil law. A person driven into exile, for instance, lost his standing as a Roman citizen. Slavery, for instance, was supported by the ius gentium, in this tripartite division of law, property rights might be considered a part of the ius gentium, but not of natural law. The ius gentium was thus in practice important in facilitating commercial law, the theory and terminology of private law was far more developed among the Romans than that of international law. The earliest form of law was religious and pertained to the concept of the just war. Foreign ambassadors were protected by the ius gentium, and it was a violation to harm an envoy. While the terms of peace treaties might be said to fall broadly within the ius gentium, as gentes were brought under Roman rule, Roman law became in effect international law. Local laws remained in force as long they did not come into conflict with Roman law, the praetor assigned to foreign affairs is thought by many scholars to have played an important role in extending Roman civil law to the gentes. Laws originally pertaining to matters of law among Roman citizens, such as property transfers. Questions of international law might arise in relation to individual grants of citizenship, societas, although sometimes a mere synonym for amicitia, is an obligation to peace and neutrality with a duty to grant military support. Foedus, originally a sacred oath made by a fetial priest on behalf of the Roman people, pax, both the state of peace and the means to achieve it by treaty. Indutiae, cease-fires that do not end the war as a whole, deditio, surrender, with the inherent normative expectation that the victor would in any case spare the inhabitants lives. Fides, trustworthiness, loyalty, credibility, was a quality the Romans wanted to pride themselves for upholding, including respect for the law, in the Middle Ages, the ius gentium derived from canon law in addition to Roman legal theory. The Law of War and Peace, Hugo Grotius, the Law of Nature and of Nations, Samuel Pufendorf
21.
Rotterdam
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Rotterdam is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety, in 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre. Nowadays it is home to Europes largest port and has a population of 633,471, ranking second in the Netherlands, just behind Amsterdam. The Greater Rijnmond area is home to approximately 1.4 million people, Rotterdam is part of the yet larger Randstad conurbation with a total population of 7,100,000. The city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University, riverside setting, lively cultural life, the near-complete destruction of Rotterdams city centre during World War II has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities. Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others. Recently Rotterdam was listed eighth in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit, the port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world. Rotterdams logistic success is based on its location on the North Sea. The rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, the extensive distribution system including rail, roads, and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname Gateway to Europe, and, conversely, Gateway to the World in Europe. The settlement at the end of the fen stream Rotte dates from at least 900 CE. A dam on the Rotte or Rotterdam was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat, on 7 July 1340, Count Willem IV of Holland granted city rights to Rotterdam, which then had approximately 2,000 inhabitants. The port of Rotterdam grew slowly but steadily into a port of importance, becoming the seat of one of the six chambers of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the greatest spurt of growth, both in port activity and population, followed the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1872. The city and harbor started to expand on the bank of the river. The Witte Huis or White House skyscraper, inspired by American office buildings and built in 1898 in the French Château-style, is evidence of Rotterdams rapid growth, when completed, it was the tallest office building in Europe, with a height of 45 m. During World War I the city was the worlds largest spy centre because of Dutch neutrality, many spies who were arrested and executed in Britain were led by German secret agents operating from Rotterdam. MI6 had its main European office on de Boompjes, from there the British coordinated espionage in Germany and occupied Belgium. In WWI an average of 25,000 Belgian refugees lived in the city, as well as hundreds of German deserters, during World War II, the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, the Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940, following Hitlers bombing of Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities
22.
Commons
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The commons is the cultural and natural resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable earth. These resources are held in common, not owned privately, the definition from the Digital Library of the Commons is, the commons is a general term for shared resources in which each stakeholder has an equal interest. Some texts make a distinction in usage between common ownership of the commons and collective ownership among a group of colleagues, such as in a producers cooperative, the precision of this distinction is not always maintained. The examples below illustrate types of environmental commons, by extension, the term commons has come to be applied to other resources which a community has rights or access to. A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is called a commoner. In middle Europe, commons respectively small-scale agriculture in especially southern Germany, Austria, some studies have compared the German and English dealings with the commons between the late medieval times and the agrarian reforms of the 18/19th century. The UK were quite radical with doing away and enclosing former commons, the Lower Rhine region took an intermediate position. However, the UK and the former dominons have till today a large amount of Crown land which often is used for community or conservation purposes, in Mongolia, where shepherds were permitted to move collectively between seasonal grazing pastures, degradation remained relatively low at approximately 9%. A collaborative effort on the part of Mongolians proved much more efficient in preserving grazing land, widespread success of the Maine lobster industry is often attributed to the willingness of Maine’s lobstermen to uphold and support lobster conservation rules. These rules include harbor territories not recognized by the state, informal trap limits, essentially, the lobstermen collaborate without much government intervention to sustain their common-pool resource. Implemented in the late 1980s, Nepal chose to decentralize government control over forests, community forest programs work by giving local areas a financial stake in nearby woodlands, and therefore increasing the incentive to protect them from overuse. These local institutions regulate harvesting and selling of timber and land, in twenty years, locals have noticed visible improvements in the number of trees. In addition to this, community forestry contributed to community development in areas such as school construction, irrigation channel & drinking water construction. Similarly their fund allocated into the poor focused activities as well, furthermore, community forestry has become an example of an appropriate institution for democratic practices at grass root level, where we can see absolute inclusion into their executive committee. Acequia is a method of collective responsibility and management for irrigation systems in desert areas, today, the commons are also understood within a cultural sphere. These commons include literature, music, arts, design, film, video, television, radio, information, software, tragedy of the commons in the Wiki-Commons is avoided by community control by individual authors within the Wikipedia community. The information commons may help users of commons. Companies that pollute the environment release information about what they are doing, the Corporate Toxics Information Project and information like the Toxic 100, a list of the top 100 polluters, helps people know what these corporations are doing to the environment
23.
Culture jamming
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Culture jamming is a tactic used by many anti-consumerist social movements to disrupt or subvert media culture and its mainstream cultural institutions, including corporate advertising. It attempts to expose the methods of domination of a society to foster progressive change. Culture jamming is a form of subvertising, many culture jams are intended to expose questionable political assumptions behind commercial culture. Tactics include re-figuring logos, fashion statements, and product images as a means to challenge the idea of whats cool, Culture jamming often entails using mass media to produce ironic or satirical commentary about itself, commonly using the original mediums communication method. Culture jamming is employed as a reaction against social conformity, prominent examples of culture jamming include the adulteration of billboard advertising by the Billboard Liberation Front, and contemporary artists such as Ron English. Culture jamming may involve street parties and protests, the term was coined in 1984 by Don Joyce of the sound collage band Negativland, with the release of their album JamCon 84. The phrase culture jamming comes from the idea of radio jamming, in one of the tracks of the album, they stated, According to Vince Carducci, although the term was coined by Negativland, culture jamming can be traced as far back as the 1950s. One particularly influential group that was active in Europe was the Situationist International and was led by Guy Debord, the SI asserted that in the past humans dealt with life and the consumer market directly. They argued that this way of life was slowly deteriorating as a direct result of the new modern way of life. Through playful activity, individuals could create situations, the opposite of spectacles, the SI first compared its own activities to radio jamming in 1968, when it proposed the use of guerrilla communication within mass media to sow confusion within the dominant culture. In 1985, the Guerrilla Girls formed to expose discrimination and corruption in the artworld, for example, T-Mobile utilized the Liverpool street underground station to host a flashmob to sell their mobile services. Culture jamming is a form of disruption that plays on the emotions of viewers and bystanders, Jammers want to disrupt the unconscious thought process that takes place when most consumers view a popular advertising and bring about a détournement. Activists that utilize this tactic are counting on their meme to pull on the strings of people. The reactions that most cultural jammers are hoping to evoke are behavioral change, there are four emotions that activists often want viewers to feel. These emotions – shock, shame, fear, and anger – are believed to be the catalysts for social change, the basic unit in which a message is transmitted in culture jamming is the meme. Memes are condensed images that stimulate visual, verbal, musical, or behavioral associations that people can easily imitate and transmit to others. The term meme was coined and first popularized by geneticist Richard Dawkins, but later used by critics such as Douglas Rushkoff. Memes are seen as genes that can jump from outlet to outlet, Culture jammers will often use common symbols such as the McDonalds golden arches or Nike swoosh to engage people and force them to think about their eating habits or fashion sense
24.
Breaching experiment
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In the fields of sociology and social psychology, a breaching experiment is an experiment that seeks to examine peoples reactions to violations of commonly accepted social rules or norms. Breaching experiments are most commonly associated with ethnomethodology, and in particular the work of Harold Garfinkel, the idea of studying the violation of social norms and the accompanying reactions has bridged across social science disciplines, and is today used in both sociology and psychology. The assumption behind this approach is not only that individuals engage daily in building up rules for social interaction, Garfinkel expanded on this idea by developing ethnomethodology as a qualitative research method for social scientists. Goffman published two works related to this domain, Behavior in Public Places in 1963 and Relations in Public, Microstudies of the Public Order. He argues that the most common rule in all situations is for the individual to fit in. If an individual breaches a social norm, the act is attributed to some property of the individual. For example, a person who is observed talking to himself in a place is assumed to be mentally ill by any strangers who may notice. Goffman further states that social gatherings have significant importance for organizing social life and he argues that all people in a social setting have some concern regarding the rules governing behavior. Individuals come to feel that rules for participating in gatherings are crucial for society’s well-being and that rules are natural, inviolable. Garfinkel suggests that each member of society uses background expectancies to interpret, however, individuals are unable to explicitly describe what each of these expectancies, or rules, are. One way to make background expectancies more visible is to be a stranger to the life as usual character of everyday scenes. For instance, saying hello at the termination of a conversation, some examples of everyday scenes include the home, school, or workplace. One task Garfinkel assigned to his students was to challenge everyday understandings by frequently asking for clarification during a normal conversation with a friend or family member. Below is an example of an excerpt quoted in Garfinkels text, Studies in Ethnomethodology, Case 2, S, E, What do you mean, How is she feeling. Do you mean physical or mental, S, I mean how is she feeling. Just explain a little clearer what do you mean, how are your Med School applications coming. E, What do you mean, How are they, S, Whats the matter with you. This is an experiment in the form of interpersonal conversation
25.
Crop circle
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A crop circle or crop formation is a pattern created by flattening a crop, usually a cereal. The term was first coined in the early 1980s by Colin Andrews, Crop circles have been described as all falling within the range of the sort of thing done in hoaxes by Taner Edis, professor of physics at Truman State University. The number of circles has substantially increased from the 1970s to current times. There has been little study of them. Circles in the United Kingdom are not spread randomly across the landscape but appear near roads, areas of medium to dense population and cultural heritage monuments, formations are usually created overnight, although some are reported to have appeared during the day. The concept of crop circles began with the original late-1970s hoaxes by Doug Bower and they said that they were inspired by the Tully saucer nest case in Australia, where a farmer claimed to first have seen a UFO, then found a flattened circle of swamp reeds. A1678 news pamphlet The Mowing-Devil, or, Strange News Out of Hartfordshire is claimed by some cereologists to be the first depiction of a crop circle. Crop circle researcher Jim Schnabel does not consider it to be a precedent because it describes the stalks as being cut rather than bent. In 1686, British naturalist Robert Plot reported on rings or arcs of mushrooms in The Natural History of Stafford-Shire, in 1991 meteorologist Terence Meaden linked this report with modern crop circles, a claim that has been compared with those made by Erich von Däniken. An 1880 letter to the editor of Nature by amateur scientist John Rand Capron describes how a recent storm had created several circles of flattened crops in a field. In 1963 amateur astronomer Sir Patrick Moore described a crater in a field in Wiltshire. In nearby wheat fields, there were circular and elliptical areas where the wheat had been flattened. There was evidence of spiral flattening and he thought they could be caused by air currents from the impact, since they led towards the crater. Astronomer Hugh Ernest Butler observed similar craters and said they were caused by lighting strikes. In the 1960s, in Tully, Queensland, Australia, and in Canada, there were reports of UFO sightings and circular formations in swamp reeds. The most famous case is the 1966 Tully saucer nest, when a farmer said he witnessed a saucer-shaped craft rise 30 or 40 feet up from a swamp and then fly away. Odgers, Director of Public Relations, Department of Defence, wrote to a journalist that the saucer was probably debris lifted by the causing willy-willy, hoaxers Bower and Chorley said they were inspired by this case to start making the modern crop circles that appear today. Since the 1960s, there had been a surge of UFOlogists in Wiltshire, and there were rumours of saucer nests appearing in the area, but they were never photographed
26.
Public property
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Public property is property that is dedicated to public use and is a subset of state property. The term may be used either to describe the use to which the property is put and this is in contrast to private property, owned by an individual person or artificial entities that represent the financial interests of persons, such as corporations. State ownership, also called public ownership, government ownership or state property, are property interests that are vested in the state, rather than an individual or communities. In the modern representative democracy, public property is said to be owned by the people as a commons or held in trust by the government for common benefit, in many Commonwealth realms, such property is said to be owned by the Crown. Examples include Crown land, Crown copyright, and Crown Dependencies, communal ownership State ownership State-owned enterprise Nationalization Public sector Municipalization Commons Constitutional economics Public space Res extra commercium
27.
Inner city
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The inner city is the central area of a major city or metropolis. Inner city areas tend to have population densities than outer suburbs, with more of the population living inside multi-floored townhouses. Sociologists sometimes turn this euphemism into a designation, applying the term inner city to such residential areas. However, some city areas of American cities have undergone gentrification. Such connotations are less common in countries, where deprived areas may be located in outlying parts of cities. For instance, in many European and Brazilian cities, the city is the most prosperous part of the metropolis, where housing is expensive. Poverty and crime are more associated with the distant suburbs, the same is true of many American cities, like New York and San Francisco, and is becoming true of other cities as they become revitalized. The Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Swedish words for suburb often have a negative connotation similar to that of the English term inner city, the American sociological usage is rooted in the middle 20th century. The loss of population and affluent taxpayers caused many inner city communities to fall into urban decay, late in the century, many such areas underwent gentrification, especially in the Northeast and West coast, depriving them of the inner city label despite their unchanged location. Notable exceptions are cities built in the 20th century, usually planned with modernist concepts, such as Brasília, Goiânia, Belo Horizonte, Campo Grande and Palmas, under the personal car culture. Nevertheless, since the 1990s, thousands of walled townhouses and condos are being built in, inside the Inner City, Life Under the Cutting Edge. This book takes Hackney in London as a study of inner city urban deprivation
28.
Gang
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Some criminal gang members are jumped in or have to prove their loyalty by committing acts such as theft or violence. A member of a gang may be called a gangster or a thug, in early usage, the word gang referred to a group of workmen. In the United Kingdom, the word is often used in this sense. In current usage, it denotes a criminal organization or else a criminal affiliation. The word gang often carries a connotation, however, within a gang which defines itself in opposition to mainstream norms. The word gang derives from the past participle of Old English gan and it is cognate with Old Norse gangster, meaning journey. In discussing banditry in American history Barrington Moore, Jr, according to some estimates the Thuggee gangs in India murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. The 17th century saw London terrorized by a series of organized gangs, some of known as the Mims, Hectors, Bugles. These gangs often came into conflict with each other, the members dressed with colored ribbons to distinguish the different factions. Chicago had over 1,000 gangs in the 1920s, Gang involvement in drug trafficking increased during the 1970s and 1980s, but some gangs continue to have minimal involvement in the trade. In the United States, the history of gangs began on the East Coast in 1783 following the American Revolution, the emergence of the gangs was largely attributed to the vast rural population immigration to the urban areas. The first street-gang in the United States, the 40 Thieves, the gangs in Washington D. C. had control of what is now Federal Triangle, in a region then known as Murder Bay. In 2007, there were approximately 785,000 active street gang members in the United States, approximately 230,000 gang members were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2011. According to the Chicago Crime Commission publication, The Gang Book 2012, traditionally Los Angeles County has been considered the Gang Capital of America, with an estimated 120,000 gang members. There were at least 30,000 gangs and 800,000 gang members active across the USA in 2007, about 900,000 gang members lived within local communities across the country, and about 147,000 were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2009. By 1999, Hispanics accounted for 47% of all members, Blacks 31%, Whites 13%. A December 13,2009 The New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone. There are between 25,000 and 50,000 gang members in Central Americas El Salvador, more than 1,800 gangs were known to be operating in the UK in 2011
29.
Riot
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A riot is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority, property or people. Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of property, public or private, the property targeted varies depending on the riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, Riots often occur in reaction to a perceived grievance or out of dissent. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots typically consist of disorganized groups that are frequently chaotic, however, there is a growing body of evidence to suggest that riots are not irrational, herd-like behavior, but actually follow inverted social norms. T. S. Charles Wilson noted, Spasmodic rises in food prices provoked keelmen on the Tyne to riot in 1709, today, some rioters have an improved understanding of the tactics used by police in riot situations. Manuals for successful rioting are available on the internet, with such as encouraging rioters to get the press involved, as there is more safety. Citizens with video cameras may also have an effect on both rioters and police, dealing with riots is often a difficult task for police forces. They may use tear gas or CS gas to control rioters, Riot police may use less-than-lethal methods of control, such as shotguns that fire flexible baton rounds to injure or otherwise incapacitate rioters for easier arrest. A police riot is a term for the disproportionate and unlawful use of force by a group of police against a group of civilians and this term is commonly used to describe a police attack on peaceful civilians, or provoking peaceful civilians into violence. A prison riot is a large-scale, temporary act of concerted defiance or disorder by a group of prisoners against prison administrators, prison officers and it is often done to express a grievance, force change or attempt escape. In a race riot, race or ethnicity is the key factor, the term had entered the English language in the United States by the 1890s. Early use of the referred to riots that were often a mob action by members of a majority racial group against people of other perceived races. In a religious riot, the key factor is religion, the rioting mob targets people and properties of a specific religion, or those believed to belong to that religion. Student riots are riots precipitated by students, often in higher education, student riots in the US and Western Europe in the 1960s and the 1970s were often political in nature. Student riots may occur as a result of oppression of peaceful demonstration or after sporting events. Students may constitute a political force in a given country. Such riots may occur in the context of political or social grievances. Urban riots are closely associated with race riots and police riots, sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team
30.
Private property
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Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by an entity, and from collective property. Private property is distinguished from personal property, which refers to property for personal use. Private property is a concept defined and enforced by a countrys political system. Prior to the 18th century, English-speakers generally used the property in reference to land ownership. In England, property did not have a legal definition until the 17th century, private property as commercial property was invented with the great European trading companies of the 17th century. John Locke, in arguing against supporters of monarchy, conceptualized property as a natural right that God had not bestowed exclusively on the monarchy. Influenced by the rise of mercantilism, Locke argued that property was antecedent to. Locke distinguished between common property, by which he meant open-access property, and property in goods and producer-goods. His chief argument for property in land was improved land management, smith confined natural rights to liberty and life. Smith further argued that government could not exist without property. Economic liberals consider private property to be essential for the construction of a prosperous society and they believe private ownership of land ensures the land will be put to productive use and its value protected by the landowner. If the owners must pay property taxes, this forces the owners to maintain a productive output from the land to keep taxes current, private property also attaches a monetary value to land, which can be used to trade or as collateral. Private property thus is an important part of capitalization within the economy, socialist economists are critical of private property as socialism aims to substitute private property in the means of production for social ownership or public property. Socialists generally favor social ownership either to eliminate the distinctions between owners and workers, and as a component of the development of a post-capitalist economic system. According to Mises, this problem would make rational socialist calculation impossible, in Marxian economics and socialist politics, there is distinction between private property and personal property. Prior to the 18th century, private property usually referred to land ownership, private property in the means of production is criticized by socialists, who use the term in a different meaning. The socialist critique of private ownership is heavily influenced by the Marxian analysis of capitalist property forms as part of its critique of alienation and exploitation in capitalism
31.
Shoe tossing
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Shoe tossing, the act of using shoes as projectiles or improvised weapons, is a constituent of a number of folk sports and practices. Today, it is commonly the act of throwing a pair of shoes onto telephone wires, powerlines, a related practice is shoe tossing onto trees or fences. Shoe dangling, or shoe flinging, is the practice of throwing shoes whose shoelaces have been tied together so that they hang from overhead wires such as lines or telephone cables. Once the shoes are tied together, the pair is then thrown at the wires as a sort of bolas, shoe flinging has also been reported in many other countries. Shoe flinging occurs throughout the United States and Canada, in rural as well as in urban areas. Usually, the shoes flung at the wires are sneakers, elsewhere, especially in areas, many different varieties of shoes, including leather shoes and boots. There are many variations as well, with differences between socio-economic areas and even age groups. A number of explanations have been proposed as to why this is done. The foremost is bullying in which a bully steals a pair of shoes, or sometimes it is done as a practical joke played on drunkards. Other less criminal explanations have been ventured for the practice, in some cultures, shoes are flung to commemorate the end of a school year, or a forthcoming marriage as part of a rite of passage. In the 1997 film, Wag the Dog, shoe tossing features as an allegedly spontaneous cultural manifestation of tribute to Sgt, william Schumann, played by Woody Harrelson, who has purportedly been “shot down behind enemy lines” in Albania. Others simply say that shoe flinging is a way to get rid of shoes that are no longer wanted, are uncomfortable and it may also be another manifestation of the human instinct to leave their mark on, and decorate, their surroundings. In some neighborhoods, shoes tied together and hanging from power lines or tree branches signify that someone has died, the shoes belong to the dead person. The reason they are hanging, legend has it, is that when the persons spirit returns, it will walk that high above the ground. Another superstition holds that the tossing of shoes over the lines outside of a house is a way to keep the property safe from ghosts. Yet another legend suggests that shoes hanging from telephone wires signal someone leaving the neighborhood onto bigger and better things, a shoe tree, not to be confused with the shoe-preservation device of the same name, is a tree that has been festooned with old shoes. Shoe trees are located alongside a major local thoroughfare. There are currently at least seventy-six such shoe trees in the United States, Boot throwing, or welly wanging, has been a competitive sport in New Zealand and Britain for many years, although not one that is taken very seriously
32.
Bumper sticker
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Most bumper stickers are about 30 cm by 8 cm and are often made of PVC. Bumper stickers can be commercial, religious, secular, humorous and they may promote or oppose a particular philosophical or political position. In some countries, such as the United States, bumper stickers are a way of showing support for a candidate for a government seat. In others, such as the United Kingdom, they are seen in any form. One variety of bumper sticker is the country tag, often the country code is displayed on the license plate itself. These have been spun off into tags indicating a country with which the driver affiliates, or more humorously to indicate things like a region, support for rabbit rescue groups, people who opt to exhibit their individuality through these decals may take part in more acts of road rage. Colorado State University social psychologist, William Szlemko, found that aggressive driving is linked to the number of markers a person has on his/her car, early bumper stickers had printed directions on the back removable liner for applying them to the bumper of a car. Due to the movement of the vehicle and changing weather conditions, there are some easy to remove bumper stickers and magnetic bumper stickers. Bumper stickers can be removed with a blade, penetrating oil or a heat gun. Home remedies also include using common items, such as WD-40 or paint thinner. Before bumper stickers, advertisers used other methods of displaying their wares, in the horse-drawn carriage era, advertisers printed on horsefly nets with the name of a business. In the 1930s and 1940s, bumper signs were printed on metal or cardboard, lester Dill, promoter of Meramec Caverns in Missouri, was an ardent adopter of the bumper sign to attract motorists to his site. Using a windowshield decal was another option and these paper strips could be wetted and placed inside a car window. However, these strips did not hold up well when placed on a bumper, various factors contributed to the development of the bumper sticker. Developments in material manufacturing during World War II led to the use of daylight fluorescent inks. These inks appeared to glow during the daytime and were useful to support various wartime activities, in addition, the rise of consumer use of vinyl after World War II led to the eventual use of this material in bumper stickers. Many experts credit Forest P. Gill, a printer from Kansas City, Kansas, USA. Gill recognized that the paper used during the second world war could be used to advertise promotional products in the late 1940s
33.
Animal rights
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They maintain that animals should no longer be viewed as property or used as food, clothing, research subjects, entertainment, or beasts of burden. Advocates approach the issue from a variety of perspectives, the abolitionist view is that animals have moral rights, which the pursuit of incremental reform may undermine by encouraging human beings to feel comfortable with using them. Gary Franciones abolitionist position promotes ethical veganism and he argues that animal rights groups that pursue welfare concerns, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, risk making the public feel comfortable about its use of animals. He calls such groups the new welfarists, PETA argues that Franciones criticism does little to help alleviate the suffering of individual animals and also trivializes the efforts of workers in the field who handle cruelty cases. It also creates divisiveness within the animal liberation movement instead of focusing on shared goals, sentiocentrism is the theory that sentient individuals are the subject of moral concern and therefore are deserving of rights. Protectionists seek incremental reform in how animals are treated, with a view to ending animal use entirely and this position is represented by the philosopher Peter Singer. Multiple cultural traditions around the world—such as Animism, Taoism, Hinduism, Buddhism, the animals most often considered in arguments for personhood are bonobos and chimpanzees. S. Congress with the enactment of the Animal Enterprise Protection Act, Aristotle argued that animals lacked reason, and placed humans at the top of the natural world, yet the respect for animals in ancient Greece was very high. Some animals were considered divine e. g. dolphins, the 21st-century debates about animals can be traced back to the ancient world, and the idea of a divine hierarchy. Dominion need not entail property rights, but it has been interpreted, by some, contemporary philosopher Bernard Rollin writes that dominion does not entail or allow abuse any more than does dominion a parent enjoys over a child. Rollin further states that the Biblical Sabbath requirement promulgated in the Ten Commandments required that animals be granted a day of rest along with humans, correlatively, the Bible forbids plowing with an ox and an ass together. According to the tradition, this prohibition stems from the hardship that an ass would suffer by being compelled to keep up with an ox. Similarly, one finds the prohibition against muzzling an ox when it treads out the grain and these ancient regulations, virtually forgotten, bespeak of an eloquent awareness of the status of animals as ends in themselves, a point also corroborated by Norm Phelps. The philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras, urged respect for animals, believing that human and nonhuman souls were reincarnated from human to animal, and vice versa. Against this, Aristotle, student to the philosopher Plato, argued that animals had no interests of their own. Theophrastus, one of Aristotles pupils, argued that also had reasoning. Plutarch in his Life of Cato the Elder comments that while law and justice are strictly to men only, beneficence. This is intended as a correction and advance over the merely utilitarian treatment of animals, according to Richard D. Ryder, the first known animal protection legislation in Europe was passed in Ireland in 1635
34.
Black bloc
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A black bloc is a name given to groups of protesters who wear black clothing, scarves, sunglasses, ski masks, motorcycle helmets with padding, or other face-concealing and face-protecting items. The clothing is used to conceal marchers identities, and hinder criminal prosecution and it is also used to protect their faces and eyes from items such as pepper-spray which law enforcement often uses. The tactic allows the group to appear as one large unified mass, Black bloc participants are often associated with anarchism. The tactic was developed in the 1980s in the European autonomist movements protests against squatter evictions, nuclear power and restrictions on abortion, as well as other influences. This tactic was developed following increased use of force following the 1977 Brokdorf demonstration by the German police in 1980, particularly aimed at anti-nuclear activists. Key areas for development were Hafenstraße, Hamburg, and Kreuzberg. These were social spaces occupied by dissidents who preferred to create their own social institutions based on communal living, in June 1980, the German Police forcefully evicted the Free Republic of Wendland, an anti-nuclear protest camp in Gorleben, Wendland. This attack on 5,000 peaceful protesters led many former pacifists to become willing to use violent methods, by December 1980 the Berlin City Government organised an escalating cycle of mass arrests, followed by other local authorities across West Germany. The squatters resisted by opening new squats, as the old ones were evicted, following the mass arrest of squatters in Freiburg, demonstrations were held in their support in many German cities. The day was dubbed Black Friday following a demonstration in Berlin at which between 15,000 and 20,000 people took to the streets and destroyed an expensive shopping area. The tactic of wearing black clothes and masks meant that the autonomen were better able to resist the police. The German media labeled them der schwarze Block, in 1986 Hamburg squatters mobilised following attacks on the Hafenstraße. A demonstration of 10,000 took to the streets surrounding at least 1,500 people in a black bloc and they carried a large banner saying Build Revolutionary Dual Power. At the end of the march, the black bloc then engaged in fighting that forced the police to retreat. The next day 13 department stores in Hamburg were set alight, later that year, following the Chernobyl disaster, militant anti-nuclear activists used the tactic. On 1 May 1987, demonstrators in Berlin-Kreuzberg were confronted by West German police, after this, thousands of people attacked the police with rocks, bottles and Molotov cocktails. When Ronald Reagan came to Berlin in June 1987, he was met by around 50,000 demonstrators protesting against his Cold War policies and this included a black bloc of 3,000 people. In November 1987, the residents were joined by thousands of protesters and fortified their squat, built barricades in the streets
35.
Frustration
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In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition. There are two types of frustration, internal and external, conflict, such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, can also be an internal source of frustration and can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside of a control, such as a physical roadblock. There are multiple ways individuals cope with such as passive–aggressive behavior, anger. This makes it difficult to identify the cause of their frustration. However, a direct and common response is a propensity towards aggression. Frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs, if the needs of an individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs are ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self-confidence, aggression. Needs can be blocked two different ways, internally and externally, internal blocking happens within an individual’s mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. External blocking happens to an individual outside of their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks, some people are predisposed towards feelings of frustration, indexed in terms of temperament, in adolescence and neuroticism in adulthood. Temperamental frustration is associated with alterations including changes in perceived relationship affection. Frustration can be considered a behavior and can have a number of effects. Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier and it follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired. Frustration tolerance is ones ability to resist becoming frustrated when facing difficult tasks, having a low frustration tolerance is related to trait anger and a higher level of frustration tolerance is related to lower levels of anger and longer persistence on difficult tasks. For example, a child with a high frustration tolerance may be able to deal with repeated challenges and failures without experiencing significant frustration, the child with a low frustration tolerance can be quick to experience frustration when asked to perform tasks of moderate difficulty. Frustration–aggression hypothesis Anger Aggression Disappointment Depression Frustration
36.
Boredom
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It is also understood by scholars as a modern phenomenon which has a cultural dimension. There is no accepted definition of boredom. But whatever it is, researchers argue, it is not simply another name for depression or apathy, in both conceptions, boredom has to do fundamentally with an experience of time and problems of meaning. The expression boredom means state of being bored,1852, from bore + -dom and it also has been employed in a sense bores as a class and practice of being a bore. The word bore as a noun meaning a thing which causes ennui or annoyance is attested to since 1778, the noun bore comes from the verb bore, which had the meaning be tiresome or dull first attested 1768, a vogue word c. 1780-81 according to Grose, possibly an extension of to move forward slowly and persistently. The French term for boredom, ennui, is used in English as well. The term ennui was first used as a French word in English, in the 1660s, the term ennui comes from French ennui, from Old French enui annoyance, back-formation from enoiier, anuier. Different scholars use different definitions of boredom, which complicates research, Boredom has been defined by Cynthia D. Mark Leary et al. describe boredom as an affective experience associated with cognitive attentional processes. In positive psychology, boredom is described as a response to a challenge for which the subject has more than enough skill. There are three types of boredom, all of which problems of engagement of attention. Boredom proneness is a tendency to experience boredom of all types and this is typically assessed by the Boredom Proneness Scale. Recent research has found that boredom proneness is clearly and consistently associated with failures of attention, Boredom and its proneness are both theoretically and empirically linked to depression and similar symptoms. Nonetheless, boredom proneness has been found to be as strongly correlated with attentional lapses as with depression. Although boredom is often viewed as a trivial and mild irritant, proneness to boredom has been linked to a diverse range of possible psychological, physical, educational. Absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behaviour, absent-mindedness is a mental condition in which the subject experiences low levels of attention and frequent distraction. Absent-mindedness is not a condition but rather a symptom of boredom. When suffering from absent-mindedness, people tend to show signs of memory lapse and this can usually be a result of a variety of other conditions often diagnosed by clinicians such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression
37.
Reinforcement
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In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organisms future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a frequency of behavior, longer duration, greater magnitude. Reinforcement does not require an individual to perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior, however, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. An ibuprofen is a reinforcer because it takes away pain. Kennedy or of the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks, Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning. B. F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the constructs of reinforcement. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing. If the frequency of cookie-requesting behavior increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing cookie-requesting behavior, If however, cookie-requesting behavior does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer, the study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinners conclusions, the term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response, the experimenter waits for the response to occur, Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning - see punishment, Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases. A positive reinforcer is an event for which the animal will work in order to acquire it. Verbal and physical reward is very useful positive reinforcement Example, Whenever a rat presses a button, If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior. Example, A father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys, If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer. Example, A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold, the prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales
38.
Ely Cathedral
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Ely Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in the English city of Ely, Cambridgeshire. The cathedral has its origins in AD672 when St Etheldreda built an abbey church, the present building dates back to 1083, and cathedral status was granted it in 1109. It is the seat of the Bishop of Ely and a suffragan bishop, architecturally it is outstanding both for its scale and stylistic details. Having been built in a monumental Romanesque style, the porch, lady chapel. Ely Cathedral is a major tourist destination, receiving around 250,000 visitors per year, Ely Abbey was founded in 672, by Æthelthryth, daughter of the East Anglian King Anna. It was a community of men and women. Later accounts suggest her three successor abbesses were members of the East Anglian Royal family. In later centuries the depredations of Viking raids may have resulted in its destruction and it is possible that some monks provided a continuity through to its refoundation in 970, under a Benedictine rule. The precise siting of Æthelthryths original monastery is not known, the presence of her relics, bolstered by the growing body of literature on her life and miracles, was a major driving force in the success of the refounded abbey. The church building of 970 was within or near the nave of the present building, ermenilda of Ely was an Abbess here, as well, after her husband Wulfhere of Mercia died in 675. The cathedral is built from stone quarried from Barnack in Northamptonshire, with decorative elements carved from Purbeck Marble, the plan of the building is cruciform, with an additional transept at the western end. The total length is 537 feet, and the nave at over 75 m long remains one of the longest in Britain, the west tower is 66 m high. The unique Octagon Lantern Tower is 23 m wide and is 52 m high, internally, from the floor to the central roof boss the lantern is 43 m high. It is known locally as the ship of the Fens, because of its prominent position above the flat landscape. However the imposition of Norman rule was particularly problematic at Ely, under the Normans almost every English cathedral and major abbey was rebuilt from the 1070s onwards. If Ely was to maintain its status then it had to initiate its own building work, and he was the brother of Walkelin, the then Bishop of Winchester, and had himself been Prior at Winchester Cathedral when the rebuilding began there in 1079. In 1083, a year after Simeons appointment as abbot of Ely, the design had many similarities to Winchester, a cruciform plan with central crossing tower, aisled transepts, a three storey elevation and a semi-circular apse at the east end. It was one of the largest buildings under construction north of the Alps at the time, the first phase of construction took in the eastern arm of the church, and the north and south transepts
39.
English Reformation
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The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Based on Henry VIIIs desire for an annulment of his marriage, the reality of political differences between Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore. Until the break with Rome, it was the Pope and general councils of the Church that decided doctrine, Church law was governed by the code of canon law with final jurisdiction in Rome. Church taxes were paid straight to Rome, and the Pope had the word in the appointment of bishops. Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch, and the papacy was deprived of revenue, the theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henrys son Edward VI largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Under Mary, the process was reversed and the Church of England was again placed under papal jurisdiction. Soon after, Elizabeth reintroduced the Protestant faith but in a moderate manner. The structure and theology of the church was a matter of dispute for generations. The legacy of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time, a substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England, and in an effort to disestablish it from British systems, their church organisation remained illegal until the 19th century. Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17 and he made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummers Day. Unlike his father, who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability. An observant Roman Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day, of powerful but unoriginal mind, he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart and he was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear. This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, wolseys enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn. By the late 1520s, Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled and she had not produced a male heir who survived longer than two months, and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Before Henrys father ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Catherine of Aragons only surviving child was Princess Mary, Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was blighted in the eyes of God. Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid, in 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the Pope refused. According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed, Clement also feared the wrath of Catherines nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner
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, doi:10.1179/1743277414y.0000000085
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