1.
Vanessa Bell Calloway
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Vanessa Bell Calloway is an American actress and dancer. Beginning her career as a dancer, Bell Calloway is perhaps best known for her role as Princess Imani Izzi in the 1988 comedy Coming to America. In the following years, Bell Calloway appeared in Whats Love Got to Do with It, The Inkwell, Crimson Tide, Bell Calloway had several starring roles on television series and movies, include first African American prime time soap opera, Under One Roof. In recent years, she had the roles on Hawthorne. In 2016, she appeared in comedy-drama film Southside with You, Bell Calloway is an eight-time NAACP Image Award nominee. Bell was born in Toledo, Ohio and she received a Bachelor of Fine Arts from Ohio University, where she was a member of the African-American Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority. Calloway also studied dance with Alvin Ailey, George Faison, Calloway began her career as a dancer in Michael Bennetts original Broadway production of Dreamgirls. It was during time period that Calloway directed the music video Angel Man for soul singer Rhetta Hughes. She also was in the ensemble of the short-lived musical Bring Back Birdie, Bell Calloway began her acting career in the ABC daytime soap opera, All My Children in 1985. After moving to Los Angeles in 1986, she began appearing in episodes of prime time such as The Colbys, Falcon Crest,227, China Beach, A Different World. She made her debut on Number One with a Bullet. In 1990, Bell Calloway co-starred alongside Joe Morton in the ABC drama series and she also voiced main role in the 1992 animated comedy, Bébés Kids. Bell Calloway also had number of leading and supporting roles in the made for television movies. In 1995, she co-starred opposite James Earl Jones and Joe Morton in the short-lived CBS prime time soap opera, Under One Roof, for her role on the series, Calloway was nominated for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series. She also had the roles on the short-leved NBC sitcom Rhythm & Blues. In 2000s, Bell Calloway had the roles on Boston Public. She co-starred in films including The Brothers, All About You, Dawg, Biker Boyz, Love Dont Cost a Thing, and Cheaper by the Dozen. Bell Calloway also guest starred on The Division, Strong Medicine, The Closer, CSI, Crime Scene Investigation, Dexter, Rizzoli & Isles, from 2010 to 2011, she had the recurring role in the TNT medical drama, Hawthorne
2.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
3.
Charleston Farmhouse
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Charleston, in East Sussex is a property associated with the Bloomsbury group, that is open to the public. It was the home of Vanessa Bell and Duncan Grant and is an example of their decorative style within a domestic context. Vanessa Bell wrote of this time, It will be an odd life and it ought to be a good one for painting. Charleston hosts a number of events throughout the year, most notably the Charleston Festival which is centred on talks and drama relating to literary, artistic. The house is located in the village of Firle, in the Lewes District of East Sussex, over the following half century Charleston became the country meeting place for the group of artists, writers and intellectuals known as Bloomsbury. Garnett, Clive Bell and Maynard Keynes lived at Charleston for considerable periods, Virginia and Leonard Woolf, E. M. Forster, Lytton Strachey, inspired by Italian fresco painting and the Post-Impressionists, the artists decorated the walls, doors and furniture at Charleston. The walled garden was redesigned in a reminiscent of southern Europe, with mosaics, box hedges, gravel pathways and ponds. Its most lovely, very solid and simple, with, perfectly flat windows and wonderful tiled roofs. The pond is most beautiful, with a willow at one side and a stone or flint wall edging it all round the part. The collection includes work by Auguste Renoir, Picasso, Derain, Matthew Smith, Sickert, Stephen Tomlin, charlestons walled garden was created by Vanessa Bell and Duncan Grant to designs by Roger Fry. In the 1920s a grid of gravel paths gave structure to beds of plants chosen by Grant and Bell for their intense colour and these became the subject of many still lives over their long residence at Charleston. Dora Carrington wrote of the garden, Never, never have I seen quite such a wonderful place, what excellent things there will be to paint in that garden with the pond and buildings. Part of the sense of luxuriance and surprise comes from the variety of sculpture it contains. Classical forms sit side by side with life-size works by Quentin Bell, mosaic pavements, the orchard offers shade from the sun and the pond a focus for tranquil contemplation. Above all this was a garden for playing and painting. As Vanessa Bell wrote in 1936, “The house seems full of people in very high spirits. Lying about in the garden which is simply a dithering blaze of flowers and butterflies and apples. ”The Charleston Trust is a charity set up in 1980 to restore and maintain the home of the Bloomsbury Group artists for the benefit of the public. The unique collection at Charleston is illustrative of the art and lifestyle of the influential Bloomsbury Group and has been on show to the public since 1986, Charleston attracts visitors from the local community as well as the rest of the UK and abroad
4.
Sussex
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Sussex, from the Old English Sūþsēaxe, is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. Brighton and Hove was created as an authority in 1997. Until then, Chichester was Sussexs only city, Sussex has three main geographic sub-regions, each oriented approximately east to west. In the south-west is the fertile and densely populated coastal plain, North of this are the rolling chalk hills of the South Downs, beyond which is the well-wooded Sussex Weald. The name derives from the Kingdom of Sussex, which was founded, according to legend, in 825, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex and subsequently into the kingdom of England. It was the home of some of Europes earliest hominids, whose remains have been found at Boxgrove, in 1974, the Lord-Lieutenant of Sussex was replaced with one each for East and West Sussex, which became separate ceremonial counties. Sussex continues to be recognised as a territory and cultural region. It has had a police force since 1968 and its name is in common use in the media. In 2007, Sussex Day was created to celebrate the rich culture. Based on the emblem of Sussex, a blue shield with six gold martlets. In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the existence of Englands 39 historic counties. The name Sussex is derived from the Middle English Suth-sæxe, which is in turn derived from the Old English Suth-Seaxe which means of the South Saxons, the South Saxons were a Germanic tribe that settled in the region from the North German Plain during the 5th and 6th centuries. The earliest known usage of the term South Saxons is in a charter of 689 which names them and their king, Noðhelm. The monastic chronicler who wrote up the entry classifying the invasion seems to have got his dates wrong, the New Latin word Suthsexia was used for Sussex by Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu in his 1645 map. Three United States counties, and a former division of Western Australia, are named after Sussex. The flag of Sussex consists of six gold martlets, or heraldic swallows, on a background, blazoned as Azure. Officially recognised by the Flag Institute on 20 May 2011, its design is based on the shield of Sussex. The first known recording of this emblem being used to represent the county was in 1611 when cartographer John Speed deployed it to represent the Kingdom of the South Saxons
5.
King's College London
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Kings College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom, and a founding constituent college of the federal University of London. Kings was established in 1829 by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington, in 1836, Kings became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. Kings has five campuses, its main campus on the Strand in central London. In 2015/16, Kings had an income of £738.4 million, of which £193.2 million was from research grants and contracts and as of 2014/15. It has the fifth largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, and its academic activities are organised into nine faculties which are subdivided into numerous departments, centres and research divisions. Kings is home to six Medical Research Council centres and is a member of the Kings Health Partners academic health sciences centre, Francis Crick Institute. Kings College London, so named to indicate the patronage of King George IV, was founded in 1829 in response to the controversy surrounding the founding of London University in 1826. The need for such an institution was a result of the religious and social nature of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which then educated solely the sons of wealthy Anglicans. The secular nature of London University was disapproved by The Establishment, indeed, thus, the creation of a rival institution represented a Tory response to reassert the educational values of The Establishment. Winchilsea and about 150 other contributors withdrew their support of Kings College London in response to Wellingtons support of Catholic emancipation. In a letter to Wellington he accused the Duke to have in mind insidious designs for the infringement of our liberty, the letter provoked a furious exchange of correspondence and Wellington accused Winchilsea of imputing him with disgraceful and criminal motives in setting up Kings College London. The result was a duel in Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829, Winchilsea did not fire, a plan he and his second almost certainly decided upon before the duel, Wellington took aim and fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether Wellington missed on purpose, Wellington, noted for his poor aim, claimed he did, other reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology, duel Day is still celebrated on the first Thursday after 21 March every year, marked by various events throughout Kings, including reenactments. Kings opened in October 1831 with the cleric William Otter appointed as first principal, despite the attempts to make Kings Anglican-only, the initial prospectus permitted, nonconformists of all sorts to enter the college freely. William Howley, the governors and the professors, except the linguists, had to be members of the Church of England but the students did not, though attendance at chapel was compulsory. Kings was divided into a department and a junior department, also known as Kings College School
6.
Clive Bell
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Arthur Clive Heward Bell was an English art critic, associated with formalism and the Bloomsbury Group. Bell died, aged 83, in London, Bell was born in East Shefford, Berkshire, in 1881, the third of four children of William Heward Bell and Hannah Taylor Cory. He had a brother, an elder sister, and a younger sister. They lived at Cleeve House in Seend, near Devizes, Wiltshire and he was educated at Marlborough and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied history. In 1902 he received an Earl of Derby scholarship to study in Paris, upon his return to England, he moved to London, where he met and married artist Vanessa Stephen, sister of Virginia Woolf, early in 1907. By World War I their marriage was over, Vanessa had begun a lifelong relationship with Duncan Grant and Clive had a number of liaisons with other women such as Mary Hutchinson. However, Clive and Vanessa never officially separated or divorced, not only did they keep visiting each other regularly, they also sometimes spent holidays together and paid family visits to Clives parents. Clive lived in London but often spent long stretches of time at the farmhouse of Charleston and he fully supported her wish to have a child by Duncan and allowed this daughter, Angelica, to bear his surname. Clive and Vanessa had two sons, who became writers. Julian joined the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War as an ambulance driver and he was killed in 1937 by an enemy shell, aged 29. Vanessas daughter by Duncan, Angelica Garnett, was raised as Clives daughter until she married and she was informed, by her mother Vanessa, just prior to her marriage and shortly after her brother Julians death, that in fact Duncan Grant was her biological father. According to historian Stanley Rosenbaum, Bell may, indeed, be the least liked member of Bloomsbury, Bell has been found wanting by biographers and critics of the Group – as a husband, a father, and especially a brother-in-law. It is undeniable that he was a snob, hedonist, and womaniser, a racist and an anti-Semite. Bells reputation has led to his being underestimated in the history of Bloomsbury, soon after Bell met Roger Fry, he developed his art theory called significant form. Bell and Fry shared a passion for contemporary French art, Bells book Art was where his theory was first published. Bell describes this theory as lines and colours combined in a way, certain forms, and relations of forms. This form can be seen in art created by members of the Bloomsbury Group. In his 1938 pamphlet War Mongers, he opposed any attempt by Britain to use military force, however, by 1940 Bell was a supporter of the British war effort, calling for a ceaseless war against Hitler
7.
Julian Bell
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Julian Heward Bell was a British poet, and the son of Clive and Vanessa Bell. The writer Quentin Bell was his brother and the writer and painter Angelica Garnett was his half-sister. His relationship with his mother is explored in Susan Sellers novel Vanessa, born in the St Pancras district of London, he was brought up mainly at Charleston, Sussex. He was educated at Leighton Park School and Kings College, Cambridge and he was a friend of some of the Cambridge Five, and sometimes claimed as Anthony Blunts lover. After graduating he worked towards a college fellowship, without success, in 1935 he went to China, to a position teaching English at Wuhan University. After a 2002 ruling by a Chinese court, that the book was defamation of the dead, the author rewrote the book, Bell was initially a pacifist and edited an anthology of memoirs of conscientious objectors from the First World War, We Did Not Fight. In 1937, Bell became increasingly supportive of the socialist and anti-fascist movements and his parents and his aunt Virginia tried to dissuade him, eventually they persuaded Julian to get a job as an ambulance driver on the Republican side, rather than a soldier. After just a month in Spain he was killed in the battle of Brunete and he was hit by bomb fragments whilst driving an ambulance. Quentin Bells son, Julians nephew, is also named Julian Bell and he is the author of Mirror of the World, A New History of Art. Mémoires de Duncan Grant, A Bohemian Rhapsody by Christian Soleil, Monpetitéditeur, le Neveu de Virginia Woolf, entretien avec Julian Bell by Christian Soleil, Publibook, Paris. Life in Squares portrayed by Finn Jones
8.
Quentin Bell
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Quentin Claudian Stephen Bell was an English art historian and author. Bell was the son of Clive Bell and Vanessa Bell, and he was educated in London and at the Quaker Leighton Park School. He sometimes worked as an artist - principally in ceramics - but for his career he was drawn to academia and he also wrote several books on the Bloomsbury Group and Charleston Farmhouse. In 1964 he was appointed Slade Professor of Fine Art at Oxford University and, in 1965, Bell was a Professor of Art History and Theory at the University of Sussex from 1967 to 1975. He was married to Olivier Bell and his older brother was the poet Julian Heward Bell who died in the Spanish Civil War in 1937, aged 29. The writer and artist Angelica Garnett was his half-sister, quentin Bell is buried in the churchyard of St. Peters Church, West Firle, East Sussex
9.
Leslie Stephen
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Sir Leslie Stephen KCB was an English author, critic, historian, biographer, and mountaineer, and father of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell. Stephen was born at Kensington Gore in London, and son of Sir James Stephen and his father was Colonial Undersecretary of State and a noted abolitionist. He was the fourth of five children, his siblings including James Fitzjames Stephen and his family had belonged to the Clapham Sect, the early 19th century group of mainly evangelical Christian social reformers. At his fathers house he saw a deal of the Macaulays, James Spedding, Sir Henry Taylor. He recounted some of his experiences in a chapter in his Life of Fawcett as well as in less formal Sketches from Cambridge. These sketches were reprinted from the Pall Mall Gazette, to the proprietor of which, George Murray Smith, the family connections included that of William Makepeace Thackeray. His brother, Fitzjames had been a friend of Thackerays and assisted in the disposition of his estate when he died in 1863 and his sister Caroline met Thackerays daughters, Anny and Minny when they were mutual guests of Julia Margaret Cameron. This led to an invitation to visit from Leslie Stephens mother, Lady Stephen and they also met at George Murray Smiths house at Hampstead. Minny and Leslie became engaged on December 4,1866 and married on June 19,1867. After the wedding they travelled to the Swiss Alps and northern Italy, and on return to England lived at the Thackeray sisters home at 16 Onslow Gardens with Anny, in the spring of 1868 Minny miscarried but recovered sufficiently for the couple to tour the eastern United States. Minny miscarried again in 1869, but became pregnant again in 1870 and on December 7 gave birth to their daughter, Laura was premature, weighing three pounds. In March 1873 Thackeray and the Stephens moved to 8 Southwell Gardens, the couple travelled extensively, and by 1875 Minny was pregnant again, but this time was in poor health. On November 27 she developed convulsions, and died the day of eclampsia. After Minnys death, Leslie Stephen continued to live with Anny, Leslie Stephen and his daughter were also cared for by his sister, the writer Caroline Emelia Stephen, although Leslie described her as Silly Milly and her books as little works. Meanwhile, Anny was falling in love with her younger cousin Richmond Ritchie, Ritchie became a constant visitor and they became engaged in May 1877, and were married on August 2. At the same time Leslie Stephen was seeing more and more of Julia Duckworth and his second marriage was to Julia Prinsep Duckworth. Julia had been born in India and after returning to England she became a model for Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Edward Burne-Jones, in 1867 she had married Herbert Duckworth by whom she had three children prior to his death in 1870. Leslie Stephen and Julia Duckworth were married on March 26,1878 and they had four children, Vanessa married Clive Bell Thoby Virginia married Leonard Woolf Adrian In May 1895, Julia died of influenza, leaving her husband with four young children aged 11 to 15
10.
Virginia Woolf
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Adeline Virginia Woolf was an English writer and one of the foremost modernists of the twentieth century. During the interwar period, Woolf was a significant figure in London literary society, Woolf suffered from severe bouts of mental illness throughout her life and took her own life by drowning in 1941 at the age of 59. Virginia Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen at 22 Hyde Park Gate in Kensington, London and her parents were Sir Leslie Stephen and Julia Prinsep Duckworth Stephen. Julia Stephen was born in British India to Dr. John and she was the niece of the photographer Julia Margaret Cameron and first cousin of the temperance leader Lady Henry Somerset. Julia moved to England with her mother, where she served as a model for Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Edward Burne-Jones, Woolf was educated by her parents in their literate and well-connected household. Her parents had each been married previously and been widowed, and, consequently, Julia had three children by her first husband, Herbert Duckworth, George, Stella, and Gerald Duckworth. Leslie and Julia had four children together, Vanessa Stephen, Thoby Stephen, Virginia, Henry James, George Henry Lewes, and Virginias honorary godfather, James Russell Lowell, were among the visitors to the house. Julia Stephen was equally well connected, supplementing these influences was the immense library at the Stephens house, from which Virginia and Vanessa were taught the classics and English literature. Unlike the girls, their brothers Adrian and Julian were formally educated and sent to Cambridge, the sisters did, however, benefit indirectly from their brothers Cambridge contacts, as the boys brought their new intellectual friends home to the Stephens drawing room. According to Woolfs memoirs, her most vivid memories were not of London but of St Ives, Cornwall. The Stephens summer home, Talland House, looked out over Porthminster Bay, memories of these family holidays and impressions of the landscape, especially the Godrevy Lighthouse, informed the fiction Woolf wrote in later years, most notably To the Lighthouse. She describes why she felt so connected to Talland House in an entry dated March 22nd,1921. Why am I so incredibly and incurably romantic about Cornwall. One’s past, I suppose, I see children running in the garden … The sound of the sea at night … almost forty years of life, all built on that, permeated by that, so much I could never explain. The sudden death of her mother in 1895, when Virginia was thirteen, after her mother and half-sister, she quickly lost her surrogate mother, Stella Duckworth, as well as her cherished brother Thoby, when he was in his mid-20s. She was, however, able to take courses of study in Ancient Greek, Latin, German and this brought her into contact with some of the early reformers of womens higher education such as the principal of the Ladies Department, Lilian Faithfull, Clara Pater and George Warr. Her sister Vanessa also studied Latin, Italian, art and architecture at Kings Ladies Department, in 2013 Woolf was honoured by her alma mater with the opening of a building named after her on Kingsway. The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse and she spent time recovering at her friend Violet Dickinsons house, and at her aunt Carolines house in Cambridge
11.
Interior design
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An interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such projects. Interior design is the process of shaping the experience of interior space, in the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building. The profession of design has been a consequence of the development of society. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the interior design profession. The profession of design is separate and distinct from the role of Interior Decorator. The term is common in the UK where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking. In ancient India, architects used to work as interior designers and this can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect - one of the gods in Indian mythology. Additionally, the sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen in palaces built in 17th century India, in ancient Egypt, soul houses or models of houses were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete design for their buildings. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management and this business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the interior design in the mid-20th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits and they framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes, as department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons. This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War, the Herter Brothers, founded by two German emigre brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the class was the architect Owen Jones. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament, in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design, in 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators
12.
Bloomsbury Group
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This loose collective of friends and relatives lived, worked or studied together near Bloomsbury, London, during the first half of the 20th century. According to Ian Ousby, although its members denied being a group in any formal sense and their works and outlook deeply influenced literature, aesthetics, criticism, and economics as well as modern attitudes towards feminism, pacifism, and sexuality. The male members of the Bloomsbury Group, except Duncan Grant, were educated at Cambridge at either Trinity or King’s College, most of them, except Clive Bell and the Stephen brothers, were members of the exclusive Cambridge society, the Apostles. In 1905 Vanessa began the Friday Club and Thoby ran Thursday Evenings, which became the basis for the Bloomsbury Group, thobys premature death in 1906 brought them more firmly together and they became what is now known as the Old Bloomsbury group who met in earnest beginning in 1912. In the 1920s and 1930s the group shifted when the members died. The Bloomsbury Group, mostly from upper middle-class professional families, formed part of an aristocracy which could trace itself back to the Clapham Sect. It was a network of an influential group of artists, art critics, writers. A historical feature of these friends and relations is that their close relationships all pre-dated their fame as writers, artists, except for Forster, who published three novels before the highly successful Howards End in 1910, the group were late developers. There were stable marriages and varied and complicated affairs among the individual members, Lytton Strachey and his cousin and lover Duncan Grant became close friends of the Stephen sisters, Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf. Duncan Grant had affairs with siblings Vanessa Bell and Adrian Stephen, as well as David Garnett, Maynard Keynes, Clive Bell married Vanessa in 1907, and Leonard Woolf returned from the Ceylon Civil Service to marry Virginia in 1912. Cambridge Apostle friendships brought into the group Desmond MacCarthy, his wife Molly, the group met not only in their homes in Bloomsbury, central London, but also at countryside retreats. The Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge is the resting place of two of the Bloomsbury Group, Sir Desmond and Lady Molly McCarthy. It also houses nine other Apostles, including the philosopher G. E, Moore, who was a great influence on the Bloomsberries. S. Eliot, Katherine Mansfield, Hugh Walpole, another is Vita Sackville-West, who became Hogarth Presss best-selling author. Members cited in other lists might include Ottoline Morrell, or Dora Carrington, or James, through the Apostles they also encountered the analytic philosophers G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell who were revolutionizing British philosophy at the start of the 20th century. For Moore, intrinsic value depended on an intuition of good. For both Moore and Bloomsbury, the greatest ethic goods were the importance of relationships and the private life, as well as aesthetic appreciation. Bloomsbury reacted against current social rituals, the bourgeois habits, the conventions of Victorian life with their emphasis on public achievement, in favour of a more informal and private focus on personal relationships and individual pleasure
13.
Thoby Stephen
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Julian Thoby Stephen, known as the Goth, was the brother of Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf, both prominent members of the Bloomsbury Group, and of Adrian Stephen. Thoby Stephen was the eldest son of Leslie Stephen and Julia Prinsep, as the result of his mothers previous marriage he was also a half-brother of George and Gerald Duckworth. He was educated at Clifton College, after failing to gain a place at Eton, however, this did not hold him back, since he won an exhibition to Trinity College, Cambridge, from Clifton. He was a friend of Lytton Strachey, who was enchanted by his masculinity and he was described as over six feet tall and of somewhat ponderous build. Stephen is credited with starting the Bloomsbury Groups Thursday evening gatherings and he was expected to distinguish himself, but he contracted typhoid at the age of 26 while on holiday in Greece, and died shortly after he was brought back to England. Vanessa Bells eldest son, the poet Julian Bell, was named after him, Lytton Strachey, The New Biography by Michael Holroyd Charleston Farmhouse
14.
Gerald Duckworth
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Gerald de lEtang Duckworth was a British publisher. Duckworth was a son of Herbert Duckworth, a London barrister and his middle name, de lEtang, was the surname of one of his mothers ancestors, Antoine de lEtang, a page to Queen Marie Antoinette. His mother was a niece of Julia Margaret Cameron, the photographer, after whom she was named, Woolf eventually accused Gerald and his elder brother, George, of having sexually abused her and Vanessa when they were children and teenagers. Woolf published her first two novels with her brothers help before forming the Hogarth Press, Gerald Duckworth was educated at Eton College and Clare College, Cambridge. In 1898, Duckworth founded the company which bears his name, Gerald Duckworth and Company Ltd, in Henrietta Street. Frank Baum, and the first book illustrated by Maxfield Parrish, edward Garnett was Duckworths reader for nearly twenty years. The firm published W. H. Hudson, Charles M. Doughty, D. H. Lawrence, Evelyn Waugh, Virginia Woolf, and most of the work of Edith Sitwell, Osbert Sitwell and it published all of John Galsworthys plays between 1909 and 1929. In 1929, Galsworthy was shocked that Duckworth required him to sign all 1,250 copies of an edition of his collected plays. But when told he would get a royalty of 15s, 9d. per copy, he set up his watch and said, Lets see how long it takes me to earn £984 7s. Anthony Powell became Duckworths literary editor in 1926, and the publishers Judkins & Judkins in his novel Whats become of Waring. are modelled on Duckworths, Duckworth died in Milan, Italy, in 1937, but the firm continued to thrive. It marked its centenary in 1998, but ran into financial troubles in 2003 and it was then bought out by Peter Mayer, though it continues to publish under the name of Duckworth. Three portraits of Duckworth are held by the National Portrait Gallery, on 2 March 1921, Duckworth married Cecil Alice Scott-Chad, the daughter of Charles Scott-Chad, a barrister. Duckworths older brother Sir George Herbert Duckworth was private secretary to Austen Chamberlain and was the grandfather of Anthony Duckworth-Chad and his sister Stella married John Waller Hills, but died three months later
15.
Hyde Park, London
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Hyde Park is one of the largest parks in London and one of its Royal Parks. The park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water, the park is contiguous with Kensington Gardens, which are often assumed to be part of Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens has been separate since 1728, when Queen Caroline divided them. To the southeast, outside the park, is Hyde Park Corner, during daylight, the two parks merge seamlessly into each other, but Kensington Gardens closes at dusk, and Hyde Park remains open throughout the year from 5 a. m. until midnight. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was held in the park, for which the Crystal Palace, the park became a traditional location for mass demonstrations. The Chartists, the Reform League, the suffragettes, and the Stop the War Coalition have all held protests there, many protesters on the Liberty and Livelihood March in 2002 started their march from Hyde Park. Hyde Park is also a ward of the City of Westminster, the population of the ward at the 2011 Census was 12,462. Hyde Park was created for hunting by Henry Vlll in 1536, Charles I created the Ring, and in 1637 he opened the park to the general public. In 1652, during the Interregnum, Parliament ordered the then 620-acre park to be sold for ready money and it realised £17,000 with an additional £765 6s 2d for the resident deer. In 1689, when William III moved his residence to Kensington Palace on the far side of Hyde Park, public transport entering London from the west runs parallel to the Kings private road along Kensington Gore, just outside the park. In the late 1800s, the row was used by the wealthy for horseback rides, the first coherent landscaping was undertaken by Charles Bridgeman for Queen Caroline, under the supervision of Charles Withers, the Surveyor-General of Woods and Forests, who took some credit. It was completed in 1733 at a cost to the public purse of £20,000, the 2nd Viscount Weymouth was made Ranger of Hyde Park in 1739 and shortly after began digging the Serpentine lakes at Longleat. The Serpentine is divided from the Long Water by a bridge designed by George Rennie, one of the most important events to take place in the park was the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Crystal Palace was constructed on the side of the park. The public did not want the building to remain after the closure of the exhibition and he had it moved to Sydenham Hill in South London. At the age of twenty-five, Decimus Burton was commissioned by the Office of Woods and he laid out the paths and driveways and designed a series of lodges, the Screen/Gate at Hyde Park Corner and the Wellington Arch. The Screen and the Arch originally formed a single composition, designed to provide a transition between Hyde Park and Green Park, although the arch was later moved. An early description reports, It consists of a screen of handsome fluted Ionic columns, the extent of the whole frontage is about 107 ft. The two side gateways, in their elevations, present two insulated Ionic columns, flanked by antae, all these entrances are finished by a blocking, the sides of the central one being decorated with a beautiful frieze, representing a naval and military triumphal procession
16.
Westminster
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Westminster is an area of central London within the City of Westminster, part of the West End, on the north bank of the River Thames. Historically the area lay within St Margarets parish, City & Liberty of Westminster and it has been the home of the permanent institutions of Englands government continuously since about 1200 and is now the seat of British government. In a government context, Westminster often refers to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the closest tube stations are Westminster, St Jamess Park on the Jubilee, Circle, and District lines. Within the area is Westminster School, a public school which grew out of the Abbey. Bounding Westminster to the north is Green Park, a Royal Park of London, the area has a substantial resident population, indeed most of its listed buildings are residential. A proportion of residents are people of limited means, living in council, hotels, large Victorian homes and barracks exist nearer to Buckingham Palace. The name describes an area no more than 1 mile from Westminster Abbey, the settlement grew up around the palace and abbey, as a service area for them. The need for a church, St Margarets Westminster for the servants of the palace. It became larger and in the Georgian period became connected through urban development with the City along the Strand. It did not become a local government unit until created as a civil parish. Indeed, the Cathedral and diocesan status of the church lasted only from 1539 to 1556, as such it is first known to have had two Members of Parliament in 1545 as a new Parliamentary Borough, centuries after the City of London and Southwark were enfranchised. The historic core of Westminster is the former Thorney Island on which Westminster Abbey was built, the abbey became the traditional venue of the coronation of the kings and queens of England from that of Harold Godwinson onwards. From about 1200, near the abbey, the Palace of Westminster became the royal residence, marked by the transfer of royal treasury. Later the palace housed the developing Parliament and Englands law courts, thus London developed two focal points, the City of London and Westminster. The monarchs later moved to St James Palace and the Palace of Whitehall a little towards the north-east, the main law courts have since moved to the Royal Courts of Justice. The Westminster area formed part of the City and Liberty of Westminster in Middlesex, the ancient parish was St Margaret, after 1727 this became the civil parish of St Margaret and St John, the latter a new church required for the increasing population. The area around Westminster Abbey formed the extra-parochial Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter surrounded by —, until 1900 the local authority was the combined vestry of St Margaret and St John, which was based at Westminster City Hall in Caxton Street from 1883. The Liberty of Westminster, governed by the Westminster Court of Burgesses, also included St Martin in the Fields, Westminster had its own quarter sessions, but the Middlesex sessions also had jurisdiction
17.
Arthur Stockdale Cope
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Sir Arthur Stockdale Cope RA was an English portrait painter. Copes father was Charles West Cope, a history and genre painter. He trained in art at Carey’s Art School before moving to the Royal Academy schools and he went on to establish his own portrait practice, exhibiting 288 works at the Royal Academy and the Royal Society of Portrait Painters between 1876 and 1935. He combined this prolific output with a roll call of sitters, ranging from Kings Edward VII, George V and Edward VIII, to Kaiser Wilhelm II. In addition to his painting practice, Cope established an art school in South Kensington
18.
Royal Academy of Arts
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The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through an act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. Supporters wanted to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation, fashionable taste in 18th-century Britain was based on continental and traditional art forms, providing contemporary British artists little opportunity to sell their works. From 1746 the Foundling Hospital, through the efforts of William Hogarth, the success of this venture led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Both these groups were primarily exhibiting societies, their success was marred by internal factions among the artists. The combined vision of education and exhibition to establish a school of art set the Royal Academy apart from the other exhibiting societies. It provided the foundation upon which the Royal Academy came to dominate the art scene of the 18th and 19th centuries, supplanting the earlier art societies. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect, used his connections with George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy, the painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president. Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788, the instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list later by the King and are known as nominated members, among the founder members were two women, a father and daughter, and two sets of brothers. The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery. These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions, in 1868,100 years after the Academys foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains. Burlington House is owned by the British Government, and used rent-free by the Royal Academy, the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. In 1870 the Academy expanded its programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters. The range and frequency of these exhibitions have grown enormously since that time. Britains first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, led by Reynolds, the first president, a program included lectures by Dr. William Hunter, John Flaxman, James Barry, Sir John Soane, and J. M. W. Turner
19.
Lady Ottoline Morrell
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Lady Ottoline Violet Anne Morrell was an English aristocrat and society hostess. Born Ottoline Violet Anne Cavendish-Bentinck, she was the daughter of Lieutenant-General Arthur Cavendish-Bentinck and his second wife, Lady Ottolines great-great-uncle was Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. The dukedom was a title which belonged to the Cavendish-Bentinck family, Morrell was known to have had many lovers. Her first love affair was with a man, the doctor and writer Axel Munthe. In February 1902, she married the MP Philip Morrell, with whom she shared a passion for art and they shared what would now be known as an open marriage for the rest of their lives. Philips extramarital affairs produced several children who were cared for by his wife, the Morrells themselves had two children, a son, Hugh, who died in infancy, and a daughter, Julian. Morrell had an affair with philosopher Bertrand Russell, with whom she exchanged more than 2000 letters. Her circle of friends included many authors, artists, sculptors and her work as a patron was enduring and influential, notably in her contribution to the Contemporary Art Society during its early years. The Morrells maintained a townhouse in Bedford Square, in the Central London neighbourhood known as Bloomsbury, Morrell delighted in opening both as havens for like-minded people. 44 Bedford Square served as her London salon, while Garsington provided a convenient retreat, gilbert Spencer lived for a while in a house on the Garsington estate. During World War I, the Morrells were notable pacifists, not a position then. They invited conscientious objectors such as Duncan Grant, Clive Bell, siegfried Sassoon, recuperating there after an injury, was encouraged to go absent without leave as a protest against the war. The hospitality offered by the Morrells was such that most of their guests had no suspicion that they were in financial difficulties, many of them assumed that Ottoline was a wealthy woman. This was far from being the case and during 1927, the Morrells were compelled to sell the house and its estate. In 1928 she was diagnosed cancer, which resulted in a long hospitalization. She died from a drug given by a doctor. Henry Green, the novelist, wrote to Philip Morrell of her love for all things true and her memorial in St Winifreds Church, Holbeck was carved by Eric Gill. Morrell wrote two volumes of memoirs, but these were edited and revised after her death, losing a little of their charm and she also maintained detailed journals, over a period of twenty years, which remain unpublished
20.
Aldous Huxley
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Aldous Leonard Huxley was an English writer, novelist, philosopher, and prominent member of the Huxley family. He graduated from Balliol College at the University of Oxford with an honours in English literature. Early in his career Huxley edited the magazine Oxford Poetry and published short stories, mid career and later, he published travel writing, film stories, and scripts. He spent the part of his life in the U. S. living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. In 1962, a year before his death, he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature, Huxley was a humanist, pacifist, and satirist. He later became interested in subjects such as parapsychology and philosophical mysticism. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of his time and he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in seven different years. Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, in 1894 and he was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited Cornhill Magazine, and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Priors Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphrey Ward, Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist. His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists, Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan Huxley, who committed suicide after a period of clinical depression. As a child, Huxleys nickname was Ogie, short for Ogre and he was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently the strangeness of things. According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing, Huxleys education began in his fathers well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near Godalming. He was taught there by his own mother for years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside, he went on to Eton College and his mother died in 1908 when he was 14. In 1911 he contracted the eye disease which left practically blind for two to three years and this ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor. In October 1913, Huxley went up to Balliol College, Oxford, in January 1916, he volunteered to join the British Army in the Great War, but was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. In 1916 he edited Oxford Poetry and in June of that year graduated BA with First Class honours and his brother Julian wrote, I believe his blindness was a blessing in disguise. For one thing, it put paid to his idea of taking up medicine as a career and his uniqueness lay in his universalism
21.
Lytton Strachey
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Giles Lytton Strachey was a British writer and critic. His biography Queen Victoria was awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize and he was named Giles Lytton after an early sixteenth-century Gyles Strachey and the first Earl of Lytton, who had been a friend of Richard Stracheys when he was Viceroy of India in the late 1870s. The Earl of Lytton was also Lytton Stracheys godfather, the Stracheys had thirteen children in total, ten of whom survived to adulthood, including Lyttons sister Dorothy Strachey and youngest brother, the psychoanalyst, James Strachey. When Lytton was four years old the family moved from Stowey House to 69 Lancaster Gate and this was their home until Sir Richard retired 20 years later. Lady Strachey was an enthusiast for languages and literature, making her children perform their own plays and she thought that Lytton had the potential to become a great artist so she decided that he would receive the best education possible in order to be enlightened. By 1887 he had begun the study of French, and he was to admire French culture throughout his life, Strachey was educated at a series of schools, beginning at Parkstone, Dorset. This was a school with a wide range of after-class activities. He told his mother how much he liked dressing as a woman in life to confuse. Lady Strachey decided in 1893 that her son should start his more serious education and sent him to Abbotsholme School in Rocester, Derbyshire, where pupils were required to do manual work every day. Strachey, who always had a fragile physique, objected to this requirement and after few months he was transferred to Leamington College, Sir Richard, however, told his son to grin and bear the petty bullying. Strachey did eventually adapt to the school and became one of its best pupils and his health also seems to have improved during the three years he spent at Leamington, although various illnesses continued to plague him. They recommended Lincoln College as a suitable institution, advice that Lady Strachey took as an insult, deciding then that he would attend Trinity College, Cambridge. Strachey was admitted as a Pensioner at Trinity College, Cambridge and he became an Exhibitioner in 1900 and a Scholar in 1902. He won the Chancellors Medal for English Verse in 1902 and was given a B. A. degree after he had won a class in the History Tripos in June 1903. He did not, however, take leave of Trinity, but remained until October 1905, Strachey was often ill and had to leave Cambridge repeatedly to recover from the palpitations that affected him. Stracheys years at Cambridge were happy and productive, among the freshmen at Trinity there were three with whom Strachey soon became closely associated, Clive Bell, Leonard Woolf and Saxon Sydney-Turner. With another undergraduate, A. J. Robertson, these formed a group called the Midnight Society. Other close friends at Cambridge were Thoby Stephen and his sisters Vanessa, Strachey also belonged to the Conversazione Society, the Cambridge Apostles to which Tennyson, Hallam, Maurice, and Sterling had once belonged
22.
Duncan Grant
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Duncan James Corrowr Grant was a British painter and designer of textiles, pottery, theatre sets and costumes. He was a member of the Bloomsbury Group and his father was Bartle Grant, a poverty-stricken major in the army, and much of his early childhood was spent in India and Burma. He was a grandson of Sir John Peter Grant, 12th Laird of Rothiemurchus, KCB, GCMG, Grant was also the first cousin twice removed of John Grant, 13th Earl of Dysart. Grant was born on 21 January 1885 to Major Bartle Grant and Ethel McNeil in Rothiemurchus, Aviemore, between 1887-94 the family lived in India and Burma, returning to England every two years. During this period Grant was educated by his governess, Alice Bates, along with Rupert Brooke, Grant attended Hillbrow School, Rugby where he received lessons from an art teacher and became interested in Japanese prints. During this period, Grant would spend his holidays at Hogarth House, Chiswick with his grandmother. He attended St Pauls School, London between 1899-91 where he was awarded several art prizes, between 1899/1900-1906, Grant lived with his aunt and uncle, Sir Richard and Lady Strachey and their children. When Grant was younger, he accompanied Lady Strachey to picture Sunday which gave him the opportunity to meet with eminent painters, Lady Strachey was able to persuade Grants parents that he should be allowed to pursue an education in art. In 1902 Grant was enrolled by his aunt at Westminster School of Art, while at Westminster, Grant was encouraged in his studies by Simon Bussy, a French painter and lifelong friend of Matisse, who went on to marry Dorothy Strachey. On his return, at the advice of Simon Bussy, Grant made a copy of the Angel musicians in Pieros Nativity in the National Gallery, Grant was introduced to Vanessa Bell by Pippa Strachey at the Friday Club in the autumn of 1905. From 1906, thanks to a gift of £100 from an aunt, Grant spent a year in Paris studying at the Académie de La Palette, during this period he visited the Musée du Luxembourg and saw, among other paintings, the Caillebotte Bequest of French Impressionists. In January 1907, and again in the summer of 1908, in 1908, Grant painted a portrait of John Maynard Keynes, who he had met the previous year, while the two were on holiday in Orkney. A year later, the pair would share rooms on Belgrave Road, in 1909 Grant visited Michael and Gertrude Stein in Paris and saw their collection that included paintings by, among others, Picasso and Matisse. In the summer, with an introduction from Simon Bussy, Grant visited Matisse himself, then living at Clamart, in November 1909 Grant moved to 21 Fitzroy Square - where he occupied two rooms on the second floor of the building on the west side of the square. A few doors away, at 29 Fitzroy Square, lived Adrian, Grant would later recall, a close friendship sprang up between Adrian Stephen and myself and I had only to tap on the window to be let in. The maid told Virginia that Mr Grant gets in everywhere, but very irregular as my visits were, they became more and more a habit, and I think they soon became frequent enough to escape notice. In June 1910, Grant exhibited with the Friday Club at the Alpine Club Gallery, during the summer of 1911 Grant was invited by Roger Fry to contribute to the redecoration of the dining room at the Borough Polytechnic. Grant composed two oil paintings to fit with the theme of illustrating London on Holiday, both his paintings, Football and Bathing, bear the influence of early Italian art and Byzantine mosaics
23.
Bloomsbury
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Bloomsbury is an area of the London Borough of Camden, between Euston Road and Holborn. It was developed by the Russell family in the 17th and 18th centuries into a residential area. It is notable for its garden squares, literary connections, and numerous cultural, educational, Bloomsbury Square was laid out in 1660 by Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton. Much of the district was planned and built by James Burton and it is also home to the University of Law and New College of the Humanities. London Contemporary Dance School and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and are located in the area. Bloomsbury is in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. The western half of the district comprises Bloomsbury ward, which three councillors to Camden Borough Council. The earliest record of what would become Bloomsbury is in the 1086 Domesday Book, but it is not until 1201 that the name Bloomsbury is first noted, when William de Blemond, a Norman landowner, acquired the land. The name Bloomsbury is a development from Blemondisberi – the bury, or manor, at the end of the 14th century, Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks of the London Charterhouse, who kept the area mostly rural. In the 16th century with the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Henry VIII took the back into the possession of the Crown and granted it to Thomas Wriothesley. In the early 1660s, the Earl of Southampton constructed what eventually became Bloomsbury Square, the Yorkshire Grey public house on the corner of Grays Inn Road and Theobalds Road dates from 1676. The area was laid out mainly in the 18th century, largely by landowners such as Wriothesley Russell, 3rd Duke of Bedford, who built Bloomsbury Market, William de Blemond in the 13th century, a Norman, was the first landowner. Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks who governed it until Henry VIII granted it to the Earl of Southampton, the Russell family became landowners in the 18th century. The area lay within the parishes of St Giles in the Fields and St Georges, Bloomsbury and it is now controlled by the London Borough of Camden and part of the district is contained within the Bloomsbury ward. The district is situated in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. Bloomsbury merges gradually with Holborn in the south, with St Pancras and Kings Cross in the north-east, the road runs from Euston and Somers Town in the north to Holborn in the south. East of Southampton Row/Woburn Place are the Grade II listed Brunswick Centre, a residential and shopping centre, the area west of Southampton Row/Woburn Place is notable for its concentration of academic establishments, museums, and formal squares. Bloomsbury contains some of Londons finest parks and buildings, and is known for its formal squares
24.
Gordon Square
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Gordon Square is in Bloomsbury, in the London Borough of Camden, London, England part of the Bedford Estate. It was developed by master builder Thomas Cubitt in the 1820s, as one of a pair with Tavistock Square, which is a block away and has the same dimensions. As with most London squares the central garden was originally for the use of the residents of the surrounding houses. The square is named after the wife of the 6th Duke of Bedford, Lady Georgiana Gordon, daughter of Alexander Gordon. The work was completed in 2007, the west side of the square is dominated by the listed church of Christ the King and next to it the home of Dr Williamss Library. The economist John Maynard Keynes lived at 46 Gordon Square, marked by a blue plaque, before Keynes moved in, the same house was occupied by a young Virginia Woolf and her siblings and frequented by other members of the Bloomsbury Group. The writer and biographer Lytton Strachey lived at No.51, houses 43 to 46 are now occupied by the School of Arts, Birkbeck, University of London. The Institute of Archaeology, a department of University College London, is on the side of the square. The Campaign for Science and Engineering resides in Gordon House, at the squares north-west corner, Gordon Street leads from the north-west corner with the Bloomsbury Theatre close by. The Warburg Institute is located on the south-west corner of the square, in August 2000, the east side of the square was used to film part of the bus chase sequence for the movie The Mummy Returns. In the film, the section filmed in Gordon Square depicts the bus swerving to avoid a car, crashing into another car. The streets were also doused with water from a tender to make it appear that it had just rained. Nos. 16–26, on the side of the Square, were not completed until 1855. They now mostly house UCL academic departments, for example, No.22 houses the Department of Science and Technology Studies. com information Christ the King church, Gordon Square
25.
Desmond MacCarthy
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Sir Charles Otto Desmond MacCarthy FRSL was a British literary critic and journalist, he was a member of the Cambridge Apostles, the intellectual secret society, from 1896. At Cambridge he got to know Lytton Strachey, Bertrand Russell, though often thought to be a member of the Bloomsbury Group, MacCarthy in fact had a wider circle of friends, including Logan Pearsall Smith. In 1903 he became a journalist, with moderate success, for part of the First World War he worked in Naval Intelligence. In 1917 he joined the New Statesman as drama critic, and he wrote a weekly column under the pen-name The Affable Hawk. During this time he recruited Cyril Connolly to the paper, by 1928 he was losing interest in the New Statesman, and became the first editor of Life and Letters. Other periodicals he was associated with were New Quarterly and Eye Witness, MacCarthy became a literary critic for the Sunday Times, and several volumes of his collected criticism were published. He was author of the short ghost story Pargiton and Harby, in 1906 MacCarthy married Mollie, the daughter of Francis Warre Warre-Cornish. She was a literary figure in her own right. Her sister Cecilia married William Wordsworth Fisher, the MacCarthys daughter Rachel married the literary historian Lord David Cecil, their son was the actor Jonathan Cecil. He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, the Court Theatre Portraits Drama Theatre T. Avery, Desmond and Molly MacCarthy, Bloomsberries H. and M. Cecil, Clever Hearts, Desmond and Molly MacCarthy D
26.
John Maynard Keynes
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John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes CB FBA, was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics and he instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. According to Keynesian economics, state intervention was necessary to moderate boom, Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy. When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, the Economist has described Keynes as Britains most famous 20th-century economist. In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a servant, a director of the Bank of England. John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England and his father, John Neville Keynes, was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother Florence Ada Keynes a local social reformer. Keynes was the first born, and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887, Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Archibald Hill. According to the economist and biographer Robert Skidelsky, Keyness parents were loving and they remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keyness mother made her childrens interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home. In January 1889, at the age of five and a half and he quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, in January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at St Faiths preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics, in 1896, St Faiths headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton. In 1897, Keynes won a scholarship to Eton College, where he displayed talent in a range of subjects, particularly mathematics, classics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first love of his life in Dan Macmillan, despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils. In 1902 Keynes left Eton for Kings College, Cambridge, after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics, Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist, although Keyness own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore. Keynes joined the Pitt Club and was an member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating, before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club
27.
Leonard Woolf
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Leonard Sidney Woolf was an English political theorist, author, publisher and civil servant, and husband of author Virginia Woolf. Woolf was born in London, the third of ten children of Solomon Rees Sidney Woolf, a barrister and Queens Counsel, after his father died in 1892 Woolf was sent to board at Arlington House School near Brighton, Sussex. From 1894 to 1899 he attended St Pauls School, and in 1899 he won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. Other members included Lytton Strachey, John Maynard Keynes, GE Moore, thoby Stephen, Virginia Stephens brother, was friendly with the Apostles, though not a member himself. Woolf was awarded his BA in 1902, but stayed for another year to study for the Civil Service examinations, Woolf returned to England in May 1911 for a years leave. Instead, however, he resigned in early 1912 and that year married Virginia Stephen. Together Leonard and Virginia Woolf became influential in the Bloomsbury Group, in December 1917 Woolf became one of the co-founders of the 1917 Club, which met in Gerrard Street, Soho. After marriage, Woolf turned his hand to writing and in 1913 published his first novel, The Village in the Jungle, a series of books followed at roughly two-yearly intervals. On the introduction of conscription in 1916, during the First World War, Woolf was rejected for service on medical grounds. He joined the Labour Party and the Fabian Society, and became a contributor to the New Statesman. In 1916 he wrote International Government, proposing an international agency to enforce world peace, as his wifes mental health worsened, Woolf devoted much of his time to caring for her. In 1917 the Woolfs bought a small hand-operated printing press and with it they founded the Hogarth Press and their first project was a pamphlet, hand-printed and bound by themselves. Within ten years the Press had become a publishing house, issuing Virginias novels, Leonards tracts and, among other works. Woolf continued as the director of the Press until his death. His wife suffered from bouts of mental illness throughout her life. Later Leonard fell in love with a married artist, Trekkie Parsons, in 1919 Woolf became editor of the International Review. He also edited the section of the Contemporary Review from 1920 to 1922. In 1960 Woolf revisited Sri Lanka and was surprised at the warmth of the welcome he received, Woolf accepted an honorary doctorate from the then-new University of Sussex in 1964 and in 1965 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature
28.
Roger Fry
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Roger Eliot Fry was an English painter and critic, and a member of the Bloomsbury Group. Establishing his reputation as a scholar of the Old Masters, he became an advocate of more recent developments in French painting and he was described by the art historian Kenneth Clark as incomparably the greatest influence on taste since Ruskin. In so far as taste can be changed by one man, born in London, the son of the judge Edward Fry, he grew up in a wealthy Quaker family in Highgate. Fry was educated at Clifton College and Kings College, Cambridge, at Cambridge, Fry met many freethinking men who would shape the foundation of his interest in the arts. Alongside men like John McTaggart and Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, Fry was a part of the elite Conversazione Society, after taking a first in the Natural Science tripos, he went to Paris and then Italy to study art. Eventually he specialised in landscape painting, in 1896, he married the artist Helen Coombe and they subsequently had two children, Pamela and Julian. Helen soon became mentally ill, and in 1910 was committed to a mental institution. Fry took over the care of their children with the help of his sister and that same year, Fry met the artists Vanessa Bell and her husband Clive Bell, and it was through them that he was introduced to the Bloomsbury Group. Vanessas sister, the author Virginia Woolf later wrote in her biography of Fry that He had more knowledge, in 1911, Fry began an affair with Vanessa Bell, who was recovering from a miscarriage. Fry offered her the tenderness and care she felt was lacking from her husband and they remained lifelong close friends, even though Frys heart was broken in 1913 when Vanessa fell in love with Duncan Grant and decided to live permanently with him. After short affairs with artists as Nina Hamnett and Josette Coatmellec. She became his emotional anchor for the rest of his life, Fry died very unexpectedly after a fall at his home in London. His death caused great sorrow among the members of the Bloomsbury Group, Vanessa Bell decorated his casket before his ashes were placed in the vault of Kings College Chapel in Cambridge. Virginia Woolf, Vanessas sister, novelist and a friend of his as well, was entrusted with writing his biography published in 1940. As a painter Fry was experimental, but his best pictures were straightforward naturalistic portraits, in his art he explored his own sensations and gradually his own personal visions and attitudes asserted themselves. His work was considered to give pleasure, communicating the delight of unexpected beauty, Fry did not consider himself a great artist, only a serious artist with some sensibility and taste. He considered Cowdray Park his best painting the best thing, in a way that I have done, in the 1900s, Fry started to teach art history at the Slade School of Fine Art, University College London. In 1903 Fry was involved in the foundation of The Burlington Magazine, Fry wrote for The Burlington from 1903 until his death, he published over two hundred pieces of eclectic subjects – from childrens drawings to bushman art
29.
Spanish Civil War
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Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from April 1939 until his death in November 1975. Sanjurjo was killed in an accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal. The coup was supported by units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba. However, rebelling units in some important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control, Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country, the Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, operated a policy of non-intervention. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west and they also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists, with the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, organized purges occurred in territory captured by Francos forces to consolidate the future regime. A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, the extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain and those in favour of reforming Spains government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain, the reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874, until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little development of an industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful, a number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions. In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon, two distinct factors led to the uprisings, a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabellas replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing pressure. After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874, Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy, alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute
30.
David Garnett
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David Garnett was a British writer and publisher. As a child, he had a made of rabbit skin and thus received the nickname Bunny, by which he was known to friends. Garnett was born in Brighton, the child of the writer, critic and publisher Edward Garnett and his wife Constance. Through his father, he was descended from a writer and a philologist who both worked at what is now the British Library, then within the British Museum, Bloomsbury and the life of letters were embedded in David. As a conscientious objector in the First World War, Garnett worked on farms in Suffolk. He ran a bookshop near the British Museum with Francis Birrell during the 1920s and he also founded the Nonesuch Press. He wrote the novel Aspects of Love, on which the later Andrew Lloyd Webber musical was based and his first wife was the illustrator Rachel Marshall, sister of the translator and diarist Frances Partridge. He and Ray, whose woodcuts appear in some of his books, had two sons, one of whom went to Beacon Hill School, Ray died relatively young of breast cancer. Garnett was bisexual, as were members of the artistic and literary Bloomsbury Group. On 25 December 1918 he was present at the birth of Grants daughter by Vanessa Bell, Angelica, shortly afterwards he wrote to a friend I think of marrying it. When she is 20, I shall be 46 – will it be scandalous, on 8 May 1942, when Angelica was in her early twenties, they did marry, to the horror of her parents. She did not find out much later that her husband had been a lover of her father. The Garnetts lived at Hilton Hall, near St Ives in Huntingdonshire and they had four daughters, in order, Amaryllis, Henrietta, and the twins Nerissa and Frances, eventually the couple separated. Amaryllis Garnett was an actress who had a part in Harold Pinters film adaptation of The Go-Between. She drowned in the Thames, aged 29, Nerissa Garnett was an artist, ceramicist, and photographer. Fanny Garnett moved to France where she became a farmer, after his separation from Angelica, Garnett moved to France and lived in the grounds at the Château de Charry, Montcuq in a house leased to him by the owners, Jo and Angela dUrville. He continued to write and lived there until his death in 1981, bloomsburys Outsider, A Life of David Garnett, Sarah Knights, Bloomsbury Reader, Paperback and Digital, ISBN 978-1-4482-1545-4,632 pages. Dope Darling novel, as Leda Burke Lady into Fox novel A Man in the Zoo novel The Sailors Return novel Go She Must, a Writers Library The Secret History of PWE, The Political Warfare Executive, 1939–1945 References Sources Heilbrun, Carolyn G
31.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
32.
Firle
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Firle is a village and civil parish in the Lewes District of East Sussex, England. Firle refers to an old-English/Anglo-Saxon word fierol meaning overgrown with oak, although the original division of East Firle and West Firle still remains, East Firle is now simply confined to the houses of Heighton Street, which lie to the east of the Firle Park. West Firle is now referred to as Firle although West Firle remains its official name. It is located south of the A27 road four miles east of Lewes, during the reign of Edward the Confessor Firle was part of the Abbey of Wiltons estate. Following the Norman conquest of England the village and surrounding lands were passed to Robert, half-brother of King William I, Robert was the largest landowner in the country after the monarch. The village is mentioned in the Domesday Book, referred to as Ferla, the value of the village is listed as being £44, which was amongst the highest in the county. The manor house, the site on which Firle Place now stands, was occupied from the early 14th century by the de Livet family, an ancient Sussex gentry family of Norman descent who owned the manor. On the bankruptcy of lord of the manor Thomas Levett in 1440, following the death of Bolney in 1476 without a male heir, the seat of Firle Place was passed to William Gage and has remained the seat of the Viscount Gage ever since. During the Second World War, Firle Plantation to the south of the village was the base of a four-man Home Guard Auxiliary Unit. The writer Virginia Woolf visited nearby Lewes in December 1910 and decided to relocate in Firle, pointz Hall, a fictional manor from her novel Between the Acts, is believed to be inspired by Firle Place. Vanessa Bell, her son Quentin Bell, and Duncan Grant are all buried in the churchyard of St Peters, writer Katherine Mansfield, who had close ties with the Bloomsbury Group, also lived in Firle for a brief time. Her landlord was economist John Maynard Keynes, who moved to Firle in 1925, Keynes was cremated and his ashes scattered above the downs of nearby Tilton. General Thomas Gage was born in Firle, St Peters Church notably contains an alabaster effigy of Sir John Gage wearing his Order of the Garter and lying beside his wife Philippa. It also has a John Piper stained-glass window in warm colours, there are also memorials for those named Bolney, Moreton, Levett, Swaffield and others. The current vicar is the Reverend Peter Owen-Jones, the Ram Inn is the only remaining one of the villages three original public houses, that previously all acted as resting stops on the Lewes to Alfriston coach road. It was also the court room where the rents for tenants farmers were collected. The area in front of the Ram is called the Beach, Firle Cricket Club was founded in 1758 and is said to be one of the oldest in the country. Even earlier in 1725 Sir William Gage, 7th Baronet challenged the Duke of Richmond to a game of cricket, the club continues to be central to village life and has two teams which both compete in the East Sussex Cricket League
33.
Omega Workshops
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The Omega Workshops Ltd. was a design enterprise founded by members of the Bloomsbury Group and established in July 1913. It was located at 33 Fitzroy Square in London, and was founded with the intention of providing graphic expression to the essence of the Bloomsbury ethos, the Directors of the firm were Fry, Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell. Fry was keen to encourage a Post-Impressionist influence in designs produced for Omega, however, Cubist and Fauvist influences are also apparent, particularly in many of the textile designs. To ensure items were only for the quality of the work. The products were in expensive, and aimed at an exclusive market. A commission was taken to decorate a room for the 1913 Ideal Home Exhibition, Vanessa Bell and Duncan Grant produced designs for Omega, and Wyndham Lewis was initially part of the operation. This letter contained accusations particularly against Fry, criticising the workshops products and this split led to the formation not only of the Rebel Art Centre, but also of the Vorticist movement. A company in France was used to manufacture early printed linens, in the autumn of 1913 Fry, who also created the designs for Omegas tall cane-seat chairs, started designing and making pottery. The management of the Omega Workshop was passed to Winifred Gill from 1914 as the men started to become involved in the First World War, one artist exhibitions included those of Edward McKnight Kauffer, Alvaro Guevara, Mikhail Larionov and Vanessa Bells first solo exhibition in 1916. Edward Wolfe worked at the Omega Workshops, hand-painting candle-shades and trays, Wolfe, who died in 1982, was one of the last of the Bloomsbury painters. In January 1918, Omega were commissioned to design sets and costumes in the Israel Zangwill play Too Much Money, Omega closed in 1919, after a clearance sale, and was officially liquidated on 24 July 1920. A series of financial decisions and internal conflicts all contributed to its decline. At the time of its closure, Fry was the remaining original member working regularly at the workshop. Despite this, Omega became influential in interior design in the 1920s, a revival of interest in Omega designs in the 1980s led to a reassessment of the place of the Bloomsbury Group in visual arts. British art References Sources Christopher Reed, Bloomsbury Rooms, Modernism, Subculture, and Domesticity. The Omega Workshop at the Tate Gallery
34.
Jean de Menasce
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Jean de Menasce was a French Catholic priest, of the Dominican Order, as well as an author and academic. He came from Jewish Egyptian and French parentage, over his lifetime he mastered fifteen languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, and Pahlavi. He was in the Catholic contingent among Jewish and Protestant leaders at an important post-war interfaith conference, Menasce wrote as a theologian, and as a scholar of Middle Eastern studies, especially regarding Judaism, and the Zoroastrian religion. Jean de Menasce was born in Alexandria on 24 December 1902 into a family in the Jewish community of Egypt. His father, Baron Félix de Menasce, a banker with Austro-Hungarian links, was in fact the head of the Jewish community in Alexandria, jeans mother was French from a Spanish line. A cousin of Jean de Menasce was the writer and diplomat Georges Cattaui, a second cousin was the composer and pianist Jacques de Menasce. After the local lycée français, Jean de Menasce remained in Cairo studying at its French School of Law, thereafter he continued his education in Europe, at Oxford University and at the Sorbonne. During the course of his student years, de Menasce had left behind his religious beliefs, at Oxfords Balliol College, he was a classmate of the future novelist Graham Greene, who also would convert to Catholicism in 1926. Menasce translated into French works of the English poet T. S. Eliot, ln 1922 he made the French translation of a book by the philosopher Bertrand Russel, whom he knew as a fellow member of Lady Ottoline Morrells salon at Oxford. From the poetry of John Donne, the 17th-century Anglican priest, thus he already enjoyed some recognition when in 1926 he became a convert to Catholicism. In the meantime, de Menasce had continued to study law, then, while pursuing his nurtured interest in Zionism, Haim Weizman, a secular family friend and future President of Israel, appointed him secretary of the Zionist Bureau in Geneva. Returning to Paris, de Menasce entered a period of spiritual crisis. He began his friendship with the Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain and his Jewish wife Raissa. Another decisive new friend was Louis Massignon, a scholar whose 4-volume study of the Islamic mystic Al-Hallaj had just been published, Massignon, also a convert, had met de Menasce at the La Revue juive. In this learned milieu, in an atmosphere of spiritual awareness. During his inquiring approach to Christianity with Massignon he had discussed the mystics Theresa of Avila and he had also followed the modern naisance of Jewish-Christian dialogue. After his baptism he spent the first months writing his book on Hassidism, according to Adrian Hastings, The book was an exceptionally beautiful study of Jewish Hasidic holiness. He then spent two years in Cairo at his fathers request, in 1930 he entered the Dominican Order
35.
Post-Impressionism
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Post-Impressionism is a predominantly French art movement that developed roughly between 1886 and 1905, from the last Impressionist exhibition to the birth of Fauvism. Post-Impressionism emerged as a reaction against Impressionists concern for the depiction of light. The movement was led by Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, the term Post-Impressionism was first used by art critic Roger Fry in 1906. Three weeks later, Roger Fry used the term again when he organized the 1910 exhibition, Manet, the Post-Impressionists were dissatisfied with what they felt was the triviality of subject matter and the loss of structure in Impressionist paintings, though they did not agree on the way forward. Georges Seurat and his followers concerned themselves with Pointillism, the use of tiny dots of colour. Paul Cézanne set out to restore a sense of order and structure to painting, to make of Impressionism something solid and durable and he achieved this by reducing objects to their basic shapes while retaining the saturated colours of Impressionism. The Impressionist Camille Pissarro experimented with Neo-Impressionist ideas between the mid-1880s and the early 1890s, Vincent van Gogh used colour and vibrant swirling brush strokes to convey his feelings and his state of mind. Although they often exhibited together, Post-Impressionist artists were not in agreement concerning a cohesive movement, yet, the abstract concerns of harmony and structural arrangement, in the work of all these artists, took precedence over naturalism. Artists such as Seurat adopted a scientific approach to colour. Younger painters during the early 20th century worked in geographically disparate regions and in various categories, such as Fauvism and Cubism. Most of the artists in Frys exhibition were younger than the Impressionists, Fry later explained, For purposes of convenience, it was necessary to give these artists a name, and I chose, as being the vaguest and most non-committal, the name of Post-Impressionism. This merely stated their position in time relatively to the Impressionist movement, john Rewald limited the scope to the years between 1886 and 1892 in his pioneering publication on Post-Impressionism, From Van Gogh to Gauguin. This volume would extend the period covered to other artistic movements derived from Impressionism, though confined to the late 19th, Rewald focused on such outstanding early Post-Impressionists active in France as van Gogh, Gauguin, Seurat, and Redon. Pont-Aven School, implying more than that the artists involved had been working for a while in Pont-Aven or elsewhere in Brittany. Symbolism, a highly welcomed by vanguard critics in 1891. Rewald wrote that the term Post-Impressionism is not a precise one. Convenient, when the term is by definition limited to French visual arts derived from Impressionism since 1886, rewalds approach to historical data was narrative rather than analytic, and beyond this point he believed it would be sufficient to let the sources speak for themselves. Rival terms like Modernism or Symbolism were never as easy to handle, for they covered literature, architecture and other arts as well, Symbolism, however, is considered to be a concept which emerged a century later in France, and implied an individual approach
36.
Abstract art
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Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective, the arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning, Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete, even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities, Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational art often contains partial abstraction, both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. It is at level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it, in Chinese painting, abstraction can be traced to the Tang dynasty painter Wang Mo, who is credited to have invented the splashed-ink painting style. While none of his paintings remain, this style is seen in some Song Dynasty Paintings. A late Song painter named Yu Jian, adept to Tiantai buddhism and his paintings show heavily misty mountains in which the shapes of the objects are barely visible and extremely simplified. This type of painting was continued by Sesshu Toyo in his later years, another instance of abstraction in Chinese painting is seen in Zhu Deruns Cosmic Circle. The painting is a reflection of the Daoist metaphysics in which chaos, in Tokugawa Japan some zen monk-painters created Enso, a circle who represents the absolute enlightenment. Usually made in one spontaneous brush stroke, it became the paradigm of the minimalist aesthetic that guided part of the zen painting, three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century, patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Expressionist painters explored the use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations
37.
To the Lighthouse
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To the Lighthouse is a 1927 novel by Virginia Woolf. The novel centres on the Ramsays and their visits to the Isle of Skye in Scotland between 1910 and 1920, following and extending the tradition of modernist novelists like Marcel Proust and James Joyce, the plot of To the Lighthouse is secondary to its philosophical introspection. Cited as a key example of the technique of Multiple Focalization. The novel recalls childhood emotions and highlights adult relationships, among the books many tropes and themes are those of loss, subjectivity, the nature of art and the problem of perception. In 1998, the Modern Library named To the Lighthouse No.15 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century, in 2005, the novel was chosen by TIME magazine as one of the one hundred best English-language novels since 1923. The novel is set in the Ramsays summer home in the Hebrides, the section begins with Mrs Ramsay assuring her son James that they should be able to visit the lighthouse on the next day. This particular incident is referred to on various occasions throughout the section, especially in the context of Mr, the Ramsays and their eight children have been joined at the house by a number of friends and colleagues. One of them, Lily Briscoe, begins the novel as a young, uncertain painter attempting a portrait of Mrs. Ramsay and James. Briscoe finds herself plagued by doubts throughout the novel, doubts largely fed by the claims of Charles Tansley, another guest, Tansley himself is an admirer of Mr Ramsay, a philosophy professor, and his academic treatises. The section closes with a dinner party. When Augustus Carmichael, a poet, asks for a second serving of soup. The second section gives a sense of passing, absence. Ten years pass, during which the First World War begins, Mrs Ramsay dies, as do two of her children - Prue dies from complications of childbirth, and Andrew is killed in the war. Mr Ramsay is left adrift without his wife to praise and comfort him during his bouts of fear and this section is told from an omniscient point of view and occasionally from Mrs. McNabs point of view. Mrs. McNab worked in the Ramsays house since the beginning, in the final section, “The Lighthouse, ” some of the remaining Ramsays and other guests return to their summer home ten years after the events of Part I. Mr Ramsay finally plans on taking the trip to the lighthouse with daughter Cam. The trip almost does not happen, as the children are not ready, as they travel, the children are silent in protest at their father for forcing them to come along. They are accompanied by the sailor Macalister and his son, who catches fish during the trip, the son cuts a piece of flesh from a fish he has caught to use for bait, throwing the injured fish back into the sea
38.
St Ives, Cornwall
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St Ives is a seaside town, civil parish and port in Cornwall, England. The town lies north of Penzance and west of Camborne on the coast of the Celtic Sea, in former times it was commercially dependent on fishing. St Ives was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1639, St Ives has become renowned for its number of artists. It was named best seaside town of 2007 by The Guardian newspaper and it should not be confused with St Ive, a village and civil parish in southwest Cornwall. The origin of St Ives is attributed in legend to the arrival of the Irish saint Ia of Cornwall, the parish church bears her name, and St Ives derives from it. The Sloop Inn, which lies on the wharf was a pub for many centuries and is dated to circa 1312. The town was the site of a particularly notable atrocity during the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, the English provost marshal, Anthony Kingston, came to St Ives and invited the portreeve, John Payne, to lunch at an inn. He asked the portreeve to have the gallows erected during the course of the lunch, afterwards the portreeve and the Provost Marshal walked down to the gallows, the Provost Marshal then ordered the portreeve to mount the gallows. The portreeve was then hanged for being a busy rebel, the seal of St Ives is Argent, an ivy branch overspreading the whole field Vert, with the legend Sigillum Burgi St. Ives in Com. During the Spanish Armada of 1597 two Spanish ships, a bark and a pinnace had made their way to St Ives to seek shelter from the storm which had dispersed the Spanish fleet. They were captured by the English warship Warpsite of Sir Walter Raleigh leaking from the same storm, the information given by the prisoners was vital on learning the Armadas objectives. From medieval times fishing was important at St Ives, it was the most important fishing port on the north coast, the pier was built by John Smeaton in 1767–70 but has been lengthened at a later date. The octagonal lookout with a cupola belongs to Smeatons design, in the decade 1747–1756 the total number of pilchards dispatched from the four principal Cornish ports of Falmouth, Fowey, Penzance, and St Ives averaged 30,000 hogsheads annually. Much greater catches were achieved in 1790 and 1796, in 1847 the exports of pilchards from Cornwall amounted to 40,883 hogsheads or 122 million fish while the greatest number ever taken in one seine was 5,600 hogsheads at St Ives in 1868. A. K. Hamilton Jenkin describes how the St Ives fisherman strictly observed Sunday as a day of rest, St Ives was a very busy fishing port and seining was the usual method of fishing. Seining was carried out by a set of three boats of different sizes, the largest two carrying seine nets of different sizes, the total number of crew was seventeen or eighteen. However this came to an end in 1924, the bulk of the catch was exported to Italy, for example, in 1830,6400 hogsheads were sent to Mediterranean ports. From 1829 to 1838, the average for this trade was 9000 hogsheads
39.
Kenneth Clark
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Clark was born in London, the only child of Kenneth MacKenzie Clark and Margaret Alice McArthur. The Clarks were a wealthy Scottish family with roots in the textile trade and his great-great-grandfather had invented the cotton spool. Kenneth Clark the elder, reputedly the man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo, had retired in 1909 at the age of 41 to become a member of the idle rich. Clark was educated at Wixenford School, Winchester College and Trinity College, Oxford, in 1927 he married a fellow Oxford student, Elizabeth Jane Martin, who was Irish and the daughter of Dr. Emily Winifred Dickson, first female Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. The couple had three children, Alan, in 1928, and twins Colette and Colin in 1932, greatly influenced by John Ruskin and a protégé of the most influential art critic of the time, Bernard Berenson, Clark quickly became the British art establishments most respected aesthete. After a stint as fine art curator at Oxfords Ashmolean Museum, in 1933 at age 30 and he remains the youngest person ever to hold the post. The following year he also became Surveyor of the Kings Pictures, as Director of the National Gallery he oversaw the successful relocation and storage of the collection to avoid the Blitz and continued a programme of concerts and performances. In 1939, Clark visited Australia, and later referred to it as that intolerable continent, adding that Australian galleries had the worst art, as Director of The National Gallery he wrote Southampton Art Gallerys acquisitions policy which included a growing collection of modern oil paintings. He was also an advisor to the Ministry of Information commissioning Dylan Thomas amongst others to write scripts for propaganda films, in 1946 Clark resigned his directorship in order to devote more time to writing. Between 1946 and 1950 he was Slade Professor of Fine Art at Oxford. He was a board member and also served as Chairman of the Arts Council of Great Britain from 1955 to 1960. In the preface to his book, The Nude, a study of art, Clark wrote. There is difficulty of form, a survey would be long and repetitive. And there is a difficulty of scope, since Jacob Burckhardt no responsible art historian would have attempted to cover both antique and post-mediaeval art, in 1955, Clark bought Saltwood Castle in Kent. Kenneth Clark was created Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in 1938 and he was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1976. In 1959, he received the Grand Decoration with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria and he was one of the founders, in 1954, of the Independent Television Authority, serving as its Chairman until 1957. In 1969 he wrote and presented Civilisation for BBC television, a series on the history of Western civilisation as seen through its art, afterwards Clark was persuaded to write a book version of Civilisation but lamented that without the visual and musical accompaniment it was weak. Also broadcast in the US on PBS in 1969, Civilisation was successful on both sides of the Atlantic, gaining Clark an international profile, according to Clark, the series was created in answer to growing criticism of Western civilisation, from its value system to its heroes
40.
Walter Sickert
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Walter Richard Sickert was an English painter and printmaker who was a member of the Camden Town Group in London. He was an important influence on distinctively British styles of art in the 20th century. Sickert was a cosmopolitan and eccentric who often favoured ordinary people and his oeuvre also included portraits of well-known personalities and images derived from press photographs. He is considered a prominent figure in the transition from Impressionism to Modernism, the young Sickert was sent to University College School from 1870 to 1871, before transferring to Kings College School, where he studied until the age of 18. Though he was the son and grandson of painters, he first sought a career as an actor, he appeared in parts in Sir Henry Irvings company. After less than a years attendance at the Slade School, Sickert left to become a pupil, Sickerts earliest paintings were small tonal studies painted alla prima from nature after Whistlers example. In 1883, he travelled to Paris and met Edgar Degas, whose use of pictorial space and he developed a personal version of Impressionism, favouring sombre colouration. Following Degas advice, Sickert painted in the studio, working from drawings, in 1888 Sickert joined the New English Art Club, a group of French-influenced realist artists. Sickerts first major works, dating from the late 1880s, were portrayals of scenes in London music halls. Sickerts rendering was denounced as ugly and vulgar, and his choice of subject matter was deplored as too tawdry for art, the painting announced what would be Sickerts recurring interest in sexually provocative themes. In the late 1880s, Sickert spent much of his time in France, especially in Dieppe, which he first visited in mid-1885, and where his mistress, during this period Sickert began writing art criticism for various publications. The models for many of the Venetian paintings are believed to have been prostitutes, Sickerts fascination with urban culture accounted for his acquisition of studios in working-class sections of London, first in Cumberland Market in the 1890s, then in Camden Town in 1905. The latter location provided an event that would secure Sickerts prominence in the realist movement in Britain, on 11 September 1907, Emily Dimmock, a prostitute cheating on her partner, was murdered in her home at Agar Grove, Camden. After sexual intercourse the man had slit her throat open while she was asleep, the Camden Town murder became an ongoing source of prurient sensationalism in the press. And the first in the series, Summer Afternoon and these and other works were painted in heavy impasto and narrow tonal range. Sickerts best known work, Ennui, reveals his interest in Victorian narrative genres, just before World War I he championed the avant-garde artists Lucien Pissarro, Jacob Epstein, Augustus John and Wyndham Lewis. At the same time he founded, with artists, the Camden Town Group of British painters. This group had been meeting informally since 1905, but was established in 1911
41.
Les Nabis
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Les Nabis were a group of Post-Impressionist avant-garde artists who set the pace for fine arts and graphic arts in France in the 1890s. Initially a group of friends interested in art and literature. In 1890, they began to participate successfully in public exhibitions, meanwhile, most members of the group—Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard—could stand, artistically, on their own. Only Paul Sérusier had problems to overcome—though it was his Talisman, painted at the advice of Paul Gauguin, nabi means prophet in Hebrew and in Arabic. Les Nabis originated as a group of young student artists who banded together at the Académie Julian. Paul Sérusier galvanized Les Nabis, and provided the name and disseminated the example of Paul Gauguin among them, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard and Maurice Denis became the best known of the group, at the time, however, they were somewhat peripheral to the core group. The term was coined by the linguist Auguste Cazalis who drew a parallel between the way these painters aimed to revitalize painting and the way the ancient prophets had rejuvenated Israel, possibly the nickname arose because most of them wore beards, some were Jews and all were desperately earnest. Les Nabis regarded themselves as initiates, and used a private vocabulary and they called a studio ergasterium, and ended their letters with the initials E. T. P. M. V. Et M. P. Bonnards posters and lithographs are more firmly in the Art Nouveau, after the turn of the century, as modern art moved towards Abstraction, Expressionism, Cubism, etc. In their later years, these painters also largely abandoned their earlier interests in Decorative and his Théories summed up the Nabis aims long after they had been superseded by the fauve painters and by cubism. Other Nabis were Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Ker-Xavier Roussel, Paul Ranson, the sculptor Aristide Maillol was associated for a time with the group. The Scot, James Pitcairn-Knowles and the Hungarian, Jozsef Rippl-Ronai, lived together in Paris during the first decade of the 20th century and also turned to glass blowing, the post-Impressionist styles they embraced skirted some aspects of contemporary art nouveau and Symbolism. The influence of the English Arts and Crafts Movement set them to work in media that involved crafts beyond painting, printmaking, book illustration and poster design, textiles, pont-Aven School Henry Lerolle, patron Odilon Redon Boyer, Patricia Eckert. The Nabis and the Parisian Avant-Garde, four French Symbolists, A Sourcebook on Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, and Maurice Denis. Les peintres du vingtième siècle, Nabis, Fauves, Cubistes, Nabis, Bonnard, Vuillard and Their Circle. The Prophets of Montmartre Ashe Journal article on Les Nabis by Alamantra, Pierre Bonnard, the Graphic Art, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Bonnard and others in the Les Nabis
42.
Maurice Denis
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Maurice Denis was a French painter and writer, and a member of the Symbolist and Les Nabis movements. His theories contributed to the foundations of cubism, fauvism, Maurice Denis was born 25 November 1870, in Granville, Manche, a coastal town in the Normandy region of France. Waters and coastlines would remain favorite subject throughout his career. The Denis family was affluent, and young Maurice attended both the École des Beaux-Arts and the Académie Julian, where he studied with the French figure painter and theorist Jules Joseph Lefebvre. At the Académie, he met painters and future Nabi members including Paul Sérusier, Pierre Bonnard, through Bonnard he also met the future Nabis Édouard Vuillard, Ker-Xavier Roussel, in 1890, they formed The Nabis. They chose Nabi—Hebrew for Prophet—because they understood they would be creating new forms of expression, the group would split apart by the end of the decade, and would influence the later work of both Bonnard and Vuillard, as well as non-Nabi painters like Henri Matisse. After Les Nabis, Denis went on to focus on religious subjects, in 1922, he published his collected historical and theoretical work as Nouvelles théories sur l’art moderne, sur l’art sacré—that is, New Theories of Modern and Sacred Art. The subjects of his works include landscapes and figure studies, particularly of mother. Denis was among the first artists to insist on the flatness of the picture plane—one of the starting points for modernism. In 1898, he produced a theory of creation that found the source for art in the character of the painter, That which creates a work of art is the power and the will of the artist. The Ateliers dArt Sacré were founded on 5 November 1919 after World War I by Denis, the Ateliers created art for churches, particularly those devastated by the recent war. Denis said that he was against academic art because it sacrificed emotion to convention and artifice, above all he wanted beauty, which was an attribute of divinity. Denis, a Catholic tertiary, married his first wife, Marthe Meurier and they had seven children, and she would pose for numerous Denis works. Following her death in 1919, Denis painted a chapel dedicated to her memory, two years later, he married again, to Elisabeth Graterolle, and fathered two more children. Politically, he was close to the monarchist Action Française movement, Denis died in Paris of injuries resulting from an automobile accident in November 1943. In 1980, the Maurice Denis Museum was opened in the home in the Parisian suburb of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. A major retrospective was mounted at the Musée Des Beaux Arts de Montréal in 2007, a similar exhibition took place in 1995 at the UKs Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool. Leçons de l’Italie, d’après son journal | Lessons from Italy, based on his Journal
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