1.
History of Bengal
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The history of Bengal includes modern-day Bangladesh and West Bengal in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, at the apex of the Bay of Bengal and dominated by the fertile Ganges delta. The advancement of civilization in Bengal dates back four millennia, the region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers act as a marker of the region. Bengal, at times, has played an important role in the history of the Indian subcontinent, the areas early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. Ancient Bengal was the site of several major Janapadas, while the earliest cities date back to the Vedic period, the region was part of several ancient pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryans and Guptas. It was also a bastion of regional kingdoms, the citadel of Gauda served as capital of the Gauda Kingdom, the Buddhist Pala Empire and Hindu Sena Empire. This era saw the development of Bengali language, script, literature, music, art, from the 13th century onward, the region was controlled by the Bengal Sultanate, Hindu Rajas, and Baro-Bhuyan landlords. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Isa Khan, a Muslim Rajput chief, afterwards, the region came under the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire. Under the Mughals, Bengal Subah generated 50% of the empires GDP, the gradual decline of the Mughals led to quasi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, subsequent Maratha expeditions in Bengal, and finally the conquest by the British East India Company. The British took control of the region from the late 18th century, the company consolidated their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Battle of Buxar in 1764 and by 1793 took complete control of the region. Kolkata served for years as the capital of British controlled territories in India. The exact origin of the word Bangla is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang/Banga that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE. Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Venga, which came from the Austric word Bonga meaning the Sun-god, according to the Mahabharata, a number of Puranas and the Harivamsha Vanga was one of the adopted sons of King Vali who founded the Vanga Kingdom. It was either under Magadh or under Kalinga Rules except few years under Pals. The Muslim accounts refer that Bong, the earliest reference to Vangala has been traced in the Nesari plates of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. The records of Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty, who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah took the title Shah-e-Bangla and united the whole region under one government. An interesting theory of the origin of the name is provided by Abul-Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari, from this suffix added to the Bung, the name Bengal arose and gained currency Stone Age tools dating back 20,000 years have been excavated in the state. Remnants of Copper Age settlements in the Bengal region date back 4,000 years, the original settlers spoke non-Aryan languages— they may have spoken Austric or Austro-Asiatic languages like the languages of the present-day Kola, Bhil, Santhal, Shabara, and Pulinda people. At a subsequent age, peoples speaking languages from two other language families— Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman—seem to have settled in Bengal, archaeological discoveries during the 1960s furnished evidence of a degree of civilisation in certain parts of Bengal as far back as the first millennium BC
2.
Pundravardhana
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There are several theories regarding the word ‘Pundra’. According to one theory the word ‘Pundra’ owes its origin to a disease called ‘Pandu’, the land where most of the people were suffering from that disease was called Pundrakshetra. Punda is a species of sugarcane, the land where that species of sugarcane was extensively cultivated was called Pundadesa. According to later Vedic texts like Aitereya Aryanaka of 8th-7th century BC, the Mahabharata also made a similar reference. Several personalities contributed to the discovery and identification of the ruins at Mahasthangarh, F. Buchanan Hamilton was the first European to locate and visit Mahasthangarh in 1808, C. J. O’Donnell, E. V. Westmacott, and Baveridge followed. Alexander Cunningham was the first to identify the place as the capital of Pundravardhana and he visited the site in 1889. The Pundra were people mentioned in the later Vedic texts, the Digvijay section of Mahabharata places them to the east of Monghyr and associates them with the prince who ruled on the banks of the Kosi. The epigraphs of the Gupta period and ancient Chinese writers place Pundravardhana, land of the Pundras, there is a story of Rishi Dīrghatamas who begot on the queen of the Asura king Bali five sons named Anga, Vanga, Suhma, Pundra and Kalinga. They founded the five named after them. The lands of the despised Pundra and Vangas were not only seats of powerful kings and it signifies the first stage of Aryanisation between 5th century BC and 4th century AD. Pundranagara or Paundravardhanapura, the ruins of which are located on the banks of the Karatoya in Bogra District of Bangladesh, was located in the territory of Pundravardhana, Buddhism was introduced into North Bengal, if not other parts of Bengal, before Ashoka. Two Votive inscriptions on the railings of the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi of about the 2nd century BC records the gifts of two inhabitants of Punavadhana which undoubtedly stands for Pundravardhana, the impact of Aryan-Brahmana culture was felt in Bengal much after the same spread across northern India. The various non-Aryan people then living in Bengal were powerful and thus the spread of Aryan-Brahman culture was strongly resisted, the Mauryans were the first to establish a large empire spread across ancient India, with headquarters at Pataliputra, which was not very far from Pundranagara. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order, the end of the Maurya rule around 185 BC was followed by a period of small kingdoms and chaos till the advent of the Guptas in the 4th century AD. Copper plates of the Gupta period mentioned their eastern division as Pundravardhana bhukti, the Gupta Empire faced decline in the 6th century AD and the area may have fallen to the Tibetan king Sambatson in 567-79. Subsequently, Bengal was carved into two empires, Samatata in the east and Gauda in the west, there is mention of Pundravardhana being part of Gauda in certain ancient records. It was part of Shashanka’s kingdom in the 7th century AD, during his visit to the area in 639-45, the Chinese monk, Xuanzang, did not mention any king of Pundravardhana in his itinerary records. He traveled from Kajangala to Kamarupa through Pundravardhana, there are references that go to indicate that Pundravardhana lost its eminence in the 7th-8th century
3.
Gangaridai
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Gangaridai was an ancient region corresponding to the Ganges delta region of the Indian subcontinent, which was mentioned in the records of numerous Greco-Roman writers. The term means nation of the Ganges in Greek and Latin and it is one of the earliest references to the Bengal region in the Indian subcontinent. According to ancient Indian records, the Vanga Kingdom and Samatata Kingdom occupied the region during the same period, the capital of the Gangaridai was situated at Kotalipara in present-day Gopalganj District, Bangladesh. The region was described as a kingdom with one of the largest cavalries of chariots and it was described by the Greek traveller Megasthenes in his work Indica. Greek and Roman historians suggested that Alexander the Great withdrew from the Indian subcontinent, anticipating a counterattack from an alliance of Gangaridai, later writers noted merchant shipping links between Gangaridais cities and Roman Egypt. Ptolemy, wrote that the Gangaridai occupied the region about the five mouths of the Ganges. The five mouths were the Kambyson, the Mega, the Kamberikhon, the Pseudostomon and these rivers may refer to the Meghna, Padma, Jamuna, Karnaphuli and Rupsa. Ptolemy also noted a natural harbour in the Chittagong coastline. Quoted from The Classical Accounts of India, Dr R. C, quoted from Ancient India as Described in Classical Literature, John W. McCrindle, p.201. Quoted from The Classical Accounts of India, p. 103-128, plutarch noted both Gangaridae and Prasii together, The Battle with Porus depressed the spirits of the Macedonians, and made them very unwilling to advance farther into India. This river, they heard, had a breadth of two and thirty stadia, and a depth of 1000 fathoms, while its banks were covered all over with armed men, horses. For the kings of the Gandaritai and the Prasiai were reported to be waiting for him with an army of 80,000 horse,200,000 foot,8,000 war-chariots, quoted from The Classical Accounts of India, p.198. Owing to this, their country has never been conquered by any king, for all other nations dread the overwhelming number. Quoted from the Epitome of Megasthenes, Indika, Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian. Translated and edited by J. W. McCrindle, pliny the Elder wrote about the people, In the final part of its Ganges course, which is through the country of the Gangarides. In the parts which lie southward from the Ganges the inhabitants, already swarthy, are coloured by the sun. Quoted from The Classical Accounts of India, Dr. R. C, Megasthenes wrote about the people known as Gangarides, The least breadth of the Ganges is eight miles, and its greatest twenty. Its depth where it is shallowest is fully a hundred feet, the people who live in the furthest-off part are the Gangarides, whose king possesses 1,000 horse,700 elephants, and 60,000 foot in apparatus of war
4.
Anga
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Anga was a kingdom that flourished on the eastern Indian subcontinent from c. 12th to 6th century BCE until it was annexed by the kingdom of Magadha in the same century. Counted among the sixteen nations in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya. According to Mahabharata, Karna ruled the Kingdom during the period, some refer that the Angas were grouped with people of ‘mixed origin’, generally in the later ages. Mahabharata and Puranic literature attest that the name Anga had originated eponymously from the name of Prince Anga, according to some scriptures, a king Bali, the Vairocana and the son of Sutapa, had no sons. So, he requested the sage, Dirghatamas, to him with sons. The sage is said to have five sons through his wife. The princes were named Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Sumha, the princes later founded kingdoms named after themselves. The prince Vanga founded Vanga kingdom, in the current day region of southern Bangladesh, the prince Kalinga founded the kingdom of Kalinga, in the current day region of coastal Orissa, including the North Sircars. Also the price Pundra founded Pundra consisting of the regions of West Bengal. The prince Suhma founded Suhma Kingdom in the part of southern West Bengal. Ramayana narrates the origin of name Anga as the place where Kamadeva was burnt to death by Siva, the earliest mention occurs in the Atharava Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavatas, all apparently as a despised people. Puranic texts place the janapadas of the Angas, Kalingas, Vangas, Pundras, Vidarbhas, the Puranas also list several early kings of Anga. The Mahagovinda Suttanta refers to king Dhatarattha of Anga, Jain texts refer to Dhadhivahana, as a ruler of the Angas. Puranas and Harivamsa represent him as the son and immediate successor of Anga, Jain traditions place him at the beginning of sixth century BCE. Between the Vatsas and the realm of Anga, lived the Magadhas, a great struggle went on between the Angas and its eastern neighbors. The Vidhura Pandita Jataka describes Rajagriha as the city of Anga and this indicates that Anga had initially succeeded in annexing the Magadhas, and thus its borders extended to the kingdom of Matsya country. This success of Angas did not last long, about the middle of 6th century BCE, Bimbisara, the crown prince of Magadha had killed Brahmadatta, the last independent king of Anga and seized Champa. Bimbisara made it as his headquarters and ruled over it as his fathers Viceroy, thenceforth, Anga became an integral part of growing Magadha empire
5.
Harikela
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Harikela was a kingdom in ancient Bengal encompassing much of the eastern regions of the Indian Subcontinent. There are numerous references to the kingdom in historical texts as well as archeological artifacts including silver coinage, the kingdom was ruled by the Chandra dynasty during the 10th century CE. They were overthrown by the Varman dynasty, who were in turn overthrown by the Deva dynasty, in the 17th century the Mughal Empire absorbed and brought Harikela under the province of Bengal. For a time its capital was near Chittagong before being moved to Munshiganj by the Candras, arab traders recognised Harikela as the coastal regions of Bengal in the early period and included Sylhet in the later period reaching as far as the ancient Sundarbans. In Islam, Sirajul, Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia, National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh
6.
Kamarupa
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Kāmarūpa, was an ancient kingdom on the Indian subcontinent, it is the first historical kingdoms of Assam, India, that came into being alongside Davaka. Though Kamarupa existed from 350 to 1140 CE, Davaka was absorbed by kamarupa in the 5th century, in the 16th century the Ahom kingdom came into prominence and assumed for itself the political and territorial legacy of the Kamarupa kingdom. The name of this survives in Kamrup, a present-day district in Assam. According to the 10th century Kalika Purana and the 7th century Xuanzang, the eastern border was the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari near present-day Sadiya, in the eastern most corner of Assam, which too agrees with Xuanzang. The people of Kamarupa were aware of Sichuan which lay two months away from its eastern borders. The southern boundary was near the border between the Dhaka and Mymensingh districts in Bangladesh, thus it spanned the entire Brahmaputra valley and at various times included present-day Bhutan and parts of Bangladesh. This is supported by the various epigraphic records found scattered over these regions, the extent of state structures can be culled from the numerous Kamarupa inscriptions left behind by the Kamarupa kings as well as accounts left by travellers such as those from Xuanzang. Governance followed the classical structure of state. Kings and courts, The king was considered to be of divine origin, succession was primogeniture, but two major breaks resulted in different dynasties. In the second, the officials of the state elected a king, Brahmapala. The royal court consisted of a Rajaguru, poets, learned men, different epigraphic records mention different officials of the palace, Mahavaradhipati, Mahapratihara, Mahallakapraudhika, etc. Council of Ministers, The king was advised by a council of ministers, according to the Kamauli grant, these positions were filled by Brahmanas and were hereditary. State functions were specialized and there were different groups of officers looking after different departments, revenue, Land revenue was collected by special tax-collectors from cultivators. Cultivators who had no rights on the lands they tilled paid uparikara. Duties were collected by toll collectors from merchants who plied keeled boats, the state maintained a monopoly on copper mines. The state maintained its stores and treasury via officials, Bhandagaradhikrita, grants, The king occasionally gave Brahmanas grants, which consisted generally of villages, water resources, wastelands etc. Such grants conferred on the donee the right to collect revenue, sometimes, the Brahmanas were relocated from North India, with a view to establish varnashramdharma. Nevertheless, the existence of donees indicate the existence of a feudal class, grants made to temples and religious institutions were called dharmottara and devottara respectively
7.
Nanda Empire
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The Nanda dynasty originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 4th century BCE and lasted between 345–321 BCE. At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab region in the west, the rulers of this dynasty were famed for the great wealth which they accumulated. The Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya Empire and he expanded his territory south of the Vindhya Range into the Deccan Plateau. The Nandas, who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty c.345 BCE, were thought to be of low origin and he was the son of Mahanandin, and a Shudra mother. The Nanda kings built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka, to achieve this objective they built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry,20,000 cavalry,2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, the size of the Nanda army was larger, numbering 200,000 infantry,80,000 cavalry,8,000 war chariots. A possible indication of Nanda military victories in Kalinga is suggested by the later Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, the existence of a place called Nau Nand Dehra on the Godavari is taken by some scholars as reflecting Nanda rule over the Deccan. The evidence for the extension of Nanda rule into trans-Vindhyan India is not, however, the Nandas were also renowned for their immense wealth. They undertook irrigation projects and invented standardized measures for trade across their empire, the Nanda Dynasty was also mentioned in the ancient Sangam literature of the Tamil people. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described the capital city Pataliputra of the Nanda Dynasty and their unpopularity, possibly due to their financial extortion, facilitated a revolution, leading to their overthrow by Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya. Nevertheless, the greatness attained in the Maurya Age would hardly have been possible but for the achievements of their predecessors, the advisors of the king were fewer in number but were most respected on account of their high character and wisdom. They are mentioned by the Greek observers who wrote about conditions in the fourth century BCE, next to the advisors were the generals of the army. Bhadrasala, one of such generals, is mentioned in the Milinda-Panho, a passage of the Kathasaritsagara refers to the kataka of Nanda in Ayodhya. Mookerji, Radha Kumud, Chandragupta Maurya and his times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0433-3 Panda, Harihar, Raychaudhuri, as a Historian, Northern Book Centre, ISBN 81-7211-210-6 Raychaudhuri, H. C. Political History of Ancient India, From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty, Oxford University Press Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, the Early History of India, Atlantic Publishers and distributors, ISBN 978-81-7156-618-1
8.
Maurya Empire
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The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322 and 187 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the side of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was the largest to have existed in the Indian subcontinent. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander, Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexanders army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River. The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time and it declined for about 50 years after Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace, Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, the population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of Antiquity. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware, the Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India, the Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire, meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River, soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Mauryas rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy, on one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, however, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos, as a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. These men included the general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu. The Macedonians may then have participated, together with other groups, the Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus
9.
Shunga Empire
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The Shunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire and its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar in eastern Malwa. Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, the empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought the Kalinga, the Satavahana dynasty, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi script and was used to write Sanskrit, the Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. Patanjalis Mahābhāṣya was composed in this period, artistry also progressed with the rise of the Mathura art style. The Kanva dynasty succeeded the Shungas around 73 BCE, Pushyamitra Shunga then ascended the throne. Pushyamitra Shunga became the ruler of Magadha and neighbouring territories, the empire of Pushyamitra was extended to the Narmada River in the south, controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab region in the northwest and the city of Ujjain in Central India. Kabul and much of the Punjab passed into the hands of the Indo-Greeks, Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years. He was succeeded by son Agnimitra and this prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of Indias greatest playwrights, Kālidāsa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story takes place, the power of the Shungas gradually weakened. It is said there were ten Shunga emperors. The Shungas were succeeded by the Kanva dynasty around 73 BCE, buddhist scripture Divyavdan and ancient Tibbatan historian Taranath have written about persecution of Buddhists, However, there is doubt as to whether he did persecute Buddhists actively. Later Shunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut, some writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism in the Gangetic plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings, some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Shunga emperors were not intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Shunga emperors. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Shunga period can also be inferred from a tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit at the Asutosh Museum in Kolkata. An inscription at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of the temple as follows, another inscription reads, The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of Emperor Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the palace shrine
10.
Gupta Empire
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The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire founded by Sri Gupta. The empire existed at its zenith from approximately 320 to 550 CE, the peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty, the high points of the period is great cultural developments which took place during the reign of Chandragupta II. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era, strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have committed to written texts around this period. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, a minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by Vardhana ruler Harsha, who established his empire in the first half of the 7th century, according to many historians, the Gupta dynasty was a Vaishya dynasty. Historian Ram Sharan Sharma asserts that the Vaishya Guptas appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers, brannigan, the rise of the Gupta Empire was one of the most prominent violations of the caste system in ancient India. There is controversy among scholars about the homeland of the Guptas. Jayaswal has pointed out that the Guptas were originally inhabitants of Prayaga, Uttar Pradesh, in north India, another scholar, Gayal supported the theory of Jaiswal, suggesting that the original home of the Guptas was Antarvedi embracing the regions of Oudh and Prayag. However another historian of this time in Indian history, Ganguli, has offered a different view about the original Gupta homeland, according to him the Guptas homeland is further south, the Murshidabad region of Bengal, and not Magadha in Bihar. He based his theory on the statement of the Chinese Buddhist monk, Yijing, fleet and other historians however criticize Gangulis theory because Sri Gupta ruled during the end of the 3rd century, but Yijing placed him at the end of the 2nd century. Hence the theory of historians, who have provided their views based on the accounts of Yijing, are considered less valid than theories based on sources such as coinage. From these theories, several conflicting opinions about the original homeland, according to Allan and a few other scholars, the Guptas were initially concentrated in the region of Magadha and from there they extended their sway to Bengal. According to other groups, the homeland of the Guptas was Varendri or the Varendra Bhumi in Bengal. Whatever the theory is, the rule of the Guptas initiated the Golden Age in history of ancient India, bengali historians like HC Raychoudhuri the Guptas originated from the Varendri region which is now part of Rangpur and Rajshahi Division of modern-day Bangladesh. DC Ganguly, on the hand, considers the surrounding region of Murshidabad as the original home of the Guptas. The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c, the Murundas who were feudal lords of Kushans provided or granted land to Srigupta
11.
Varman dynasty
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The Varman dynasty, the first historical rulers of Kamarupa, was established by Pushya Varman, a contemporary of Samudragupta. This dynasty became vassals of the Gupta Empire, but as the power of the Guptas waned, the first of the three Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by the Mlechchha and then the Pala dynasties. The genealogy of the Varman dynasty appears most fully in the Dubi and Nidhanpur copper plate inscriptions of the last Varman king, Bhaskar Varman, where Pushya Varman is named the founder. The Dubi copper plate inscription of Bhaskar Varman asserts that Pushya Varman was born in the family of Naraka, the middle or Mlechha dynasty, though claim same descent, are native tribal rulers. Barua opines that there was a Mlechha revolt in Kamarupa and Salastambha, the dynasty traces its lineage from mythical Naraka, an immigrant from Aryavarta. The exact ethnic genealogy of Naraka is in dispute, with such as N N Vasu and K L Barua claiming he was Dravidian. Historical documents and legends are contradictory on the ethnicity of this dynasty, Naraka, according to an early account was the son of an asura named Hiranksha and Bhumi. In the late 10th-century Kalika Purana, Naraka is said to be the son of Vishnu in his Varaha form and Bhumi, the Kalika Purana goes on to describe two Narakas, one who was religious and the other who was hostile to Brahminism. The relationship of Bhagadatta, also mentioned as an ancestor of the Varmans, with Naraka is not clear from legendary sources either, Bhagadatta is called a grandson, a son or not specified at all. In the Mahabharata, an earlier text, Bhagadatta, the son of Naraka is mentioned as Mleccha. All three Kamarupa dynasties draw their lineage from Naraka and Bhagadatta, yuan Chwang called Bhaskar Varman a Brahman king who originated with Narayana Deva. On the other hand, Bhaskarvarman told She-Kia-Fang-Che that his ancestors hailed from China, four years ago. Sylvain writes, At the time of Hiuan-tsangs visit King Bhaskaravarman, was a descendant of the God Narayana, he was of the caste of the Brahman, as, and had the title of Kumara. Finally we possess since a few years ago an inscription of King Bhaskaravarman, which back the genealogy up to King Bhagadatta. However, when he had business with others than Indians, the same prince boasted of another origin altogether, the first was a holy spirit which came from China flying through the air. As though he would show sympathy for China, he asked the envoy to get him a portrait of Lao-tseu, suniti Kumar Chatterjee calls Bhaskar Varman a mleccha king, though scholars established that only middle dynasty of Haruppeshwara is of mleccha or non-Aryan origin. Mukunda Madhava Sharma considers all the dynasties of Kamarupa as of Aryan origin, urban terms all kings of Brahmaputra Valley as non-Aryans. Kanak Lal Barua refutes any extra Aryan origin of dynasty, the text of his message to Silabhadra leave no doubt in this point
12.
Mallabhum
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Mallabhum, also known as Mallabhoom was the kingdom ruled by the Malla kings of Bishnupur, primarily in the present Bankura district in Indias state of West Bengal. It is told that Mallabhum is the territory, which included Bankura, the Malla Rajas ruled over the vast territory in the south-western part of present West Bengal and a part of southeastern Jharkhand. The area around Bishnupur was called Mallabhum, the core area would cover present day Bankura police station area, Onda, Bishnupur, Kotulpur and Indas. In olden days the term was used for a larger area. In the north it stretched from Damin-i-koh in Santhal Parganas to Midnapore in the south and it included the eastern part of Bardhaman and included parts of Chota Nagpur in the west. According to OMalley, the Rajas of Bishnupur were also known as Malla kings, Malla is a Sanskrit word meaning wrestler but there could be some links with the Mal tribes of the area, who had intimate connection with the Bagdis. From around 7th century AD till around the advent of British rule, for around a millennium, history of Bankura district is identical with the rise, the legends of Bipodtarini Devi are associated with Malla Kings of Bishnupur. According to Bhattacharjee, Tarun Dev during Malla period, the society was centred round the village. The tax collectors were called as Gomostha and their assistants as Aat Pahari or Paik The Mukhiya or Mandal was the title of headman, Malla kings had several service groups. Due to scarcity of money, the Malla kings used to present land instead of salary to all these service groups. This type of land is again of two types – namely the Panchaki jamin or land with a tax and another one is the Bepanchaki jamin or land without any tax. Mallas started their own calendar that is Malla era and it is told that Malla era started from Indra Dwadasi day in the year 102 Bengali calendar of the month Bhadro. According to Dr. Bir Singha Dev also had the seven big lakes or tanks, called Lalbandh, Krishnabandh, Gantatbandh, Jamunabandh, Kalindibandh, Shyambandh, and pokabandh excavated, and erected. Dasgupta, Gautam Kumar, Biswas, Samira, Mallik, Rabiranjan, Heritage Tourism, An Anthropological Journey to Bishnupur, A Mittal Publication, p.20, ISBN8183242944
13.
Pala Empire
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The Pala Empire was an imperial power during the Late Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix of Pala and they were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750 CE, the Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities of Vikrampura, Pataliputra, Gauda, Monghyr, Somapura, Ramvati, Tamralipta and Jaggadala. The Palas were astute diplomats and military conquerors and their army was noted for its vast war elephant cavalry. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal, the Palas were important promoters of classical Indian philosophy, literature, painting and sculpture. They built grand temples and monasteries, including the Somapura Mahavihara, the Proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule. The empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire, islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East. Abbasid coinage found in Pala archaeological sites, as well as records of Arab historians, point to flourishing mercantile, the House of Wisdom in Baghdad absorbed the mathematical and astronomical achievements of Indian civilisation during this period. The empire reached its peak under Emperors Dharmapala and Devapala, the Palas also exerted a strong cultural influence under Atisa in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they struggled with the Gurjara-Pratiharas, after a short lived decline, Emperor Mahipala I defended imperial bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of Kamarupa, the empire was considerably weakened by the 11th century, with many areas engulfed in rebellion. The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, the Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of art and they laid the basis for the Bengali language, including its first literary work, the Charyapada. The Pala legacy is reflected in Tibetan Buddhism. According to the Khalimpur copper plate inscription, the first Pala king Gopala was the son of a warrior named Vapyata, the Ramacharitam attests that Varendra was the fatherland of the Palas. The ethnic origins of the dynasty are unknown, although the later claim that Gopala was a Kshatriya belonging to the legendary solar dynasty. The Ballala-Carita states that the Palas were Kshatriyas, a claim reiterated by Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India as well as Ghanaram Chakrabarty in his Dharmamangala, the Ramacharitam also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, Ramapala, as a Kshatriya
14.
Chola dynasty
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The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka, as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more, the Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka, Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia, the Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy and their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship and they pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture, the Cholas are also known as the Choda. There is very little available in regarding their origin. Its antiquity is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature, Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. Mentions in the early Sangam literature indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE, Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century BCE as one of the neighboring countries existing in the South. A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the annotator Parimelazhagar said, The charity of people with ancient lineage are forever generous in spite of their reduced means. Other names in use for the Cholas are Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave and this word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with valam – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country, in Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country. There is very little evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century. Historic records exist thereafter, including inscriptions on temples, the main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period
15.
Sena dynasty
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The Sena Empire was a Hindu dynasty that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The empire at its peak covered much of the region of the Indian subcontinent. The rulers of the Sena Dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka, the dynastys founder was Hemanta Sena, who was part of the Pala Empire until it began to weaken. Hemanta Sena usurped power and styled himself king in 1095 AD and his successor Vijaya Sena helped lay the foundations of the dynasty, and had an unusually long reign of over 60 years. Ballala Sena conquered Gaur from the Pala, became the ruler of the Bengal Delta, Ballala Sena married Ramadevi a princess of the Western Chalukya Empire which indicates that the Sena rulers maintained close social contact with south India. Lakshmana Sena succeeded Ballala Sena in 1179, ruled Bengal for approximately 20 years, in 1203–1204 AD, the Turkic general Bakhtiyar Khilji attacked Nabadwip. Khilji defeated Lakshman Sen and captured northwest Bengal – although Eastern Bengal remained under Sena control, the political space after the decline of the Pala power in Bengal was occupied by the Senas whose king Vijayasena succeeded in conquering a large part of Pala territory. The Senas were the supporters of orthodox Hinduism, the dynasty traces its origin to the South, to the Western Chalukya Empire of southern India. Theres is a record of a Western Chalukya invasion during the reign of Someshvara I led by his son Vikramaditya VI who defeated the kings of Gauda and this invasion of the Kannada ruler brought bodies of his countrymen from Karnataka into Bengal which explains the origin of the Sena Dynasty. The founder of the Sena rule was Samantasena who described himself as a Kshatriya of Karnata and he himself stated that he fought the outlaws of Karnata and later turned an ascetic. The inscriptions of the Sena kings mention them as Brahma-Kshatriyas or Kshatriyas, Sena Dynasty had ruled Bengal for little over a century. The emergence of the dynasty, which supplanted the Palas in Bengal towards the close of 11th century A. D. had constituted a significant epoch in the history of ancient India. One important aspect of Sena rule in Bengal is that the territory of Bengal was brought under a single rule for the first time. It is likely impossible to provide information to the question as to how the family entered Bengal. The Sena records also are amazingly silent about this, the Sena kings claim in their own inscriptions that they are Brahma-Kshatriyas. Their remote ancestor was one Virasena, whose name was supposed to have mentioned in Puranas. The Deopara Inscription of the Senas also traces the Sena ancestry from Virasena, since there are no authentic records available still, a keen controversy prevails among scholars regarding origin of the Senas. Like the origin of the Senas, their history or circumstances
16.
Delhi Sultanate
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The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years. Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially, the Mamluk dynasty, the Khilji dynasty, the Tughlaq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty, the first four dynasties were of Turkic origin, and the last dynasty was of Afghan origin. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi. Afterwards the Khilji dynasty was able to conquer most of central India. The sultanate reached the peak of its reach during the Tughlaq dynasty. This was followed by due to continuing Hindu-Muslim wars, states such as the Vijayanagara Empire asserting independence. The Delhi Sultanate caused destruction and desecration of politically important temples of South Asia, in 1526 the Sultanate fell, to be succeeded by the Mughal Empire. By 962 AD, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia were under a wave of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia. Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030, Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retracted each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab. The wave of raids on north Indian and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni, the raids did not establish or extend permanent boundaries of their Islamic kingdoms. The Ghurid Sultan Muizz al-Din Muhammad began a war of expansion into north India in 1173. He sought to carve out a principality for himself by expanding the Islamic world, Mu’izz sought a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river, and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate. Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence, Muizz al-Din was assassinated in 1206, by Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims in some accounts or by Hindu Khokhars in others. After the assassination, one of Mu’izz slaves, the Turkic Qutbu l-Din Aibak, assumed power, Qutb al-Din Aibak, a slave of Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years. After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, iltutmishs power was precarious, and a number of Muslim amirs challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, he consolidated his power and his rule was challenged a number of times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars. Iltumish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranathambhore and he also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori
17.
Sonargaon
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Sonargaon was a historic administrative, commercial and maritime centre in Bengal. Situated in the centre of the Ganges delta, it was the seat of the medieval Muslim rulers and governors of eastern Bengal. Sonargaon was described by numerous historic travellers, including Ibn Battuta, Ma Huan, Niccolò de Conti and Ralph Fitch as a centre of trade. It was a centre of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shahs sultanate, the Bengal Sultanate. The area is located near the modern industrial port of Narayanganj in Bangladesh. Today, the name Sonargaon survives as the Sonargaon Upazila in the region, the name Sonargaon came as the Bangla version of the ancient name Suvarnagrama. Buddhist ruler Danujamadhava Dasharathadeva shifted his capital to Suvarnagrama from Bikrampur sometime in the middle of the 13th century, in early 14th century, Bauddha ruling in this area ended when Shamsuddin Firoz Shah of Lakhnauti occupied and annexed it to his kingdom. Muslim settlers first arrive in Sonargaon region in around 1281, sharfuddin Abu Tawwamah, a medieval Sufi saint and Islamic philosopher came and settled here sometime between 1282 and 1287. He then established his Khanqah and founded a Madrasa, Firoz Shah built a mint in Sonargaon from where a large number of coins were issued. When he died in 1322, his son, Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah, in 1324 Delhi Sultan, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, declared war against him and after the battle, Bahadur Shah was captured and Bengal, including Sonargaon, became a province of Delhi Sultanate. The same year, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq, son and successor of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, released him, after 4 years of governorship, in 1328, Bahadur Shah declared independence of Bengal. Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq sent his general, Bahram Khan, in the battle, Bahadur Shah was defeated and killed. Bahram Khan recaptured Sonargaon for the Delhi Sultanate and he was appointed the governor of Sonargaon. When Bahram Khan died in 1338, his armour-bearer, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, Fakhruddin sponsored several construction projects, including a trunk road and raised embankments, along with mosques and tombs. 14th century Moroccan traveller, Ibn Batuta, after visiting the capital in 1346, described Fakhruddin as a sovereign who loved strangers, particularly the fakirs. After the death of Fakhruddin in 1349, Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah became the independent ruler of Sonargaon. Ilyas Shah, the independent ruler of Lakhnauti, attacked Sonargaon in 1352, after defeating Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah, he became the sole ruler of whole Bengal for the first time in history and thus he became the founder of a sultanate of the unified Bengal. A squadron of the Chinese fleet of Zheng He, commanded by the eunuch Hong Bao, the information about that expedition comes from the book of one of its participants, the Muslim translator Ma Huan
18.
Bengal Sultanate
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The Bengal Sultanate, officially the Sultanate of Bengal, was a Muslim state and empire based in the Indian subcontinent on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. It was an important power in South and Southeast Asia and its rulers carried the title of King of Kings in the East. The kingdoms heartland was in Bengal, which is divided between Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, but its realm included large parts of North India. Its bordering countries included the Delhi Sultanate, Tibet, Ahom, the Bengal Sultanate seceded from the Delhi Sultanate under Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in 1352 and had capitals in Gaur, Pandua and Sonargaon. Delhi recognised Bengals independence after it was defeated by Ilyas Shah and his son, the kingdom enjoyed a strategic relationship with Ming China. It reached the height of its power during the reigns of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and Alauddin Hussain Shah in the 15th and early 16th centuries, Trade links were fostered with the Horn of Africa, the Maldives and Malacca. Its political economy featured the Taka as its standard currency, Bengali Muslim architecture flourished under the sultanates distinct regional genre, incorporating Bengali and Persian elements. A cosmopolitan literary culture developed in the kingdom, in the mid 16th century, Bengal was overrun by Sher Shah Suris conquests. Arakan ended its relationship with Bengal after allying with the Portuguese Empire. The Mughals defeated the last Sultan, Daud Khan Karrani, in Rajmahal in 1576, subsequently, eastern Bengal came under the control of the Baro-Bhuyan chieftains. By the 17th century, most of the territories of the sultanate were annexed by Mughal Bengal, Bengal was integrated into the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of the Indian subcontinent. It was annexed by Bakhtiar Khilji as a province of the Delhi Sultanate, in the mid 14th century, governors in Bengal declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate, including at Lakhnauti, Sonargaon and Satgaon. In 1352, the Bengal Sultanate was formed by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah after he conquered the three cities and he also defeated an invasion by the Sultan of Delhi Firuz Shah Tughluq in 1353. Ilyas Shah led successful campaigns against neighbouring Hindu states which consolidated the position of the Bengal Sultanate as the foremost military power in the eastern subcontinent, the records of medieval Indian historians, such as Abul Fazl, described him as first Shah of Bengal. His successors formed the Ilyas Shahi dynasty and his son Sikandar Shah and grandson Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah expanded the military, diplomatic and architectural influence of the sultanate. In 1414, Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, the son of the Hindu zamindar Raja Ganesha, assumed the throne after a coup backed by his father and he reigned until 1433 and proclaimed himself as a caliph of Islam. During his reign, Arakan in Burma came under a century of Bengali suzerainty and his military assisted the Arakanese ruler Narameikhla to regain control of the city of Mrauk U in return for Arakan becoming a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali Muslims formed their own settlements in Arakan, the Buddhist rulers in Arakan received Islamic titles
19.
Sur Empire
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It interrupted the rule of the Mughal Empire under Humayun, who later restored the Mughal Empire by ending the Sur Empire. Sher Shah defeated badhsah-i-Hind Humayun in the Battle of Chausa and again in the Battle of Bilgram, the Sur dynasty held control of nearly all the Mughal territories, from modern-day eastern Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in modern-day Bangladesh in the east. During the almost 17-year rule of the Sur dynasty, until the return of the Mughals to the throne, a systematised relationship was created between the people and the ruler, minimising corruption and the oppression of the public. Their rule came to an end by a defeat that led to restoration of the Mughal Empire, today, the Sur are part of the Pashtun tribal system and belong to the sub-groups of the Ghilzais. It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains, about six or seven kos in length, Sur Delhi Sultanate List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Sher Shah Suri and the Afghan Revival Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah Suri
20.
Kingdom of Mrauk U
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The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was a kingdom based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, which ruled parts of Bangladesh and the Arakan region of Burma from 1429 to 1785. Mrauk U was declared the capital of the Arakanese kingdom in 1431, as the city grew, many Buddhist pagodas and temples were built. Several of them remain, and these are the main attraction of Mrauk-U, from the 15th to the 18th centuries, Mrauk U was the capital of the Arakan kingdom, frequently visited by foreign traders. The Bengalis who came with him formed their own settlements in the region, narameikhla ceded some territory to the Sultan of Bengal and recognised his sovereignity over the areas. In recognition of his kingdoms vassal status, the kings of Arakan received Islamic titles, despite being Buddhists, narameikhla minted his own, with Burmese characters on one side and Persian characters on the other. Arakan remained subordinate to Bengal until 1531, even after gaining independence from the Sultans of Bengal, the Arakanese kings continued the custom of maintaining Muslim titles, despite remaining Buddhist. The kings compared themselves to Sultans and fashioned themselves after Mughal rulers and they also continued to employ Muslims in prestigious positions within the royal administration. From 1531-1629, Portuguese pirates operated from havens along the coast of the kingdom, the Bengali Muslim population thus increased in the 17th century, as they were employed in a variety of workforces in Arakan. Some of them worked as Arabic, Bengali, and Persian scribes in the Arakanese courts, Arakan lost control of southeast Bengal after the Mughal conquest of Chittagong. The old capital of Rakhine was first constructed by King Min Saw Mon in the 15th century, the golden city of Mrauk U became known in Europe as a city of oriental splendor after Friar Sebastian Manrique visited the area in the early 17th century. Father Manriques vivid account of the coronation of King Thiri Thudhamma in 1635 and about the Rakhine Court, the English author Maurice Collis who made Mrauk U and Rakhine famous after his book, The Land of the Great Image based on Friar Manrique travels in Arakan. The Mahamuni Buddha Image, which is now in Mandalay, was cast, Mrauk U can be easily reached via Sittwe, the capital of Rakhine State. From Yangon there are flights to Sittwe and there are small private boats as well as larger public boats plying through the Kaladan river to Mrauk U. It is only 45 miles from Sittwe and the seacoast, to the east of the old city is the famous Kispanadi stream and far away the Lemro river. The city area used to have a network of canals, Mrauk U maintains a small archaeological Museum near Palace site, which is right in the centre of town. As a prominent capital Mrauk U was carefully built in a location by levelling three small hills. The pagodas are strategically located on hilltops and serve as fortresses, there are moats, artificial lakes and canals and the whole area could be flooded to deter or repulse attackers. There are innumerable pagodas and Buddha images all over the old city, some are still being used as places of worship today many in ruins, some of which are now being restored to their original splendor
21.
Koch dynasty
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The Koch dynasty of Assam and Bengal, named after the Koch tribe, emerged as the dominant ruling house in the Kamata kingdom in 1515 after the fall of the Khen dynasty in 1498. The dynasty forked for the first time two major branches that controlled Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo. Koch Bihar became a vassal of the Mughals, whereas Koch Hajo came under Ahom control and was subsequently absorbed, Koch Bihar became a princely state during British rule and was absorbed after Indian independence. A third branch of this dynasty at Khaspur disappeared into the Kachari kingdom, after the fall of the Pala dynasty of Kamarupa, the kingdom fractured into different domains in the 12th century. In the extreme east the Sutiya kingdom emerged on the bank of Brahmaputra river. The Ahom kingdom emerged in the bank and to their west was the Kachari kingdom. Sandhya, a ruler of Kamarupanagara moved his capital further west to present-day North Bengal in the middle of the 13th century, the buffer region, between the eastern kingdoms and Kamata was the domain of the Baro-Bhuyans chieftains. Alauddin Husain Shah of Gaur defeated Nilambar of Kamata in 1498, occupied the region and placed his son, Daniyal in charge. Within a few years, the Baro-Bhuyans, led by one Harup Narayan of the Brahmaputa valley defeated, captured and executed Daniyal, and the region lapsed into Bhuyan confederate rule. Meanwhile, an alliance was formed when a Mech chief, Hariya Mandal, Hariya Mandals domain was in Chikna Mountains situated between the Sankosh River and the Champabati River, about 80 kilometers north of Dhubri in the erstwhile Undivided Goalpara district of Assam. Bisu, who was to later become Viswa Singha, was born to Hariya Mandal, the first ruler of the Koch dynasty was Vishwa Singha, who established himself in 1515 as the ruler of the Kamata kingdom. According to J N Sarkar, Viswa Singha belonged to one of the dominant Koch tribes, the earliest known ancestor of Viswa Singha was his father Haria Mandal, from the Chiknabari village in Goalpara district, the head of the twelve most powerful Mech families. Haria Mandal was married to Jira and Hira, daughters of a Koch chief named Hajo, Viswa Singha was the son of Haria Mandal and Hira. Viswa Singha sought the alliance of tribal chiefs against the more powerful Baro-Bhuyans, successively, he defeated the Bhuyans of Ouguri, Jhargaon, Karnapur, Phulaguri, Bijni and Pandunath. He was particularly stretched by the Bhuyan of Kanrnapur, and could defeat him only by a stratagem during Bihu. After subjugating the petty rulers, he announced himself the king of Kamata bounded on the east by Barnadi river and he moved his capital from Chikana to Kamatapur which is just a few miles southeast of the present-day Cooch Behar town. Viswa Singhas two sons, Naranarayan and Shukladhwaj, the king and the commander-in-chief of the army respectively, Nara Narayan made Raghudev, the son of Chilarai, the governor of Koch Hajo, the eastern portion of the country. After the death of Nara Narayan, Raghudev declared independence, the division of the Kamata kingdom into Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo was permanent
22.
Kingdom of Tripura
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Twipra Kingdom was one of the largest historical kingdoms of the Tipra people in the North-east India. The Tipra Kingdom was established around the confluence of the Brahmaputra river with the Meghna, the capital was called Khorongma and was along the Meghna river in the Sylhet Division of present-day Bangladesh. The chronicle traces the kings ancestry to the mythological Lunar Dynasty, in the 8th century, the Kingdom shifted its capital eastwards along the Surma river in Sylhet near present Kailasahar town of North Tripura. It was similar to the Chinese folk religions, the earliest historical records concerning the Twipra kingdom concern the 13th century, when it first came under pressure from the Islamic conquests in India. This is also the time of origin of the Manikya Dynasty, started when Ratna Fa adopted the title Manikya, Ratna Fa shifted the capital to Rangamati on the banks of the river Gumti, now in South Tripura. Twipra was first overrun by the Muslims under Tughril in 1279, Tripura was one of the states that pushed back successive waves of Jihadi invasions from Turks, Ethipian Muslims, Afghans, and Mughals. On many occasions, Tripurans also pushed back Burmese and Arakanese invasions from the East, the plains of Tripura, however, fell to the Jihadi attacks from Mughals. The plains territories comprise todays South East Dhaka and Comilla areas, while the plains areas were thus Islamized, the Hills of Tripura served as a continuous bulwark against Jihadi penetration to the East. The Tripura Hill Kings were major sponsors of Hindu traditions and customs, in the modern age they are remembered as one of the longest and most stable dynasties from the Indian East. Dhanya Manikya expanded Twipras territorial domain well into Eastern Bengal, Rangamati was renamed Udaipur after Udai Manikya. Bir Chandra Manikya modelled his administration on the pattern of British India, the last king was Kirit Bikram Kishore, son of Bir Bikram Kishore Debbarma, who ruled for two years, 1947-1949. In 1949, Tripura became part of the Republic of India, the Tripuri heir apparent is Kirit Pradyot Deb Barma, the son of the last king, who is sometimes given the courtesy title of Maharaja. History of Tripura Tripura Tripuri people Tripura Buranji 17th Century Ahom Chronicle, progressive Tripura,1930 Rajmala, royal chronicle of Tripura Kings. Hill Tippera - History The Imperial Gazetteer of India,1909, v.13, information on the kingdom of Tripura at the University of Queensland Tripura kingdom at Royal ark About Tippera District Present day Comilla District of Bangladesh
23.
Bhurshut
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Bhurshut / Bhurisrestha was a medieval Hindu kingdom spread across what is now Howrah and Hooghly districts in the Indian state of West Bengal. Bhurshut kingdom grew up in the parts of Rarh region. It had a concentration of Bhurisresthis, a community of traders. However, it was possibly the main centre of Rarhi Brahmins and it could have been ruled by a Sur king during the period when the Pala Empire was a rising force. Different feudatory kings may have ruled over the kingdom, at a later time there is mention in folklore of a Dhibar dynasty, possibly in the 14th–15th century. Subsequently the area came to be ruled by a Brahmin family, shanibhangar, the last Dhibar king of Burshut, was defeated by Chaturanan Neogi of Garh Bhawanipur. Chaturanan’s grandson Krishna Roy of the Mukhti royal family of Phulia took over the reins, Krishna Roy ruled in 1583–84, at a time when Akbar was the Mughal emperor. Krishna Roy’s great-grandson Pratap Narayan Roy was the greatest of Bhurshut kings, There is mention about the exemplary bravery of a lady of the family, popularly referred to as Roy Baghini, but it is difficult to identify the person. In Ain-i-Akbari it is mentioned that amongst the thirty-one mahals under Sirkar Suleimanabad, no other pargana under Sirkar Satgaon or Sirkar Mandaran earned so much revenue. Bhurshut was conquered by Kirtichand Rai of Bardhaman in the 18th century, bhushut kingdom had three forts at Garh Bhabanipur, Pandua and Rajbalhat. There is hardly any trace of these forts, There still is a place called Dihi Bhurshut in Howrah district, bharatchandra Ray, ‘Raygunakar’, 18th-century Bengali poet, hailed from Pedo Bhurshut and possibly belonged to the ruling family of Bhurshut kingdom. Shivanarayan Rudranarayan Bhavashankari Pratapnarayan Naranarayan Lakshminarayan
24.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
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Bengal Subah
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The Bengal Subah was a subdivision of the Mughal Empire encompassing modern Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal and Orissa between the 16th and 18th centuries. The state was established following the dissolution of the Bengal Sultanate, the Mughals played an important role in developing modern Bengali culture and society. By the 18th century, Mughal Bengal emerged as a quasi-independent state, by the 17th century, the Mughals subdued opposition from the Baro-Bhuyans landlords, notably Isa Khan. Bengal was integrated into a powerful and prosperous empire, and shaped by policies of pluralistic government. The Mughals built a new imperial metropolis in Dhaka from 1610, with well-developed fortifications, gardens, tombs and it served as the Mughal capital of Bengal for 75 years. The city was renamed in honour of Emperor Jahangir, Dhaka emerged as the commercial capital of the Mughal Empire, given that it was the centre for the empires largest exports, cotton muslin textiles. The Mughal conquest of Chittagong in 1666 defeated the Kingdom of Arakan and reestablished Bengali control of the port city, the Chittagong Hill Tracts frontier region was made a tributary state of Mughal Bengal and a treaty was signed with the Chakma Circle in 1713. Between 1576 and 1717, Bengal was ruled by a Mughal Subedar, members of the imperial family were often appointed to the position. Viceroy Prince Shah Shuja was the son of Emperor Shah Jahan, during the struggle for succession with his brothers Prince Aurangazeb, Prince Dara Shikoh and Prince Murad Baksh, Prince Shuja proclaimed himself as the Mughal Emperor in Bengal. He was eventually defeated by the armies of Aurangazeb, Shuja fled to the Kingdom of Arakan, where he and his family were killed on the orders of the King at Mrauk U. Shaista Khan was an influential viceroy during the reign of Aurangazeb and he consolidated Mughal control of eastern Bengal. Prince Muhammad Azam Shah, who served as one of Bengals viceroys, was installed on the Mughal throne for four months in 1707, Viceroy Ibrahim Khan II gave permits to English and French traders for commercial activities in Bengal. During Azim-us-Shans tenure, his prime minister Murshid Quli Khan emerged as a figure in Bengal. Khan gained control of imperial finances, in 1717, the Mughal Court upgraded the prime ministers position to the hereditary Nawab of Bengal. Khan founded a new capital in Murshidabad and his descendants formed the Nasiri dynasty. Alivardi Khan founded a new dynasty in 1740, the Nawabs ruled over a territory which included Bengal proper, Bihar and Orissa. In Bengal, the system saw most wealth hoarded by the elites, the expeditions, led by Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur, also established the De facto Maratha control over Orissa, which was formally incorporated in the Maratha Dominion in 1752. The Nawab of Bengal also payed Rs.3.2 million to the Marathas, the chauth was paid annually by the Nawab of Bengal to the Marathas upto 1758, till the British occupation of Bengal
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Bardhaman Raj
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The Bardhaman Raj was a zamindari estate that flourished from about 1657 to 1956, first under the Mughals and then under the British in the province of Bengal in India. The estate was established and owned continuously by the Kapoor family and its earliest known ancestor, Sangam Rai, is said to have migrated to Bengal and settled at Bardhaman in the sixteenth century. Bardhaman was never an independent territory since the chiefs of the family held it basically as the collectors or zamindars of the Mughal governors of Bengal. Later, in British times after Lord Cornwalliss Permanent Settlement of 1793 and they patronised many poets, who had contributed substantially to the literature of the day. They were also patrons of music. It had an army of its own and when the declining Mughals ceded their territory to the British, later, when they made up with the British, they were entitled to their own coat of arms. After independence, they donated their palace, with a library of valuable books. Their territory was centered on the Bardhaman district, but extended beyond to eighteen more, to parts, for example, of what is now Bankura, Medinipur, Howrah, Hughli and Murshidabad districts. They hailed from as far away as Lahore but identified themselves with the people of the lands they held and are considered to be benefactors of Bengali literature and culture, while the Raj ended with the abolition of zemindaries in 1955, it passed into history. The highlights of each person of the Raj family are given below in chronological order, normally, the son succeeded the father and when it was otherwise, it is specifically mentioned. The erstwhile Maharajas of Burdwan in Bengal belong to the Kapoor clan of the Khatri community, Maharaja Bhadur Tedj Chand Ray adopted Chunilal Kapur who later assumed the Zamindari of Burdwan. Sangram Ray is said to have travelled eastwards on pilgrimage to the temple-town of Puri in Orissa, thereafter, he travelled further northeast and settled permanently at Baikunthpur near the town of Burdwan. He owed this appointment to his ability to supply the army passing through Burdwan with adequate provisions at short notice, the family continued to flourish in trade, and Abu Rays son Babu Ray added further to the prestige of the family by acquiring large estates. He purchased Burdwan and three other estates from Ram Ray, an important Zamindar of the area, the family thus entered the ranks of the nobility. Krishnaram Ray was ordered to not realize any new taxes from the peasantry but to encourage cultivation and maintain law, the nazarana for the land was set at Rs. Zamindars are not to be confused with Indian royalty, the lands that they collected rents from were directly administered by Indian Civil Service officers who themselves were part of the Bengal Presidency and later the State of Bengal. Thus Raja and Maharaja were titles that in cases such as here had no reference to sovereignty. Nor were the Maharajas of Burdwan aristocrats in any sense of the word and they, however were extremely wealthy businessmen
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Rajshahi Raj
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Rajshahi Raj was a large zamindari which occupied a vast position of Bengal. It was the second largest zamindari with an area of about 33,670 km2, the zamindari came into being during the early part of the 18th century when Nawab Murshid Quli Khan was the Dewan / Subahdar of Bengal. The family ruled their dominions and estates from the Natore Palace in present-day Bangladesh, a member of this Raj family, Maharaja Jagadindra Narayan Ray, was a patron of cricket, and wanted to defeat the British in their own game of Cricket. His rival was the Maharaja of Koch Bihar, the Rajshahi Raj family is descended from Kamdev Rai. The rulers and holders of this estate were Brahmins. Many old aristocrats and lords lost their estates during the rule of the Nawab Murshid Quli Khan, besides, many zamindars lost their zamindari on account of their disobedience and rebellion. Murshid Quli Khan settled these zamindaries with his trusted followers, in this process of replacement the most fortunate beneficiary was the Rajshahi zamindari. The family also benefited by another feature of nawabs revenue policy of encouragement to the formation of big zamindaries, the Rajshahi Raj family traced its origin to Kamdev Rai, a tahsildar of the Puthia Raj family. Kamdev had three sons Ramjivan, Raghunandan and Bishnuram, Raghunandan was the very promising and enterprising. Raja Darpanarain, the zamindar of Puthia, and Murshid Quli Khan had significant contributions behind Raghunandans rise to prominence, Raghunandan sided with Murshid Quli Khan in his entanglement with the Subahdar, the Prince Azim-us-Shan, the grandson of Emperor Aurangzeb and thus won the confidence of the nawab. Again, when the diwani was transferred to Murshidabad, he was appointed in a capacity as his masters representative there. During this time he came in contact of Murshid Quli Khan. Which is why the naib trusted him and let him set up the dynasty, just a few zamindars controlled half of the total landed property of Bengal while the colonial state was forming in the last decades of the 18th century. Hence it became a policy of the government to weaken these estates, one of the strategies to implement this design was the ruthless operation of the sunset law. In 1788, in her old age, Rani Bhabani transferred the zamindari to her adopted son Raja Ramkrishna, in April 1798, Raja Biswanath attained his majority and took over the management of the zamindari. Soon he fell in arrears for which mahal after mahal were sold for recovering public revenue. By 1800, the great Rajshahi raj was reduced to insignificance, utter poverty descended on the family. In consideration of his past rank and status and present indigence, a zamindari which was the second largest in Bengal, just next to the Burdwan raj, in 1790 became almost extinct within the next ten years. The Rajshahi Raj witnessed its rise almost throughout the 18th century and it however maintained its existence during the 19th century
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Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad
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The Nawabs of Bengal were the rulers of the then provinces of Bengal and Orissa. Between 1717 and 1765, they served as the rulers of the subah of Bengal, however, they were only nominally subordinate to the Mughal Empire. Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar and he lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad and established itself to a political power in Bengal. In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British, in 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat of the Nawab was also away from them. The last Nawab of Bengal, Mansur Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son and they had little or no say in the share of the revenue collected and were ceased to use any force. After Indian Independence in 1947 it was declared that the states must accede to either India or Pakistan. Murshidabad became a part of East Pakistan for two days, as it had a Muslim majority and it became a part of India on 17 August 1947, following which the Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop it. After merging with India, they had no power as the Government of India took over all the states in India. The house of the Nawabs appeared to have come to end in 1969 with Waris Ali Mirza being the last reigning Nawab and with no clear succession. Although he left three sons and three daughters there was no successor to the title after his death because he disinherited one. During the first partition of Bengal in the early 20th century a new province, in 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal Province. The Nawab thus gained rule over Orissa, which were part of Bengal. The majority of modern Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people who speak the Bengali language, the early Sultans of Bengal ruled until 1282 which was followed by the rule of several successive dynasties. Ilyas Shah founder of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, took charge of the then Bengal. He was one of the independent rulers of Bengal, the Mughal Empire emerged as a powerful Empire in northern India. Babur, who was related to two legendary warriors – Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded north India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, babur thus became the first Mughal emperor. He was succeeded by his son, Humayun, at the same time, Sher Shah Suri of the Suri dynasty rose to prominence and established himself as the ruler of the present day Bihar by defeating Ghiyasuddin Shah
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Portuguese settlement in Chittagong
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Chittagong, the second largest city and main port of Bangladesh, was home to a thriving trading post of the Portuguese Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Portuguese first arrived in Chittagong around 1528 and left in 1666 after the Mughal conquest and it was the first European colonial enclave in the historic region of Bengal. Chittagong was the largest seaport in the Sultanate of Bengal, which was termed as the Shahi Bangalah in Persian, the Portuguese referred to the port city as Porto Grande de Bengala, which meant the Grand Harbor of Bengal. The term was often simplified as Porto Grande, on 9 May 1512, a fleet of four ships commanded by João da Silveira from the Estado da India arrived in Chittagong from Goa. They were followed by several embassies from the Kingdom of Portugal to the Sultanate of Bengal and he set up the first Portuguese factory in Bengal at Chittagong in 1517. Traders from Portuguese Malacca, Bombay and Ceylon also frequented the region, some sources indicate that Joao Coelho had arrived in Chittagong before João da Silveira. Many Malaccan Portuguese had come to the Bengal before Silveira in Moorish ships as traders, moreover, some of the Portuguese settled in Pipli in 1514 and had visited Western Bengal. In 1528, the Sultan of Bengal permitted the Portuguese to establish factories, a fort and naval base was established in Firingi Bandar. The settlement grew into the most prominent Eurasian port on the Bay of Bengal during the Age of Discovery, the cartaz system was introduced and required all ships in the area to purchase naval trading licenses from the Portuguese. In 1590, the Portuguese conquered the islands of Sandwip under the leadership of António de Sousa Godinho. In 1602, the Sandwip island of Chittagong was conquered by the Portuguese from Kedar Rai of Sripur, Portuguese pirates, named Gonçalves and Carvalho, ruled the island of Sandwip for several years. Each year about 300 salt loaded ships sailed for Liverpool from Sandwip, Sandwip was very famous for its ship-building and salt industries at that time. In 1616, after the arrival of Delwar Khan, a high-ranking Mughal naval officer, the harbour of Chittagong became the most important port to the Portuguese because of its location, navigational facilities and safe anchorage. The port is close to the mouth of the Meghna which was the principal route to the Royal capital of Gouda. Evidently the Portuguese found Chittagong a congenial place to live, by the end of the sixteenth century, the Chittagong port had emerged as a thriving port, which attracted both unofficial Portuguese trade and settlement. According to a 1567 note of Caesar Federeci, every thirty or thirty five ships, great and small. In 1598 there lived about 2,500 Portuguese and Eurasians in Chittagong, the increased commercial presence included bureaucrats, merchants, missionaries, soldiers, adventurers, sailors and pirates. The enclave had a highly laissez-faire administration led by traders, major traded products included fine silk, cotton muslin textiles, bullion, spices, rice, timber, salt and gunpowder
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Dutch Bengal
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Bengal was a directorate of the Dutch East India Company in Bengal between 1610 until the companys liquidation in 1800. It then became a colony of the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1825, Dutch presence in the region started by the establishment of a trading post at Pipili in the mouth of Subarnarekha river in Odisha. The former colony is part of what is today called Dutch India, from 1615 onwards, the Dutch East India Company traded with Bengals. In 1627, a trading post was established in Pipely, in 1635 a settlement was established at Chinsurah adjacent to Hooghly to trade in opium, salt, muslin and spices. They built a fort called Fort Gustavus, a church and several other buildings, a famous Frenchman, General Perron who served as military advisor to the Mahrattas, settled in this Dutch colony and built a large house here. The only other Dutch East India Company settlement to have this right was Dutch Ceylon, Dutch Bengal was occupied by British forces in 1795, owing to the Kew Letters written by Dutch stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange, to prevent the colony from being occupied by France. Fort Gustavus has since been obliterated from the face of Chinsurah and the church collapsed due to disuse. Hugli-Chinsurah is now the town of the Hooghly district in modern West Bengal. Het personeel van de Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie in Azie in de achttiende eeuw, meer in het bijzonder in de vestiging Bengalen
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Chandannagar
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Chandannagar, formerly spelled as Chandernagore, is a Corporation city and former French colony located about 35 kilometers north of Kolkata, in West Bengal, India. It is headquarter of a subdivision of same name in Hooghly District and it is one of the 7 municipal corporations in West Bengal. It is a part of the covered by Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority. Located on the Hooghly River, the city has been able to maintain an identity different from all other cities. The total area is 19 square kilometers, and had a population of 166,867 at the 2011 Census, Chandannagar is connected to Kolkata by railway, roadways and Hooghly river and it takes about an hour to reach there by car. The name Chandannagar is possibly derived from the shape of the bank of the river Ganges which is bent like a half moon, some local people say that once, the place was the major hub of the trade of Sandal. In some old documents the spelling of Chandannagar was Chandernagore which probably came from Chandra Nagar, to mention, Chandra is the Bengali of Moon. One more reason behind the name is, in Chandernagore there is a temple of Goddess Chandi, so it might come from there. But earlier people knew the place by the name Farasdangaor Francedonmgi as it was a French colony. Chandannagar was established as a French colony in 1673, when the French obtained permission from Ibrahim Khan, Bengal was then a province of the Mughal Empire. For a time, Chandannagar was the center for European commerce in Bengal. The towns fortifications and many houses were demolished thereafter, and Chandannagars importance as a center was eclipsed by that of Calcutta situated down river. Chandernagore was restored to the French in 1763, but retaken by the British in 1794 in the Napoleonic Wars, the city was returned to France in 1816, along with a 3 sq mi enclave of surrounding territory. It was governed as part of French India until 1950, under the control of the governor-general in Pondicherry. By 1900 the towns commercial importance was gone, and it was little more than a quiet suburb of Calcutta. But it was noted for its clean wide thoroughfares, with many elegant residences along the riverbank, like the other three French occupied colonies of India, Chandernagore was under Pondicherry. There was only one Governor for the entire French India and he lived in the principal city of Pondicherry, from time to time he would visit the colonies. There was one Administrator under the Governor in each colony, though there were courts and magistrates here, a separate judge used to come from Pondicherry for session trials
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Serampore
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Serampore is a famous and historical city in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the headquarter of the Srirampore subdivision and it is a part of the area covered by Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority. It is a town on the west bank of the Hooghly River. It was part of Danish India under the name Frederiknagore from 1755 to 1845 and it is probable that the name Srirampur originated either from Sripur, Sri Ram or both, or it could originate from Seetarampore as there was a very famous Ram-Seeta temple. Serampore City was grown up joining by Mahesh, Ballavpur, Akna, Sripur, Gopinathpur, Manoharpur, Chatra, Rajyadharapur, Naoga, Sheoraphuli, Shimla - sataghara villages. There were three phases in the process of urbanisation of Serampore, The Pre-urbanisation phase, The Urbanisation phase. Before the Mughal era, the region between the Saraswati and Hooghly rivers was a local community. After this there arose the need for local artisana along with service class people who came from the neighbouring villages, in this way, colonies such as Patuapara, Kumarpara, Dhulipara, Goalpara, Dutta Bagan, Khash Bagan were formed. The cultivating classes settled in places as Sadgoppara, Mannapara, Lankabaganpara. The Jele-Kaibarta and Sani Muchi, were already in the locality from the beginning, the local Sunni Muslims, descendants of Mughal soldiers, traders and artisans, lived in Mullickpara, Mussalman Para and here a mosque still bears witness to their existence. During the Mughal period, Akna and Mahesh were heavily populated, the hot humid climate of the area suited the textile industry and the local land was well known for its cotton and silk weaving. The Hindu weavers used to fine cotton pieces, while the Muslim weavers monopolised silk manufacture. In the fertile land, paddy, jute and betel-leaf were grown in abundance, the Kaibarta used the marshy land for fishing. In pre-urbanisation age, communication was mainly by way of the river, besides this, there was the Badshahi Sadak or the grand trunk road. Between the 14th and 18th centuries, many merchants, such as the French, Portuguese and Dutch - established their trading outposts, or Kuthis, here and were involved in trade. The urbanization phase began with the acquisition of land in the area by the Danes in the early 18th century, in 1755, the Danish East India Company sent a representative from its Tranquebar office to the Nawab of Bengal. Their intention was to secure a parwana allowing them the right to do business in Bengal, subsequently, the Danes acquired the Serampore, Akna and Pearapur mahals by paying an annual rent of 1601 rupees to the zamindar of Sheoraphuli in North Serampore. By 1770 the Danish merchants were beginning to make significant progress in trade, Danish prosperity was assisted by the able administrative performance of Colonel Ole Bie, who was appointed the first Crown regent of Serampore in 1776
