1.
Metropolis
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The term is Greek and means the mother city of a colony, that is, the city which sent out settlers. This was later generalized to a city regarded as a center of an activity, or any large. A big city belonging to an urban agglomeration, but which is not the core of that agglomeration, is not generally considered a metropolis. The plural of the word is most commonly metropolises, although the correct plural is metropoles, in the ancient past, metropolis was the designation for a city or state of origin of a colony. Many large cities founded by ancient civilizations have been considered important world metropoles of their times due to their large populations, some of these ancient metropoles survived until the modern days and are among the worlds oldest continuously inhabited cities. This usage equates the province with the diocese or episcopal see, in modern usage the word has come to refer to a metropolitan area, a set of adjacent and interconnected cities clustered around a major urban center. In this sense, metropolitan usually means spanning the whole metropolis or proper of a metropolis, the concept of a global city is of a city that has a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socioeconomic means. The term has become familiar, because of the rise of globalization. An attempt to define and categorize world cities by financial criteria was made by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, the study ranked cities based on their provision of advanced producer services such as accountancy, advertising, finance and law. The inventory identifies three levels of cities and several sub-ranks. A metropolis is not necessarily a global city—or, being one, it not be among the top-ranking—due to its standards of living, development. A metropolis that is also a city is a global metropolis. Cairo and Alexandria are considered Egypts biggest metropolis, lagos is Nigerias biggest metropolis city. In South Africa, a municipality or Category A municipality is a municipality which executes all the functions of local government for a conurbation. This is by contrast to areas which are rural, where the local government is divided into district municipalities. There are eight municipalities in South Africa. In the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, there are eleven metropolitan areas, Dhaka North, Dhaka South, Gazipur Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Sylhet, Barisal, lands are highly priced and residents are considered to have a better urban lifestyle. Special police departments are allotted for the cities, and there are city corporations for which mayors are elected for five-year regimes
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab
5.
Maharashtra
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Four Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally
6.
Palghar district
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Palghar District is a district in the state of Maharashtra in Konkan Division. At the 2011 Census, the talukas now comprising the district had a population of 2,990,116, Palghar has an urban population of 1,435,210, that is 48% of total population is living in Urbanized Area. The district is bounded by Thane and Nashik Districts on the east and northeast, the Arabian Sea forms the western boundary, while Vasai-Virar is part of Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Until 1 August 2014, the talukas now comprising Palghar District formed a part of Thane District, abhijit S. Bangar was the first Collector of the district. The district is the northernmost part of the Konkan lowlands of Maharashtra and it comprises the wide amphitheatre like Ulhas basin on the south and hilly Vaitarna valley on the north together with plateaus and the slopes of Sahyadri. From the steep slopes of the Sahyadri in the east, the falls through a succession of plateaus in the north. The distance from the parts of different palaces to headquarters Palghar by road is as follows, Khodala 138 km, Mokhada 112 km, Jawhar 75 km, the main river flowing through the district is the Vaitarna. The river has tributaries, the most important of them are Barvi and Bhatsa, Pinjal, Surya, Daherja. Vaitarna, the largest of Konkan Rivers rises in the Tryambak hills in Nashik district, the river flows across Shahapur, Vada and Palghar talukas and enter the Arabian Sea through a wide estuary off Arnala. Vaitarna River is 154 km long and has an area that practically covers the entire northern part of the district. Ulhas river which flows to Arabian see is Vasai creek, districts southern border, Arnala Island is located in Vasai taluka, at the entrance to the Vaitarna estuary. Palghar has an population of 1,435,210. The talukas, with their populations at the 2001 and 2011 Censuses are as follows, Palghar has one municipal corporation, the Western Railway network passes through Vasai, Palghar and Dahanu talukas of the district. Palghar has Indias first atomic power plant located at Tarapur, the industrial town of Boisar is also home to one of Maharashtras largest industrial areas at Tarapur MIDC. Maharashtras largest fishing port is Satpati, Dahanu, Arnala, Vasai, Dahanu and Palghar are the best known for their chickoo production in the whole of India. A special Chickoo festival is hosted in Palghar and Dahanu
7.
Marathi language
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Marathi is an Indian language spoken predominantly by the Marathi people of Maharashtra. It is the language and co-official language in the Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India, respectively. There were 73 million speakers in 2001, Marathi ranks 19th in the list of most spoken languages in the world, Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India, after Hindi, Bengali and Telugu in that order. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, the major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. Malvani Konkani has been influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi has several features that set it aside from most other Indian languages, Marathi distinguishes inclusive and exclusive forms of we and possesses a three-way gender system that features the neuter in addition to the masculine and the feminine. In its phonology it contrasts apico-alveolar with alveopalatal affricates and, in common with Gujarati, Marathi is primarily spoken in Maharashtra and parts of neighbouring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, union-territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The cities of Baroda, Surat, and Ahmedabad, Belgaum, Karwar, Nipani, Indore, Gwalior, Adoni, Hyderabad, Marathi is also spoken by Maharashtrian emigrants worldwide, especially in the United States, United Kingdom, Israel, Mauritius, and Canada. Marathi is the language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra. In Goa, Konkani is the official language, however. Marathi is included among the languages which stand a part of the Eight Schedule of the Constitution of India, the contemporary grammatical rules described by Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad and endorsed by the Government of Maharashtra are supposed to take precedence in standard written Marathi. Traditions of Marathi Linguistics and the rules give special status to tatsamas. This special status expects the rules for tatsamas to be followed as in Sanskrit and this practice provides Marathi with a large treasure of Sanskrit words to cope with demands of new technical words whenever needed. Jawaharlal Nehru University has announced plans to establish a department for Marathi. Marathi Day is celebrated on 27 February, the birthday of poet Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar, Indian languages, including Marathi, that belong to the Indo-Aryan language family are derived from early forms of Prakrit. Marathi is one of languages that further descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. Marathi literature began and grew owing to the rise of the Seuna dynasty of Devgiri, further growth and usage of the language was because of two religious sects – the Mahanubhava and Varkari panthans – who adopted Marathi as the medium for preaching their doctrines of devotion. Marathi had attained a place in court life by the time of the Seuna kings
8.
Postal Index Number
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A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
9.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
10.
Male
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A male organism is the physiological sex that produces sperm. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a female gamete, or ovum. A male cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, most male mammals, including male humans, have a Y chromosome, which codes for the production of larger amounts of testosterone to develop male reproductive organs. Not all species share a common sex-determination system, in most animals, including humans, sex is determined genetically, but in some species it can be determined due to social, environmental, or other factors. For example, Cymothoa exigua changes sex depending on the number of females present in the vicinity, the existence of two sexes seems to have been selected independently across different evolutionary lineages. There is an argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. Accordingly, sex is defined operationally across species by the type of gametes produced, male/female dimorphism between organisms or reproductive organs of different sexes is not limited to animals, male gametes are produced by chytrids, diatoms and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the female and male gamete-producing organisms and structures, as of the year 2012, the United Arab Emirates has the highest ratio of human males in the world, followed by Qatar. A common symbol used to represent the male sex is the Mars symbol, the symbol is identical to the planetary symbol of Mars. It was first used to sex by Carl Linnaeus in 1751. The symbol is called a stylized representation of the Roman god Mars shield. According to Stearn, however, all the historical evidence favours that it is derived from θρ, the sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may change during the course of an organisms life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are male or female, hermaphroditic animals. Most mammals, including humans, are determined as such by the XY sex-determination system where males have an XY sex chromosome. During reproduction, a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, a Y sperm and an X egg produce a male, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a female. The part of the Y-chromosome which is responsible for maleness is the region of the Y-chromosome. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have a ZZ sex chromosome may be found in birds and some insects and other organisms
11.
Female
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Female is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, that produces non-mobile ova. Most female mammals, including humans, have two X chromosomes. The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, a female individual cannot reproduce sexually without access to the gametes of a male. Some organisms can reproduce sexually and asexually. There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species, oogamy is a form of anisogamy. There is an argument that this pattern was driven by the constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. Other than the difference in the type of gamete produced. The concept is not limited to animals, egg cells are produced by chytrids, diatoms, water moulds and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the egg- and sperm-producing organisms and structures, the word female comes from the Latin femella, the diminutive form of femina, meaning woman. It is not etymologically related to the male, but in the late 14th century the spelling was altered in English to parallel the spelling of male. A distinguishing characteristic of the class Mammalia is the presence of mammary glands, the mammary glands are modified sweat glands that produce milk, which is used to feed the young for some time after birth. Mammary glands are most obvious in humans, as the human body stores large amounts of fatty tissue near the nipples. Mammary glands are present in all mammals, although they are vestigial in the male of the species, most mammalian females have two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to the male which carries only one X and one smaller Y chromosome. To compensate for the difference in size, one of the females X chromosomes is inactivated in each cell of placental mammals while the paternally derived X is inactivated in marsupials. In birds and some reptiles, by contrast, it is the female which is heterozygous and carries a Z and a W chromosome whilst the male carries two Z chromosomes. Intersex conditions can give rise to other combinations, such as XO or XXX in mammals. However, these conditions result in sterility. A common symbol used to represent the female sex is ♀, according to Schott, the most established view is that the male and female symbols are derived from contractions in Greek script of the Greek names of these planets, namely Thouros and Phosphoros
12.
Konkan division
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Konkan division is one of the six administrative divisions of Maharashtra state in India. It comprises the Konkan region, which occupies the entire west coast of Maharashtra, the two districts in the state capital Mumbai also fall in Konkan division. Recently, the Mumbai district was bifurcated into the Mumbai & Mumbai Suburban districts, in 1961 the Konkan region became a part of the newly formed state of Maharashtra. Prior to this it was a part of Bombay province which was split to form Gujarat, creation of the Sindhudurg from the southern areas of the Ratnagiri district. The erstwhile Kolaba district was renamed as Raigad, the Panvel, New Panvel, and the Navi Mumbai International Airport regions also can be included in this proposed entirely urban district. Current proposal is to have Thane city, Navi Mumbai and Mira Bhayander into Thane urban district, for historical facts both Panvel and Karjat talukas were part of Thane district and in 1891 they were merged with Kolaba or the currently called Raigad district. This district can be a hundred percent tribal district, hence this proposal is centered on a third district comprising the non-tribal rural areas and talukas of Thane district and three talukas of Raigadh district. All these proposals are currently actively under consideration
13.
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Mumbai Metropolitan Region is a metropolitan area in Maharashtra state, consisting of the state capital Mumbai and its satellite towns. Developing over a period of about 20 years, it consists of nine municipal corporations, the MMRDA was formed to address the challenges in planning and development of integrated infrastructure for the metropolitan region. The areas outside of Brihan Mumbai and Navi Mumbai have lacked organised development, Navi Mumbai, developed as one of the largest planned cities in the world, was promoted by a Maharashtra Government-owned company, City and Industrial Development Corporation. The region has had problems related to haphazard and illegal development as a result of rapid urbanisation, villages along the NH3 in Bhiwandi Taluka are examples of haphazard developments in the MMR, with some of the largest warehousing areas in India. Government agencies such as the Town Planner and Collector of Thane have had challenges in addressing unorganised development. The region has an area of 4,355 km² and with a population of 20,748,395, it is among the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. maharashtra. gov. in/who-we-are
14.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
15.
Vasai Creek
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Vasai Creek is an estuarine creek, one of the two main distributaries of the Ulhas River in Maharashtra state of western India. The Ulhas splits at the northeast corner of Salsette Island into its two main distributaries, Vasai Creek and Thane Creek, Vasai Creek forms the northern boundary of Salsette Island, and empties west into the Arabian Sea, Thane creek empties southwards into Bombay Harbour. To the south of the lies the Bhayandar shore which is developed on both sides of the railway track. 2 railway bridges connect Naigaon and other stations to the Western suburbs, old bridge was considered to be built during the British Raj and has been closed since it was declared dangerous to commute. The new bridge is functional and has 4 tracks, Bhayandar sea shore sees a huge number of people in the evenings which has been developed recently with protective measures for over enthusiasts. It houses a park, playing ground, pooja area. On the west you have small garden benches where people can sit, small paths lowering into the sea also exist where people can stand and watch the waves hitting the shoreline
16.
Estuary
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An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a zone between river environments and maritime environments. They are subject both to marine influences—such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea began to rise about 10. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns, the banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about 60% of the worlds population living along estuaries and the coast. The word estuary is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, there have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. However, this definition excludes a number of water bodies such as coastal lagoons. This broad definition also includes fjords, lagoons, river mouths, an estuary is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides. The sea water entering the estuary is diluted by the water flowing from rivers. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on the volume of water, the tidal range. Drowned river valleys are known as coastal plain estuaries. In places where the sea level is rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and this is the most common type of estuary in temperate climates. Well-studied estuaries include the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom and the Ems Dollard along the Dutch-German border, the width-to-depth ratio of these estuaries is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths rarely exceed 30 m, examples of this type of estuary in the U. S. are the Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay, and Delaware Bay along the Mid-Atlantic coast, and Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay along the Gulf Coast. They are relatively common in tropical and subtropical locations and these estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches. Formation of barrier beaches partially encloses the estuary, with only narrow inlets allowing contact with the ocean waters, bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U. S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments, barrier beaches form in shallow water and are generally parallel to the shoreline, resulting in long, narrow estuaries
17.
Ulhas River
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The Ulhas River is a west flowing river in Western India in the state of Maharashtra draining an area 4,637 km2 in size. From the point of origin the river flows north turning left where it is joined by River Salpe and it then begins its north-eastward journey and passes the Anglo-Eastern Maritime Academy which is situated on its right bank at Khandpe village. Meandering through Karjat, it further north synapsing with River Peg between Bhivpuri Road and Neral. Continuing its run along Neral it is joined by River Poshir and it flows north skirting Badlapur where it receives the run-off from Chikhloli Dam. Near Raw water pump house of MIDC Jambhul the river meets Barvi Dam discharge water also called as Barvi River, the confluence is a tourist and fishing hub for villagers around. The river flows through Ulhasnagar to which it gives its name. 7% of the catchment area of River Ulhas. Beyond Kalyan the river, nearly flowing at sea level, merges with the creek waters, from here on it forms an estuary and also supports a mangrove forest near Diva-Dombivali. The main branch turns northwestward to Ghodbunder, where it opens into the estuary of Vasai Creek, Thane Creek flows south to empty into Bombay Harbour. The estuary of the Ulhas is the site of the ports of Kalyan, Kopri. The Ulhas basin lies between North latitudes of 18° 44′ to 19° 42′ and East longitudes of 72° 45′ to 73° 48′, the Ulhas drains an area of about 4,637 km2 which lies completely in Thane, Raigad and Pune districts in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It receives most of its water from the South-West monsoon during the months of June to October when average rainfall in the area is about 2. He Kalu and Bhasta tributaries of Ulhas are the right bank tributaries which together accounts for 55. 7% of the total catchment area of Ulhas. Pej Barvi Bhivapuri Murbari Kalu Bhasta Poshir Shilar The Ulhas River is used to drinking water to the cities of Badlapur and Navi Mumbai. List of rivers of India Rivers of India Seven Islands of Bombay
18.
Vasai-Virar City Municipal Corporation
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It is an extended suburb of Mumbai. According to the 2011 census, it is the fifth largest city in Maharashtra with a population of more than 1.3 million, the city is located 50 km north of Mumbai, on the north bank of Vasai Creek, part of the estuary of the Ulhas River. It was formed on 3 July 2009 by combining four municipal councils and 53 gram panchayats, the commissioner wields the executive powers of the house. The mayor heads the party with the largest vote, All administrative proceedings in the VVMC are conducted in Marathi. Local body tax is a levy that traders have to pay the local municipal corporation for goods imported to the state and it is an account-based tax for every raw material used or imported into the city’s limits by all businesses, traders and manufacturers and replaces traditional tax collections. All shopkeepers who sell goods over a certain value have to pay LBT and it ranges from 0% to 7% and is computed based on a trader’s turnover. VVMC started collecting LBT from 1 April 2011, Vasai-Virar is a city and tehsil in Maharashtra state in western India, comprising the most populated part of Palghar district. It is a suburb of Mumbai, according to the 2011 census, it is the fifth largest city in Maharashtra. It is located in Palghar district,50 km north of Mumbai, the city is located on the north bank of Vasai Creek, part of the estuary of the Ulhas River. Vasai-Virar City Municipal Corporation covers the tehsil, Vasai-Virar is an agglomeration of several, formerly separate, towns. The area covered by the city corresponds to the ancient city of Sopara. The population of Vasai-Virar was 1,343,402 at the 2011 census, up from 693,350 in 2001,365,480 in 1991, the population of Vasai Virar City comprises many different religions. Among them, Hinduism is practiced by 943,165 people which makes up to 78. 05% of the total population, the table given below shows the total populations of different religions that are practiced along with their percentage. The table given below shows the population of Vasai Virar Municipal Corporation, further segregated into Rural and Urban, as well as. The total children population is given below further divided into Rural, Urban, the total sex ratio along with Rural and Urban as well as Children and Adult Numbers is given in the following table, The literacy rates of Vasai Virar is shown in the below given table. The table shows the numbers as well as the literacy of Rural. It also shows literacy numbers and percentage of male and females, the table shows the total as well as rural and urban working population of Vasai Virar. It also shows the male and female working populations, the Vasai-Virar Town is governed by two bodies, the Vasai-Virar Municipal Corporation and Gram Panchayats of the villages that are excluded from the Municipal Corporation
19.
Indian Administrative Service
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The Indian Administrative Service is the All India administrative civil service. IAS officers hold key and strategic positions in the Union Government, States governments, along with the Indian Police Service and Indian Forest Service, the IAS is one of the three All India Services — its cadre can be employed by both the Union Government and the individual States. On attaining the upper levels of Super Time Scale to Apex Scale, they can go on to head whole departments and subsequently entire Ministries of Governments of India, IAS officers represent Government of India at the international level in bilateral and multilateral negotiations. On deputations they work at Intergovernmental organisations like World Bank and United Nations or its Agencies, IAS officers at various levels of administration play vital roles in conducting free, fair and smooth elections in India under the direction of Election Commission of India and states. The erstwhile Imperial Civil Service was the highest civil service of the British Empire in British India during British rule in the period between 1858 and 1947, Civil servants were divided into two categories - covenanted and uncovenanted. The covenanted civil service consisted of only white British civil servants occupying the higher posts in the government, the uncovenanted civil service was solely introduced to facilitate the entry of Indians at the lower rung of the administration. With the passing of the Government of India Act 1919, the Imperial Services headed by the Secretary of State for India, were split into two – All India Services and Central Services. At the time of the partition of India and the departure of the British in 1947, the part which went to India was named the Indian Administrative Service, while the part that went to Pakistan was named the Civil Service of Pakistan. IAS officers are recruited from Civil Services Examination conducted by the Union Public Service Commission and they are also promoted from State Civil Services and selected from non-state civil service. After getting selected, candidates undergo training at LBSNAA, Mussoorie for IAS, being an All India Service, officers of the IAS are allotted to State cadres at the beginning of their service. They continue to work in that cadre or are deputed to Government of India, there is one cadre for each Indian state, except for three joint cadres, Assam–Meghalaya, Manipur–Tripura, and Arunachal Pradesh–Goa–Mizoram–Union Territories. The insider-outsider ratio is maintained as 1,2, with one-third of the recruits as insiders from the same state. The rest are posted as outsiders according to the roster in states other than their home states, the next year the roster starts from H, for either Haryana or Himachal Pradesh. This highly intricate system, in vogue since the mid-1980s, had ensured that officers from different states are placed all over India, changes of state cadre is permitted on grounds of marriage to an All India Service officer of another state cadre or under other exceptional circumstances. The officer may go to their home state cadre on deputation for a limited period, the centralising effect of cadre system was considered extremely important by the systems framers, but has received increasing criticism over the years. There are also concerns that such reform, the IAS will be unable to move from a command and control strategy to a more interactive. A civil servant is responsible for the law and order and general administration in the area under his work, most IAS officers start their careers in the state administration at the sub-divisional level as a sub divisional magistrate. They are entrusted with the law and order situation of the city along with general administration and they proceed to various posts in the State and Central Governments, and also local-self Governments, and Public Sector Undertakings
20.
Western Railway zone
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The Western Railway is one of the 17 zones of Indian Railways, and is among the busiest railway networks in India. The major railway routes of Indian Railways which come under Western Railways are, Mumbai Central - Ratlam, Mumbai Central - Ahmedabad, the railway system is divided into six operating divisions, Vadodara, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Ratlam and Mumbai. Surat railway station is one of the busiest railway station in Western Railway in non-junction category where more than 160 trains passes per day, Western Railway General Managers official bungalow Bombarci is located on Altamont road in Cumbala hill, Mumbai. The narrow gauge lines of Cutch State Railway was also merged into it in 1951, the BB&CI Railway was itself inaugurated in 1855, starting with the construction of a 29-mile broad gauge track from Ankleshwar to Utran in Gujarat state on the west coast. In 1864, the railway was extended to Mumbai, in 1860 Surat railway station was built and it was first railway station in Asia which is having platform on first floor. In 1883, a gauge railway system, initially linking Delhi with Agra, Jaipur. The first suburban service in Mumbai with steam traction was introduced in April 1867 and it was extended to Churchgate in 1870. By 190045 trains in direction were carrying over one million passengers annually. The railways of several states were also integrated into the Western Railway. The Gaekwars of Baroda built the Gaekwars Baroda State Railway, which was merged into the BB&CI in 1949, several railways of western Gujarat, including the Bhavnagar, Kathiawar, Jamnagar & Dwarka, Gondal, and Morvi railways were merged into the Saurashtra Railway in 1948. The Jodhpur and Bikaner Railway was taken over by Rajasthan state in 1949, on 28 November 1864 BB&CI Railway, the precursor of Western Railway, touched the soil of Mumbai. On this day BB&CI railways first train from Mumbai was flagged off from Grant Road station, since then the city of Mumbai has grown with Western Railway and so has Western Railway evolved as lifeline of the city. Western Railway has planned several celebrations to mark the occasion and these include Exhibitions, A compendium of BB&CI Magazine, Brochures, Renovation of Heritage Gallery, Curio Shop etc. Western Railway headquarters is in Mumbais Churchgate station and serves the state of Gujarat, some portions of Western Madhya Pradesh. EMUs are of 9 car,12 car or 15 car rakes and are differentiated as slow, slow trains halt at all stations, while fast ones halt at important stations only and are preferable over longer distances. The first electric train on this section was introduced in 1928 between Churchgate and Andheri, the gauge-wise kilometrage of Western Railways at present, is as under, Conserving Heritage, Western Railway has opened Heritage Gallery at its Headquarters Building at Churchgate, Mumbai. The Gallery has recently been renovated and it is a collection of various models of BB&CI era, the precursor of Western Railway. Many notes of agents of BB&CI dating back to 1860s have also been displayed, Suburban timetable of 1948, steam engine model, signalling equipments, Model of 1928 EMUs, working model of Auxiliary Warning System, etc. have been beautifully displayed
21.
Central Railway zone
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Central Railway is one of the 16 zones of Indian Railways. Its headquarters is in Mumbai at Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and it has the distinction of operating first passenger railway line in India, which opened from Mumbai to Thane on 16 April 1853. The Central Railway zone formerly included parts of Madhya Pradesh and part of southern Uttar Pradesh. These areas became the new West Central Railway zone in April 2003, neral is linked to Mumbais Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus by frequent suburban electric trains. Steam engines have now replaced by diesel locomotives but it is still a pleasurable journey. The route is noted for its sharp curves, the central railway covers a large part of the state of Maharashtra and small part of Southern Madhya Pradesh and North-Eastern Karnataka. It is organized into five divisions, Mumbai CST, Bhusawal, Nagpur, Solapur, bhigvan- Vakav Tilati -Gulbarga Roha-Panvel Daund-Manmad Pune-Miraj Sewagram - Nagpur Jn
22.
Virar railway station
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Virar is a railway station on the Western line of the Mumbai Suburban Railway network. It is around one and an hours away by train from Churchgate. Virar is a crowded area, among other adjacent stations like Vasai Road because it is a major tourist spot of Mumbai. It used to be the railway station connecting Mumbai to other northern stations like Saphale, Palghar, Dahanu and distant southern cities of Gujarat like Vapi, Surat. Since 2013 however, the Western Railway zone Suburban network has extended up to Dahanu. An outpost of Mumbai, Virar is connected with the mainland by electric train since 1925,5 of the 8 platforms at Virar are laid out side by side. Platform 6 &7 are constructed a few north of platform 1 & handle the local trains travelling between Dahanu Road and Virar. Platform no.8 at Virar is constructed approximately 200 meters South of Platform 1 similar to platform 8 at Borivali, platforms 1 &2 are terminal platforms and handle the local trains moving in the up direction. It can handle only 12 coach rakes Platform 3 -5 handle outstation trains that have a halt at Virar along with the trains to. It can handle 22 coach rakes, Platform 8 is a dedicated platform to handle local trains that start/terminate at Virar. It can handle 15 car rakes, to the South of Western Railway zone is a modern yard build in 2013 for EMU maintenance
23.
Nala Sopara railway station
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Nallasopara is a railway station on the Western line of the Mumbai Suburban Railway network. The Western Railways is planning to widen platforms at the station and it has placed work orders to create more space on the narrow fast-train platform 4 at Nallasopara and also at Mira Road that is linked to the skywalk. The project cost is about ₹72 lakh and the work will be completed by July 2012, Nallasopara is one of the busiest railway station in Mumbai. In 2011, Nallasopara alone recorded a 25% increase in commuters travelling in first-class compartments as compared to the previous year, the extra space on platforms will help the railway deal with the sea of people continuously pouring into stations because of longer trains, wider bridges and new skywalks
24.
Vasai Road railway station
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Vasai Road Junction is a railway station on the Western line and Vasai Road - Diva - Panvel - Roha route of the Central Line, of the Mumbai Suburban Railway network. Vasai is a suburban town north of Mumbai and it is located in Palghar district. It is a modern part of Vasai Taluka. It is a part of the new Vasai-Virar City,6 of the 7 platforms at Vasai Road are laid out side by side. Platform no.1 at Vasai Road is constructed approximately 500 meters South of Platform 2 similar to platform 8 at Borivali. Vasai Road is an important cross over point between Western & Central railways in Mumbai as trains from Konkan region & Pune cross over to the Western Line here, platforms 2 -5 handle the local trains in the up & down directions. Platform 6 &7 handle outstation trains that have a halt at Vasai Road. They also handle two Rajdhani Express trains, Platform 1 is a dedicated platform to handle local trains that start/terminate at Vasai Road. Also platform 6 and 7 holds freight train for going towards diva
25.
Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport
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The Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport Undertaking is the civic transport and electricity provider public body based in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Since 1926, the BEST has been an operator of motor buses, in 1947, a week prior to India gaining independence, the BEST became an undertaking of the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation. It now operates as a body under the Municipal Corporation. The Undertaking operates one of Indias largest fleets of buses, the bus transport service covers the entire city and also extends its operations outside city limits into neighbouring Thane and Mira-Bhayandar. In addition to buses, it operates a ferry service in the northern reaches of the city. The electricity division of the organisation is one of the few electricity departments in India to garner an annual gross profit. The idea of a public transport system for Mumbai was first put forward in 1865 by an American company. Although a licence was granted, the project was never realised, the end of the American Civil War, during which Mumbai had made vast strides in its economy by supplying cotton and textiles to the world market, was the reason for the economic downturn. Later, on 27 November 1871, a notice in the Times of India newspaper put by the Bombay Omnibus Service, however, the proposed monthly pass fare of thirty pounds proved to be too expensive, and the tender was promptly abandoned. The Bombay Tramway Company Limited was formally set up in 1873, the Horsecar were of two kinds, those drawn by one horse and those drawn by two. The passing years aggravated the problem of traffic and to ease the situation. The birth of the BEST dates back to 1873, with the setting-up of the Bombay Tramway Company Limited, the Bombay Municipal Corporation was given the right to purchase the company after twenty-five years, or after seven years thereafter. In 1874, the Bombay Tramways Act was enacted after the contract was signed between the Municipality and the Company to start such a transport system. On 9 May 1874, the first horse-drawn carriage made its début in the city, plying on the Colaba–Pydhone via Crawford Market, the initial fare was three annas, and no tickets were issued. As the service became popular, the fare was reduced to two annas. Later that year, tickets were issued for the first time, in 1882 the municipality entered into an agreement with the Eastern Electric Light and Power Company to provide electric lighting in the Crawford Market and on some of the roads. But the company went into liquidation the following year, and the Market reverted to gas lighting, in 1899, Bombay Tramway Company applied to the BMC, for operation of electrically operated trams. Due to the investment required, the company suggested that the BMC should waive its right to take over the tramways
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Tropical savanna climate
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Tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate is a type of climate that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification categories Aw and As. This latter fact is in direct contrast to a monsoon climate. In essence, a savanna climate tends to either see less rainfall than a tropical monsoon climate or have more pronounced dry seasons. There are generally four types of tropical climate,1. Distinct wet and dry seasons of relatively equal duration, most of the regions annual rainfall is experienced during the wet season and very little precipitation falls during the dry season. A lengthy dry season and a short wet season. This version features seven or more dry season months and five or less wet season months, there are variations within this version, On one extreme, the region receives just enough precipitation during the short wet season to preclude it from a semi-arid climate classification. This drier variation of the savanna climate is typically found adjacent to regions with semi-arid climates. On the other extreme, the features a lengthy dry season followed by a short. However, regions with this variation of the climate do not experience enough rainfall during the wet season to qualify as a monsoon climate. A lengthy wet season and a short dry season. This version features seven or more wet season months and five or less dry season months, a dry season with a noticeable amount of rainfall followed by a rainy wet season. Tropical savanna climates are most commonly found in Africa, Asia, the climate is also prevalent in sections of Central America, northern Australia and southern North America, specifically in sections of Mexico and the state of Florida in the United States. Most places that have this climate are found at the margins of the tropical zone. Similarly, the Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf of Urabá on the Colombia – Panamá border to the Orinoco river delta and this condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the Circumcaribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminishes inland, at the latitude of the Amazon river—which flows eastward, East from the Andes, between the arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco river llanos or savannas, from where this climate takes its name. Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and this is the case in parts of Hawaii, East Africa, Sri Lanka and coastal regions of Northeastern Brazil, for instance. The difference between summer and winter in such locations is usually so slight that a distinction between an As and Aw climate is a quibble
27.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
28.
Portuguese Empire
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The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas, was one of the largest and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002, the first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the secret design. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts, by 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to defend its overstretched network of trading posts. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century. The third era represents the stage of Portuguese colonialism after the decolonization of the Americas of the 1820s. The colonial possessions had been reduced to the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, the disastrous 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa. Macau was returned to China in 1999, the origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. There were several motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate. In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast, under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira and Azores were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal. Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henrys captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to further along the coast
29.
Ceuta
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Ceuta is an 18. 5-square-kilometre Spanish autonomous city located on the north coast of Africa, sharing its land border with Morocco, in which it is thus an enclave. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta, along with the Spanish exclave Melilla, is one of nine populated Spanish territories in Africa and it was part of Cádiz province until 14 March 1995 when the citys Statute of Autonomy was passed. Ceuta, like Melilla and the Canary Islands, was a port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2011, it has a population of 82,376 and its population consists of Christians, Muslims, and small minorities of Sephardic Jews and ethnic Sindhi Hindus. Spanish is the language, while Moroccan Darija of the northern Jebli variety is spoken by between 40% and 50% of the population which is of Moroccan origin. It was known variously in Ancient Greek as, Ἀβύλη, Ἀβύλα, Ἀβλύξ, or Ἀβίλη στήλη – Abyle, Abila, Ablyx or Abile Stele – Pillar of Abyle), together with Gibraltar on the European side, it formed one of the famous Pillars of Hercules. It changed hands again approximately 400 years later, when Vandal tribes ousted the Romans, after being controlled by the Visigoths, it then became an outpost of the Byzantine Empire. Ceuta was an important Christian center since the fourth century, in the 7th century the Umayyads tried to conquer the region but were unsuccessful. Under the leadership of the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Muslims used Ceuta as a ground for an assault on Visigothic Iberian Peninsula. After Julians death, the Berbers took direct control of the city and they destroyed Ceuta during the Kharijite rebellion led by Maysara al-Matghari in 740. Ceuta lay in ruins until it was resettled in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived Banu Isam dynasty. His great-grandson briefly allied his tribe with the Idrisids, but the Banu Isam rule ended in 931 when he abdicated in favor of Abd ar-Rahman III, Ceuta reverted to Moorish Andalusian rule in 927 along with Melilla, and later Tangier, in 951. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031, following this Ceuta and the rest of Muslim Iberia were controlled by successive North African dynasties. Starting in 1084, the Almoravid Berbers ruled the region until 1147, apart from Ibn Huds rebellion of 1232, they ruled until the Tunisian Hafsids established control. The Hafsids influence in the west rapidly waned, and Ceutas inhabitants eventually expelled them in 1249, after this, a period of political instability persisted, under competing interests from the Kingdom of Fez and the Kingdom of Granada. The Kingdom of Fez finally conquered the region in 1387, with assistance from the Crown of Aragon, in 1415, during the Battle of Ceuta, the city was captured by the Portuguese during the reign of John I of Portugal. The Benemerine sultan besieged the city in 1418 but was defeated, phillip II ascended the Portuguese throne in 1580 and Spanish kings of Portugal governed Ceuta for 60 years
30.
Ksar es-Seghir
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Administratively, it belongs to Fahs-Anjra Province and the region of Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima. By the census of 2004, it had a population of 10,995 inhabitants and it is also known by its Portuguese name Alcácer-Ceguer and its Spanish name Alcázarseguir. Its name Ksar es-Seghir contrasts with Ksar-el-Kebir further south, the old name of the city is Ksar Masmuda, as reported by 13th-century historian Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi. The city is circular, an unusual in medieval Moroccan town planning. It is built from brick and ashlar masonry and flanked by semi-circular masonry towers, there are three monumental doors in the wall, each flanked by square towers. The Bāb al-Bahr, has an entrance for defensive purposes. These doors were used both for communication and trade and for taxation purposes, Ksar es-Seghir is located on the Strait of Gibraltar, about half-way between Tangier and Ceuta. Situated in a bay on a stretch of coast that is difficult to access by sea or land. Probably established by Phoenicians, it was known as a salting post in Roman times by the name of Lissa or Exilissa and Exilyssa in Byzantine times. The first settlement dates back to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in 708-709 CE, in 971, the Umayyad Caliph of al-Andalus tried to capture the fort, as a stepping stone to a projected conquest of Idrisid Morocco. The 11th-century geographer al-Bakri called it al-Qasr al-Awwal, in 1287, Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf erected a new set of thick walls around the circular town, with 29 bastions and three monumental gates. But with the end of Marinid adventures across the sea in Spain, by the 15th century, it had become a notorious corsairs nest, preying on shipping in the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1458, a Portuguese expeditionary force of 25,000 men and 200 ships led by King Afonso V of Portugal, assaulted and captured the town after a two-day battle on 23–24 October. The Marinid sultan Abd al-Haqq II of Morocco attempted to recover it immediately, laying sieges in late 1458 and again in the summer of 1459 and it would remain in Portuguese hands for much of the next century, known by the name of Alcácer-Ceguer. In 1502, the Portuguese began a new set of fortifications that extended the towns walls well into the sea, the resident population of the town under the Portuguese reached around 800 persons. Finding Portuguese holdings in Morocco expensive to maintain, King John III of Portugal decided to abandon it in 1533, in 1609, Ksar es-Seghir became a destination for Moriscos expelled from Spain. A more modern town arose later, on the bank of the river. Ksar Sghir got a new lease on life in the 21st century, in 2007, a new commercial cargo port, Tanger-Med began being built nearby, around twelve kilometers to the northeast of Ksar Sghir
31.
Asilah
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Asilah is a fortified town on the northwest tip of the Atlantic coast of Morocco, about 31 km south of Tangier. Its ramparts and gateworks remain fully intact, the towns history dates back to 1500 B. C. when the Phoenicians used it as a base for trade. The Portuguese conquered the city in 1471, but later it was decided to abandon it because of a debt crisis in 1549. The Moroccans in 1589 regained control of Asilah briefly, but then lost control of it to the Spanish, in 1692, the town was again taken by the Moroccans under the leadership of Moulay Ismail. Asilah served then as a base for pirates in the 19th and 20th centuries, and in 1829, from 1912 to 1956, it was part of Spanish Morocco. A major plan to restore the town was undertaken in 1978 by its mayor, the first edition of an art festival known as the International Cultural Moussem of Asilah was launched that year to help generate tourism. It was successful in generating revenue for the city and played a role in raising the average income from $50 in 1978 to $140 in 2014. The festival features local artwork and music and continues to attract large amounts of tourists, Asilah is now a popular seaside resort, with modern holiday apartment complexes on the coast road leading to the town from Tangier. Asilah hosts annual music and arts festivals, including a mural-painting festival, the houses of Asilah features mashrabiya, and blue or green painted wood can be seen along the main narrow streets of the town. The main cultural center is the Centre Hassan II des Rencontres Internationales, among the events held in Asilah, is the International Cultural Festival
32.
English Tangier
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English Tangier was an English overseas possession between 1661 and 1684. The marriage treaty was a renewal of the alliance between England and Portugal, opposed by Spain but clandestinely supported by France. England garrisoned and fortified the city, against hostile Moroccan forces, in 1684 the English blew up the defences and evacuated the city, which subsequently became part of Morocco. Tangier commands the entry into the Mediterranean and was the commercial centre on the North West coast of Africa. The Portuguese started their colonial empire by taking nearby Ceuta in 1415, years of conflict between Portugal and the Moroccans under the Wattasid and Saadi dynasties followed. However, by 1659, the position had changed, Rule of Morocco by the Saadi dynasty finally came to an end with the death of Ahmad al-Abbas, after the Dilai interlude the Alaouite Dynasty came to the forefront. Mulai al-Rashid took Fes in 1666, and Marrakech in 1669, essentially unifying all of Morocco, except the occupied by Portugal, Spain. Before then, in about 1657, Ahmad al-Khadir ibn Ali Ghaïlan and his family had control of much of the Gharb, the Rif. At about that time, Ghaïlan appears to have considerably increased attacks on the Tangier Garrison, but, at the same time, Ghaïlan was under pressure, separately, from the Alaouites based in Marrakech, and the last of the Dilaites remaining around Salé. Portugal, severely weakened and with support in other countries. The alliance had been adjusted and renewed in 1654 and was renewed in 1660 after the English Restoration. Portugal had been in possession of Tangier since 1471, but the Portuguese government was content to part with it, albeit many had reservations. The anchorage was not particularly safe for shipping and, exposed to the Atlantic and to the destructive Levanter winds, was expensive to maintain, khadir Ghaïlan had mounted a major attack on the city in 1657, forcing the governor and garrison to appeal to Portugal for assistance. Indeed, Portugal had offered Tangier to France in 1648 in soliciting support against Spain, however, cession of Tangier to England was not popular and the Governor of Tangier, Fernando de Meneses, refused to take part. He was replaced in 1661 by the more compliant Luis de Almeida, but Spain was strongly opposed to English possession of Tangier and insisted that the cession would be illegal. Indeed, the paper presented by the Spanish Ambassador in May 1661 openly threatened war, by a proclamation of 7 September 1660, Charles had declared peace with Spain, but in the same month, the Commons passed a bill annexing Dunkirk and Jamaica. There were further fears that Spain had enlisted Ghaïlans assistance to attack by land while Spain attacked by sea, the Dutch, in intense trade competition with England, had no wish to see the English navy further establish the Mediterranean power it had developed under Cromwell. Therefore, it also opposed English occupation of Tangier, any alliance between Portugal and England was an undesirable prospect, The Dutch hoped to seize further Portuguese overseas possessions and, in 1660, equipped a fleet for that purpose
33.
El Jadida
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El Jadida is a port city on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, located 106 km south of the city of Casablanca in the region of Doukkala-Abda and the province of El Jadida. It has a population of 194,934, from the sea, El Jadidas old city has a very un-Moorish appearance, it has massive Portuguese walls of hewn stone. According to UNESCO, the most important buildings from the Portuguese period are the cistern, the city, and particularly its neighboring town of Sidi Bouzid, becomes extremely busy in the summer season with an influx of mainly Moroccan holiday-makers. Nearby is the resort complex of Mazagan, which attracts the Moroccan elite as well as many international visitors from the Persian Gulf as well as from Europe. Mazagan has a course designed by Gary Player, casino, nightclub. Between Mazagan and El Jadida is the Pullman Hotel, attached to which is Royal Golf El Jadida, the presence of nearby ports and factories is responsible for the pollution of El Jadidas beaches. At present, the main exports are beans, almonds, maize, chickpeas, wool, hides, wax. It imports cotton, sugar, tea and rice, the city is expanding as of 2014, partly as a result of increased activity at the nearby Jorf Lasfar port and industrial area. The underground chamber, measuring 34 meters by 34 meters, was constructed with five rows of five stone pillars and its visual qualities are such that several movies have been filmed within the cavernous space, of which Orson Welles Othello is the best known internationally. The design of the Fortress of Mazagan is a response to the development of artillery in the Renaissance. The star form of the fortress measures c 250m by 300m, the slightly inclined, massive walls are c 8m high on average, with a thickness of 10m, enclosing a patrolling peripheral walkway 2m wide. At the present time the fortification has four bastions, the Angel Bastion in the east, St Sebastian in the north, St Antoine in the west, and the Holy Ghost Bastion in the south. The fifth, the Governor’s Bastion at the entrance, is in ruins. Numerous colonial-era Portuguese cannons are still positioned on top of the bastions, a ditch, c 20m wide and 3m deep, formerly filled with seawater, surrounded the fort. During the time of the French Protectorate the ditch was filled in earth and a new entrance gate was opened leading to the main street, the Rua da Carreira. Along this street are situated the best preserved buildings, including the Catholic Church of the Assumption. El Jadida, previously known as Mazagan, was seized by the Portuguese in 1502, the Portuguese built a citadel in 1514, and a larger fortification in 1541. The Portuguese would continue to control the city until 1769, when they abandoned Mazagão, upon their forced departure, the Portuguese destroyed the Governors Bastion and evacuated to the Portuguese colony of Brazil, where they founded a new settlement called Nova Mazagão
34.
Ouadane
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Ouadane or Wādān is a small town in the desert region of central Mauritania, situated on the southern edge of the Adrar Plateau,93 km northeast of Chinguetti. The town was a staging post in the trade and for caravans transporting slabs of salt from the mines at Idjil. A Portuguese trading post was established in 1487, but was soon abandoned. The town declined from the century and most of it now lies in ruins. The old town, a World Heritage Site, though in ruins, is substantially intact. Ouadane is the closest town to the Richat Structure, a massive circular landmark visible from space, the early history of Ouadane is uncertain but it is possible that the town prospered from the trans-Saharan gold trade. In the middle of the 11th century, the Arabic geographer al-Bakri described a route that ran between Tamdoult near Akka in Morocco to Aoudaghost on the southern edge of the Sahara. This route was used for the transport of gold during the time of the Ghana Empire, in his account al-Bakri mentioned a series of place names but these have not been identified and historians have suggested several possible routes. The first written reference to the town is in Portuguese by Ca de Mosto in middle of the 15th century in an account that confused the salt mines of Idjil with those of Taghaza. At about the same date Gomes Eanes de Zurara described Ouadane as the most important town of the Adrar region, fifty years later Valentim Fernandes wrote a detailed account of the trade in slabs of salt from the Idjil mines and role of Ouadane as an entrepôt. He described Ouadane as a town with a population of 400 inhabitants, by contrast Duarte Pacheco Pereira in his Esmeraldo de situ orbis described the town as having approximately 300 hearths which would suggest between 1,500 and 1,800 people. The Idjil sebkha lies roughly 240 km northwest of Ouadane, to the west of the town of Fderîck, the date when salt was first extracted from the sebkha is unknown. It is usually assumed that exploitation of the Idjil mines began after the mid 11th century as al-Bakri did not mention them, instead he described a salt mine at a place that he called Tatantal. Historians have usually assumed this corresponds to Tegahza but his description could possibly apply to the mines at Idjil. According to Pereira, in 1487 the Portuguese built an entrepôt in Ouadane in an attempt to access to the trans-Saharan gold, salt. The entrepôt was probably short lived and is not mentioned in the description provided by Fernandes. In the 16th century the Moroccans made various attempts to control of the trans-Saharan trade in salt. They organised military expeditions to occupy Ouadane in 1543-44 and again in 1584, then in 1585 they occupied Taghaza and finally in 1591 their victory in the battle of Tondibi led to the collapse of the Songhay Empire
35.
Safi, Morocco
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Safi is a city in western Morocco on the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of Safi Province, it has a population of 308,508, the city was under protectorate by the Portuguese Empire from 1488 to 1541, the fortress built by Vasco da Gamas brother-in-law to protect the city, under Portuguese rule is still there today. Safi is the fishing port for the countrys sardine industry. During the Second World War, Safi was one of the sites for Operation Torch. The citys name as it is pronounced is Asfi, which was Latinized as Safi. Asfi means flood or river estuary in Berber and comes from the Berber root sfi/sfey which means to flood, 11th-century geographer Al-Idrisi gave an apparently false explanation to the origin the name Asfi as he linked it to the Arabic word Asaf, Asafi. The ships eventually ended on the shores of Asfi and locals helped the lost sailors, upon hearing this one of the sailors responded by saying, Wa asafi. Al-Idrisi wrote that from time the city carried the name Asafi. This story is thought to be a legend and unlikely explanation of the origin of the name, Safi, under the name Safim, is one of the oldest cities in Morocco, hence its foundation date is unknown. Under the Almohads it functioned as an important port to the capital Marrakesh, the city was under Portuguese rule from 1488 to 1541, it is believed that they abandoned it to the Saadians, since the city proved difficult to defend from land attacks. The Portuguese fortress built to protect the city is there today. After the Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah built the city of Mogador, consequently, Safi stopped playing a leading role in the Moroccan trade. Safis patron saint is Abu Mohammed Salih, in 1942 as part of Operation Torch, American forces attacked Safi and took relatively quickly and with relatively few casualties compared to the other operations at Casablanca and at Port Mehdia. The inhabitants are composed of Berbers and Arabs descended from the following, the berbers who came later from the sous plains, south of the region. Two Arab tribes namely, Abda, They descend from Banu Hilal of Tunisia and have been installed in the region in the century and spawned, Bhatra. Ahmar, They descend from Maqil of Algeria, also note that Safi had a large Jewish community that emigrated to France today, Canada or Israel, which at the time represented more than 20% of the population. Football and rugby are popular sports in Safi, the local football team Olympic Safi have been competing in Moroccos premier football division, Botola, since 2004. The Rugby Union team of the name is one of Moroccos best, having won the Coupe du Trône several times. com People from Safi
36.
Agadir
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It is at a distance of 508 km to the south of Casablanca. It is the capital of the Agadir-Ida Ou Tanane Prefecture and of the Souss-Massa economic region, a majority of its inhabitants speak Shilha/Tashelhit, a Berber language of the Atlas branch, as their first language. The city of Agadir together with the cities of Inezgane. According to the 2004 census, there were 346,106 inhabitants in that year, Agadir is governed by Tariq Kabagge and its one of the major urban centres of Morocco, the seventh-largest conurbation of the country after Casablanca, Rabat, Fès, Marrakech, Meknes and Tangier. The population density is quite high, three languages are spoken in the city, Tashelhit, Moroccan Arabic, and French. The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1960, it has completely rebuilt with mandatory seismic standards. It is now the largest seaside resort in Morocco, where foreign tourists, since 2010 it has been well served by low-cost flights and a motorway from Tangier. The city attracts all walks of life, it has had a growth rate of over 6% per year in housing demand while housing production barely exceeds 3. 4%. The mild winter climate and good beaches have made it a winter sun destination for northern Europeans. The name Agadir is a common Berber noun agadir meaning wall, enclosure, fortified building and this noun is attested in most Berber languages, and may be a loanword from Phoenician-Punic, a Semitic language spoken in North-Africa until the fifth century CE. There are many towns in Morocco called Agadir. The city of Agadirs full name in Tashelhit is Agadir n Yighir, literally the fortress of the cape, in Moroccan Arabic, an inhabitant is a gadiri, plural gadiriyin, feminine gadiriya, plural gadiriyat. History is virtually silent on Agadir before the 12th century, in the 2nd century AD, the historian Polybius referred to North Africa on the Atlantic, a place called cap Rhysaddir, that may have been located near Agadir but its location is still under debate. At the end of the period, Agadir was a town of some notoriety. The name itself, Agadir el-arba, was attested to for the first time in 1510, quickly, the Portuguese were exposed to the hostility of the tribes of the region. From 1530, they were blockaded in Santa Cruz, Portuguese weakness showed itself on 12 March 1541 when Sherif Saâdien Mohammed ash-Sheikh captured the fortress of Santa Cruz de Aguer. Six hundred Portuguese survivors were taken prisoner, including the governor, Guterre de Monroy, the captives were redeemed by the holy men mostly from Portugal. Dona Mecia, whose husband was killed during the battle, became the wife of Sheikh Mohammed ash-Sheikh, in the same year, Mohammed ash-Sheikh released the Governor Guterre de Monroy, whom he had befriended
37.
Essaouira
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Essaouira, formerly known as Mogador, is a city in the western Moroccan economic region of Marrakesh-Safi, on the Atlantic coast. The modern name means the little rampart, a reference to the walls that still enclose part of the city. The name of the city is usually spelled Essaouira in Latin script, both spellings represent its name in Moroccan Arabic, ṣ-Ṣwiṛa. This is the diminutive of the noun ṣuṛ which means wall, the pronunciation with pharyngealized /ṣ/ and /ṛ/ is a typically Moroccan development. In Classical Arabic, the noun is sūr, diminutive suwayrah, hence the spelling of the name in Arabic script according to the classical pronunciation is السويرة al-Suwayrah. In the Berber language which is spoken by a proportion of the citys inhabitants, it is called Taṣṣort. In Moroccan Arabic, a single male inhabitant is called ṣwiṛi, plural ṣwiṛiyin, in the Berber language, a single male inhabitant is U-Taṣṣort, plural, Ayt Taṣṣuṛt, a single female inhabitant is Ult Taṣṣort, plural Ist Taṣṣort. Until the 1960s, Essaouira was generally known by its Portuguese name and this name is probably a corruption of the older Berber name Amaqdūl that is mentioned by the 11th-century geographer al-Bakrī. Archaeological research shows that Essaouira has been occupied since prehistoric times, the bay at Essaouira is partially sheltered by the island of Mogador, making it a peaceful harbor protected against strong marine winds. Essaouira has long considered as one of the best anchorages of the Moroccan coast. The Carthaginian navigator Hanno visited in the 5th century BC and established the trading post of Arambys and this dye colored the purple stripe in Imperial Roman Senatorial togas. A Roman villa was excavated on Mogador island, a Roman vase was found as well as coinage from the 3rd century CE. Most of the artifacts are now visible in the Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum, during the Middle Ages, a Muslim saint named Sidi Mogdoul was buried in Essaouira, probably giving its origin to the name Mogador. In 1506, the king of Portugal, D. Manuel I, ordered a fortress to be built there, four of them only had a short duration, Graciosa, São João da Mamora, Castelo Real of Mogador and Aguz. Two became permanent urban settlements, Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué, following the 1541 Fall of Agadir, the Portuguese had to abandon most of their settlements between 1541 and 1550, although they were able to keep Ceuta, Tangier and Mazagan. The fortress of Castelo Real of Mogador fell to the resistance of the Regraga fraternity four years after its establishment. During the 16th century, powers including Spain, England, the Netherlands, Essaouira remained a haven for the export of sugar, molasses and the anchoring of pirates. France was involved in an attempt to colonize Mogador in 1629
38.
Souira Guedima
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Souira Guedima, formerly known as Aguz, is a Moroccan town 36 km south of Safi, at the mouth of the Tensift River on the Atlantic seacoast. Guedima may also be spelt Kadima, Kdima, Qadima, or Qdima, Aguz may also be spelt Agouz, Gouz or Couz. The town was an important port in the 11th century, serving the city of Aghmat which was inland 3 days journey to the east. Between 1506 and 1525 the stronghold of Aguz was an enclave under Portuguese colonial rule, as were various other Moroccan towns, such as Safim. It was governed by the following Portuguese Captains, 1506-1507 - Diogo de Azambuja 15. -1525 - Gonçalo Mendes Sacoto WorldStatesmen- Morocco Moroccan Government document on the Safi area
39.
Azemmour
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Azemmour or Azamor is a Moroccan city, lying at the Atlantic ocean coast, on the left bank of the Oum Er-Rbia River,75 km southwest of Casablanca. Before 1486, it was a dependency of the King of Fez, in 1486 its inhabitants became vassals and tributaries of João II of Portugal. In 1513 Azemmours governor Moulay Zayam refused to pay the tribute and mustered a powerful, manuel responded to this challenge by sending a massive fleet of 500 ships and 15 thousand soldiers. James, Duke of Braganza led this army and on 1 September he conquered the city with no resistance from its inhabitants. Ferdinand Magellan, the man famed for leading the first-ever circumnavigation of the earth, was among the Portuguese soldiers there, Portuguese control of the city lasted only for a short period, it was abandoned by João III of Portugal in 1541 due to his courts economic difficulties. Azemmour is located on the Oum Er-Rbia River 75 kilometres west of Casablanca, Azemmours beach, referred to locally as Azemmour Plage, is a place for surfing and kitesurfing. Also called Haouzia, the flora includes eucalyptus and pine. A spring festival is annually in Azemmour in March. It was first held in 2007, the patron saint of Azemmour is Abu Shuayb. His mausoleum was built on the order of Mohammed ben Abdallah, each year, a moussem is celebrated to honour him. The Old Citys walls are decorated by local artists. The city features a Portuguese medina, which has three parts, a Jewish mellah, a kasbah, and the old medina, a historic lighthouse called Sidi Boubeker is located 8 kilometres north of Azemmour. Estevanico, also known as Esteban the Moor, was enslaved and traveled with a Spanish expedition to North America in 1527
40.
Mehdya, Morocco
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Mehdya, also Mehdia or Mehedya, is a town in Kénitra Province, Rabat-Salé-Kénitra, Morocco. Previously called al-Mamura, it was known as São João da Mamora under 16th century Portuguese occupation, according to the 2004 census, the town has a population of 16,262. It is located on Sebou River, Mehdya was previously called Al-Mamura or La Mamora in Europe, and was a harbour on the coast of Morocco. It seems to have been occupied by the Carthaginians since the 5th century BCE and it was captured by the Portuguese in 1515, and renamed São João da Mamora. Four of the stand-alone fortresses only had a duration, Graciosa, Forte de São João de Mamora, Castelo Real of Mogador. Two of them were to become permanent urban settlements, Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué, the Portuguese had to abandon most of their settlements between 1541 and 1550, although they were able to keep Ceuta, Tangier and Mazagan. Mehdya, known as La Mamora, was under Spanish rule between 1614 and 1681. After capturing Larache in 1610, the Spanish then captured Al-Mamura during the reign of Mulay Zidan in August 1614, after negotiations with Mulay Zidan, they left a strong garrison of 1,500 men, and called the harbour San Miguel de Ultramar. The warlord Sidi al-Ayachi led a counter-offensive against Spain, privateering against its shipping, and obtaining the help of the Moriscos, about 1627, he managed to temporarily capture Al-Mamura, and add it to his Republic of Salé. The Spanish retained the city for 67 years, when it was conquered by the Alaouite ruler Moulay Ismaïl, according to tradition, the Bishop of Cadiz had commissioned a statue of Jesus Christ for the church at La Mamora, which was in his diocese. The new Sultan Mulay Ismail took the city by storm in 1681, in 1795, Mulay Slimane closed the harbour of Mehdya to avoid foreign incursions. The French occupied Mehdya in 1911, about 9,000 Allied troops, carried by 19 warships, were landed in Mehdya during Operation Torch in 1942
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