1.
Mustard plant
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Mustard plants are any of several plant species in the genera Brassica and Sinapis in the family Brassicaceae. Mustard seed is used as a spice, grinding and mixing the seeds with water, vinegar, or other liquids, creates the yellow condiment known as prepared mustard. The seeds can also be pressed to make oil. Although some varieties of plants were well-established crops in Hellenistic and Roman times, Zohary and Hopf note. Wild forms of mustard and its relatives, the radish and turnip, can be found over west Asia and Europe, however, Zohary and Hopf conclude, Suggestions as to the origins of these plants are necessarily based on linguistic considerations. Canada and Nepal are the major producers of mustard seed. White mustard is used as a cover crop in Europe. A large number of varieties exist, e. g. in Germany, Netherlands, mainly differing in lateness of flowering, farmers prefer late flowering varieties, which do not produce seeds, they may become weeds in the subsequent year. Early vigour is important to cover the soil quickly and suppress weeds, in rotations with sugar beets, suppression of the white beet-cyst nematode is an important trait. Resistant white mustard varieties decline nematode populations by 70-90%, recent research has studied varieties of mustards with high oil contents for use in the production of biodiesel, a renewable liquid fuel similar to diesel fuel. The biodiesel made from oil has good cold flow properties. The leftover meal after pressing out the oil has also found to be an effective pesticide
2.
Shaktism
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Shaktism is a major tradition of Hinduism, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered feminine and the Devi is supreme. It includes a variety of goddesses, all considered aspects of the supreme goddess. Shaktism has different sub-traditions, ranging from those focussed on gracious Lakshmi to fierce Kali, the Sruti and Smriti texts of Hinduism are an important historical framework of the Shaktism tradition. In addition, it reveres the texts Devi Mahatmya, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, the Devi Mahatmya in particular, is considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita. Shaktism is known for its various sub-traditions of Tantra, as well as a galaxy of goddesses with respective systems and it consists of the Vidyapitha and Kulamārga. The pantheon of goddesses in Shaktism grew after the decline of Buddhism in India, wherein Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form the Mahavidya, the most common aspects of Devi found in Shaktism include Durga, Kali, Amba, Lakshmi, Parvati and Tripurasundari. The goddess-focussed tradition is popular in West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Nepal and the neighboring regions. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of gender neutral Brahman, of Prajapati, the goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the Ushas, Vac, Sarasvati, Prithivi, Nirriti, Shraddha. Goddesses such as Uma appear in the Upanishads as another aspect of Brahman, hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the later added Harivamsa section of it. The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the Goddess had become as much a part of the Hindu tradition, as God, by about the third or fourth century. The literature on Shakti theology grew in ancient India, climaxing in one of the most important texts of Shaktism called the Devi Mahatmya, the Devi-Mahatmya is not the earliest literary fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a goddess figure, states Thomas B. Coburn – a professor of Religious Studies, but it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is conceptualized as Goddess, with a capital G. Other important texts of Shaktism include the Shakta Upanishads, as well as Shakta-oriented Upa Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana, the Lalita Sahasranama. The Tripura Upanishad is historically the most complete introduction to Shakta Tantrism, along with the Tripura Upanishad, the Tripuratapini Upanishad has attracted scholarly bhasya in the second half of 2nd-millennium, such as by Bhaskararaya, and by Ramanand. These texts link the Shakti Tantra tradition as a Vedic attribute, Shaktas conceive the Goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, according to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of Indian history, in Shaktism theology Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman. Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of everything in creation and its texts such as the Devi-Bhagavata Purana states, I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi, I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon
3.
Adi Parashakti
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According to Shaktism and Hindu mythology, Adi Para Shakti—the Goddess, Devi—is the Supreme Being. She is also referred to as Adi Shakti, Parama Shakti, Maha Shakti, Mahadevi. Parama means absolute, Satya means the Truth as per many shakta texts, the Devi Bhagawata Mahapurana states that Adi Parashakti is the original creator, observer and destroyer of the whole universe. As per Shaktism, Adi Parashakti appeared as Divine Pure Eternal Consciousness i. e. Shoonya Bindu, the divine feminine energy. Hence Adi Parashakti is Parama Prakriti, Goddess Lalita Tripura Sundari is the original manifested form of Mother Adi-Parashakti. Goddess Parvati/Durga is Adi- Parashakti herself and is the incarnation of Lalita Tripura Sundari. Goddess Lalita Tripura Sundari, the goddess of power, is considered as her saguna svarupa and that is, Lalita Tripura Sundari is the truest material form of the Goddess, possessing the three qualities. However, the Goddess Adi Para Shakti is also considered to be truly supreme spirit without form and she is the Great Goddess, and therefore the source of all other goddesses. She is supreme and regarded as the Absolute Truth in Shaktism, Adi Parashakti means The Eternally Limitless Power. That is, she is the Power beyond this universe and she is the active energy that both creates and dissolves the entire universe. When there was nothing, suddenly a light emerged then that light took the form of adishakti and she had three eyes, carring trishul, shield, mace, bow, arrow, chakra, longsword and one hand as abhaya mudra. She looked here and there but saw nothing, after seeing nothing she took the form of kushmanda. She was seated on a lioness, when she opened her left eye mahakali was born. When she opened her third eye mahasaraswati was born and when she opened her right eye mahalakshmi was born, before she opened her eyes she smiled a bit and from the smile all universes were created. In the Devi Gita, it is suggested that before incarnating as Parvati, she appeared to King Himalaya and revealed divine and she explained herself, in the words of the Vedas, as having neither beginning nor end. She is the only, eternal truth, the whole universe is her creation. She is the victor and the manifestation of victory itself. She is a manifested, unmanifested and transcendent divinity, except for Shakta Puranas, Adi Shakti has never been mentioned with the name Adi Shakti
4.
Shakti
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In Hinduism, Shakti, also spelled as Sakthi, meaning power or empowerment is the primordial cosmic energy and represents the dynamic forces that are thought to move through the entire universe. Shakti is the concept or personification of divine feminine creative power, as the mother she is known as Adi Parashakti or Adishakti. On the earthly plane, Shakti most actively manifests through female embodiment and creativity/fertility, though it is present in males in its potential. Hindus believe that Shakti is both responsible for creation and the agent of all change, Shakti is cosmic existence as well as liberation, its most significant form being the Kundalini Shakti, a mysterious psychospiritual force. In Shaktism, Shakti is worshipped as the Supreme Being, Shakti embodies the active feminine energy of Shiva and is identified as Tripura Sundari or her avatar Parvati. David Kinsley mentions the shakti of Lord Indras as Sachi, meaning power, indrani is part of a group of seven or eight mother goddesses called the Matrikas, who are considered shaktis of major Hindu gods. The Shakti goddess is known as Amma in south India, especially in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana. There are many temples devoted to various incarnations of the Shakti goddess in most of the villages in South India. The rural people believe that Shakti is the protector of the village, the punisher of evil people, the curer of diseases, and they celebrate Shakti Jataras with great interest once a year. Some examples of incarnations are Ganga, Kamakshi, Kanakadurga, Mahalakshmi, Meenakshi, Manasa, Mariamman and it is believed that the cosmic grand design is theoretically a triangular structure of equal sides. The three points of the triangle or the structure of macrocosmic system are occupied by three ultimate manifestations of the trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra. This ultimate indestructible gravity known as Shakti in its three transformative form is connected to the trinity separately, Brahma, by the grace of her creative force creates. Rudra, by the strength of her destructive force destroys, Vishnu, by the unbiased intellectual force sustains. One of the oldest representations of the goddess in India is in a triangular form, the Baghor stone, found in a Paleolithic context in the Son River valley and dating to 9, 000-8,000 years BCE, is considered an early example of a yantra. Kenoyer, part of the team excavated the stone, considered that it was highly probable that the stone is associated with Shakti. Shaktism regards Devi as the Supreme Brahman itself with all forms of divinity considered to be merely Her diverse manifestations. In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism, however, Shaktas, practitioners of Shaktism, focus most or all worship on Shakti, as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. Shiva, the aspect of divinity, is considered solely transcendent
5.
Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
6.
Devi
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Devī is the Sanskrit word for goddess, the masculine form is Deva. Devi – the feminine form, and Deva – the masculine form, mean heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and are also gender specific terms for a deity in Hinduism. The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas, which were composed in the 2nd millennium BC, however, goddesses such as Saraswati and Usha have continued to be revered into the modern era. The divine feminine has the strongest presence as Devi in Hinduism, among major world religions, the goddess is viewed as central in Shakti and Saiva Hindu traditions. Devi and Deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature of the 2nd millennium BC, Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological root Dev- means a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus. The Devi Sukta of the Rigveda 10.125.1 through 10.125, however, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods. Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, while in the Smarta Tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman revered. She is the power of Shiva, and this theme is also found in the Tripura Upanishad, Bahvricha Upanishad. Devi asserts that she is creator of earth and heaven and resides there and her creation of sky as father, seas as mother is reflected as the Inner Supreme Self. Her creations are not prompted by any Higher being and she resides in all her creations and she is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, states June McDaniel is the usage of the yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, shakti. Among the major religions, the concept of goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine, has had the strongest presence since the ancient times. Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, fertility and devotion and she is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess. She is the goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses
7.
Parvati
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Parvati, also known as Urvi/Renu, is the Hindu goddess of fertility, love and devotion, as well as of divine strength and power. She is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess Shakti and she is the mother goddess in Hinduism, and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu stories of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses. Parvati is the wife of the Hindu god Shiva - the protector and regenerator of universe and she is the daughter of the mountain king Himavan and mother Mena. Parvati is the mother of Hindu deities Ganesha and Kartikeya, some communities also believe her to be the sister of the god Vishnu and the river-goddess Ganga. With Shiva, Parvati is a deity in the Shaiva sect. In Hindu belief, she is the energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings. In Hindu temples dedicated to her and Shiva, she is represented as the argha or yoni. She is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace Hindu temples all over South Asia, parvata is one of the Sanskrit words for mountain, Parvati derives her name from being the daughter of king Himavan and mother Mena. King Parvat is considered lord of the mountains and the personification of the Himalayas, Parvati is known by many names in Hindu literature. Other names which associate her with mountains are Shailaja, Adrija or Nagajaa or Shailaputri, Haimavathi, the Lalita sahasranama contains a listing of 1,000 names of Parvati. Two of Parvatis most famous epithets are Uma and Aparna, the name Uma is used for Sati in earlier texts, but in the Ramayana, it is used as a synonym for Parvati. In the Harivamsa, Parvati is referred to as Aparna and then addressed as Uma and she is also Ambika, Shakti, Mataji, Maheshwari, Durga, Bhairavi, Bhavani, Shivaradni, and many hundreds of others. Parvati is also the goddess of love and devotion, or Kamakshi, regional stories of Gauri suggest an alternate origin for Gauris name and complexion. In parts of India, Gauris skin color is golden or yellow in honor of her being the goddess of ripened corn/harvest, some scholars hold that Parvati does not explicitly appear in Vedic literature, though the Kena Upanishad contains a goddess called Uma-Haimavati. She appears as the shakti, or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. Her primary role is as a mediator who reveals the knowledge of Brahman to the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu, and Indra, Sati-Parvati appears in the epic period, as both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata present Parvati as Shivas wife. However, it is not until the plays of Kalidasa and the Puranas that the stories of Sati-Parvati, Kinsley adds that Parvati may have emerged from legends of non-aryan goddesses that lived in mountains
8.
Durga
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Durga, also known as Devi, Shakti and by numerous other names, is a principal and popular form of Hindu goddess. She is the goddess, whose mythology centers around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity. She is the form of the protective mother goddess, willing to unleash her anger against wrong. Durga is depicted in the Hindu pantheon as a woman riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon. She appears in Indian texts as the wife of god Shiva and she is a central deity in Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, where she is equated with the concept of ultimate reality called Brahman. Estimated to have been composed between 400-600 CE, this text is considered by Shakta Hindus to be as important scripture as the Bhagavad Gita. She has a significant following all over India and in Nepal, particularly in its states such as West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam. Durga is revered after spring and autumn harvests, specially during the festival of Navaratri, the word Durga literally means impassable, inaccessible, invincible, unassailable. It is related to the word Durg which means fortress, something difficult to access, according to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur and gam. According to Alain Daniélou, Durga means beyond reach. The word Durga, and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28,5.34,8.27,8.47,8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda. A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, while the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature. The word is found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata. These usages are in different contexts, for example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska. Durga as a goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed. There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and nine appellations, Skandamata, Kushmanda, Shailaputri, Kaalratri, Brahmacharini, Kaliputri, Chandraghanta and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names that are used to describe her is very popularly in use by eastern Hindus and is called Ashtottara Shatanamavali of Goddess Durga
9.
Matrikas
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Matrikas, also called Matara and Matri, is a group of Hindu goddesses who are always depicted together. Since they are depicted as a heptad, they are called Saptamatrika, Brahmani, Vaishnavi, Maheshvari, Indrani, Kaumari, Varahi, Chamunda. However, they may sometimes be eight, whereas in South India, Saptamatrika worship is prevalent, the Ashtamatrika are venerated in Nepal. The Matrikas assume paramount significance in the sect of Hinduism, Tantrism. In Shaktism, they are described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons, some scholars consider them Shaiva goddesses. They are also connected with the worship of warrior god Skanda, in most early references, the Matrikas are described as having inauspicious qualities and often described as dangerous. They come to play a role in later mythology, although some of their inauspicious. Thus, they represent the prodigiously fecund aspect of nature as well as its destructive force aspect, in the 6th century encyclopedia Brihat-Samhita, Varahamihira says that Mothers are to be made with cognizance of gods corresponding to their names. They are associated with these gods as their spouses or their energies, according to Jagdish Narain Tiwari and Dilip Chakravati, the Matrikas were existent as early as the Vedic period and the Indus Valley civilization. Seals with rows of seven feminine deities or priestesses are cited as evidence for the theory, wangu believes that Matrika description in Mahabharata, is rooted in the group of seven females depicted on Indus valley seals. By the fifth century, all these goddesses were incorporated in mainstream orthodox Hinduism as Tantric deities, david Kinsley proposes that the Matrikas may be non-Aryan or at least non-Brahmanical, local village goddesses, who were being assimilated in the mainstream. Sara L. Schastok suggests that Matrikas maybe inspired by the concept of Yakshas, the Sapta-Matrikas were earlier connected with Skanda and in later times, associated with the sect of Shiva himself. During the Kushana period, the images of the matrikas first appear in stone. The Kushana images merged from the belief in Balagraha worship related to conception, birth, diseases, the Balagraha tradition included the worship of the infant Skanda with the Matrikas. The goddesses were considered as personifications of perils, related to children, the Kushana images emphasize the maternal as well as destructive characteristics of the Matrikas through their emblems and weapons. They appear to be an undifferentiated sculptural group but develop in standard, in the Gupta period, folk images of Matrikas became important in villages. The Gupta kings Skandagupta and Kumaragupta I made Skanda their model and elevated the position of Skandas foster mothers, since the fourth century, Parhari, Madhya Pradesh had a rock-cut shrine been solely devoted to the Sapta Matrika. The Western Ganga Dynasty kings of Karnataka built many Hindu temples along with carvings and memorials
10.
Mahavidya
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Mahavidyas or Dasha-Mahavidyas are a group of ten aspects of Adi Parashakti in Hinduism. After the decline of Buddhism in India, Sakta and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form this list of ten. The development of Mahavidyas represents an important turning point in the history of Shaktism as it marks the rise of Bhakti aspect in Shaktism, which reached its zenith in 1700 CE. First sprung forth in the age, around 6th century C. E. it was a new theistic movement in which the supreme being was envisioned as female. A fact epitomized by texts like Devi-Bhagavata Purana, especially its last nine chapters of the seventh skandha, which are known as the Devi Gita, and soon became central texts of Shaktism. The name Mahavidyas comes from the Sanskrit roots, with maha meaning great and vidya meaning, revelation, manifestation, knowledge, shaktas believe, the one Truth is sensed in ten different facets, the Divine Mother is adored and approached as ten cosmic personalities, the Dasa-Mahavidya. The Mahavidyas are considered Tantric in nature, and are identified as, Kali – The ultimate form of Brahman, Devourer of Time Tara – The Goddess as Guide. Who offers the ultimate knowledge which gives salvation, Tripura Sundari – The Goddess Who is Beautiful in the Three Worlds, the Tantric Parvati or the Moksha Mukta. The Guhyatiguyha-tantra associates the Mahavidyas with the ten Avatars of Vishnu, all ten forms of the Goddess, whether gentle or terrifying, are worshiped as the universal Mother. All ten forms of the Goddess is concluded and worshipped in the Sri Chakra and Tripura Sundari is considered as the Adi Para Sakthi
11.
Tripura Sundari
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She is the foremost and the most important in Dasha-Mahavidyas. All other Mahavidyas concludes in Her vidya i. e. Sri Vidya and her consort is Maha Kameswara Shiva. She is the highest aspect of Goddess Adi Shakti, Parvati is the complete incarnation of Lalita Maha Tripura Sundari. Tripurasundari is the goddess associated with the Shakta Tantric tradition known as Sri Vidya. As Shodashi, Tripurasundari is represented as a girl, and is believed to embody sixteen types of desire. Shodashi also refers to the sixteen syllable mantra, which consists of the fifteen syllable mantra plus a final seed syllable, the Shodashi Tantra refers to Shodashi as the Beauty of the Three Cities, or Tripurasundari. There is a popular saying among Sri Vidya tradition which is that one has to be verily Shiva himself or in ones last birth to get Sri Vidya. Since we are not Shiva, it has to be the last birth or when we get it, it becomes our last birth, Tripura means the three fortified cities, and sundarī means beautiful, specifically a beautiful female. Therefore, her name means Beautiful of the Three Cities, etymologically, Lalitha means She Who Plays. In the root form, the word Lalitha means spontaneous from which the meaning easy or easy to attain is derived and she plays with her devotees just like a mother plays with her child. Also the concept of maya is referred to here and she is also called Maha Maya. Shiva is one of the trinity of Hindu pantheons and he married Sati, the daughter of Daksha. Daksha and Shiva did not get along and consequently Daksha did not invite Shiva for one of the great fire sacrifices that he conducted, however Sati went to attend that function in spite of Shiva’s protest. Daksha insulted her husband and she jumped into the fire and ended her life, consequently, at the behest of Shiva, Daksha was killed and later resurrected with a goat’s head. This incident i. e. death of his wife upset Shiva, Sati reincarnated as Parvati, the daughter of Himavat, king of the mountains, and his wife, the apsara Mena as a result of a boon given to them by Adi Para Sakthi. Naturally, Pārvatī sought and received Shiva as her husband, the devas faced an enemy in Tarakasura who had a boon that he could be killed only by a son of Shiva and Parvati. So for the purpose of begetting a son from Shiva and Parvati, the devas deputed Manmatha, Manmatha shot his flower arrows to Shiva and Parvati in order to induce severe sexual feelings in them. Shiva in anger for being tricked, opened his third eye which reduced the God of love to ashes, the Devas and Rathi Devi, the wife of Manmatha requested Shiva to give life to Manmatha
12.
Navadurga
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Navadurga, which literally means Nine forms of Goddess Durga, constitute according to Hindu mythology, the manifestation of Goddess Durga, the Mother Goddess, in nine different forms. As Adi Parashakti, the Mother Goddess was pure energy and had no form and she thus appeared in the form of Siddhidatri from the left half of Shiva. Devi Kushmanda - After taking the form of Siddhidatri, the Mother Goddess started living within the Sun thereby liberating the Suns energy to the universe. Since then, this form of the Goddess has been known as Kushmanda, namely for her power, the glow and radiance of her body is as luminous as that of the Sun. Devi Brahmacharini - After the Kushmanda form, the Mother Goddess took birth at the home of Daksha Prajapati, as his daughter, Sati and this unmarried form of the Mother Goddess is worshipped as Brahmacharini. Devi Shailputri - After self-immolation in Her form as Sati, the Mother Goddess took birth as the daughter of Lord Himalaya, in Sanskrit, Shail means the mountain, due to which this form is known as Shailputri, the daughter of the mountain. Devi Mahagauri - According to Hindu mythologies, the Goddess Shailputri at the age of sixteen was extremely beautiful, due to her extremely fair complexion, she was known as Goddess Mahagauri. Devi Chandraghanta - Goddess Chandraghanta is the form of the Mother Goddess following on from Shailputri and Mahagauri. After getting married to Shiva, Goddess Mahagauri started adorning her forehead with a moon shaped like a bell due to which. Devi Skandamata - In her form as mother of the God of War, Lord Skanda, Devi Katyayani - To destroy demon Mahishasura. Devi Kalaratri - This is the fiercest and the most ferocious form of the Mother Goddess, in which she manifests to destroy the demons, Sumbha and Nisumbha. Chandraghanta Day of worship, 3rd day of Navratri Governing planet, Venus Mantra, Om Devi Chandraghantayai Namah ॐ देवी चन्द्रघण्टायै नम Iconography and she wears the semi-circular moon on her forehead. The half-moon on her looks like the bell and hence. She is depicted with ten hands, Goddess Chandraghanta carries Trishul, Gada, sword and kamandalu in Her four left hands and keeps the fifth left hand in Varadamudra. She carries a lotus flower, arrow, Dhanush and Japa Mala in Her four right hands, Kushmanda Day of worship, 4th day of Navratri Governing planet, Sun Mantra, Om Devi Kushmandayai Namah ॐ देवी कूष्माण्डायै नम Iconography, Rides on a lioness and has eight hands. She holds a kamandalu, Dhanush, Bada and Kamal in Her right hands and her left hands hold Amrit Kalash, japa mala, Gada and Chakra - in that order. Specific power, She created the universe in the flash of Her smile and is believed to bestow siddhis and niddhis to Her devotees. Skandamata Day of worship, 5th day of Navratri Governing planet, Mercury Mantra, Om Devi Skandamatayai Namah ॐ देवी स्कन्दमातायै नम Iconography and she carries baby Skanda in her lap
13.
Yogini
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Yogini is the feminine Sanskrit word of the masculine yogi, while the term yogin is used in neutral, masculine or feminine sense. In the Hindu tradition, yogini has referred to women who are part of the Yoga school of Hindu traditions and to the women who were part of the Gorakshanath founded Nath Yogi tradition. A Yogini, in contexts, refers to the sacred feminine force made incarnate, as an aspect of Parvati. Yogini also refers to women who are part of Hindu and Buddhist tantra traditions, in the Tibetan Buddhism and Bön tradition, some ngagmas are comparable, in practice, to the Mahasidda yoginis of Indian Buddhism. Yogini is a term that finds reference in ancient and medieval texts in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, typically in the context, the Devi Sukta of the Rigveda 10.125.1 through 10.125. However, the women are not discussed as frequently as men, the earliest evidence of Yogis and their spiritual tradition, states Karel Werner, is found in the Kesin hymn of the Vedas, where these yogins are praised. However, there is no mention that these Vedic era Yogi included women, scholars note that some ancient Vedic sages were women. A female rishi is known as a rishika, the term yogini has been in use in medieval times to refer to a woman who belongs to the Gorakshanath-founded Nath Yogi tradition. They usually belong to Shaiva tradition, but some Natha belong to the Vaishnava tradition, Female yoginis were a large part of this tradition, and many 2nd-millennium paintings depict them and their Yoga practices. In medieval mythology such as Kathāsaritsāgara, yogini is also the name of a class of females with magical powers, in real life, historical evidence on Yogini Kaulas suggests that yogini tradition in Hinduism, who practiced Yoga philosophy and Tantra, were well established by the 10th century. This development was not limited to Hinduism, and included Yogini in Buddhist tantra traditions, though the leaders of the modern Yoga-asana & meditation tradition have often been male, the vast majority of modern practitioners are female. In some branches of tantra Yoga, ten wisdom goddesses serve as models for a yoginis disposition, there are four major extant shrines of the Sixty-four Yogini in India, two in Odisha and two in Madhya Pradesh. One of the most impressive temples in Odisha is the ninth century CE hypaethral Chausathi Jogini Temple located at Hirapur in Khurda district,15 km south of Bhubaneshwar. Another hypaethral sixty-four yogini temple in Odisha is the Chausathi Yogini Pitha in Ranipur-Jharial, two images of the Sixty-four Yogini are missing from this temple. The iconographies of the images in four yogini temples are not uniform. In the Hirapur temple, all images are with their vahanas. In Ranipur-Jharial temple the yogini images are in dancing posture, in Bhedaghat temple, yogini images are seated in Lalitasana. Other yoginis are described as born from one or more Matrikas, the derivation of 64 yogini from eight Matrikas became a tradition
14.
Kali
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Kālī, also known as Kālikā, is a Hindu goddess. Kali is one of the ten Mahavidyas, a list which combines Sakta, Kalis earliest appearance is that of a destroyer principally of evil forces. She is the goddess of one of the four subcategories of the Kulamārga, over time, she has been worshipped by devotional movements and tantric sects variously as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, Adi Shakti, or Adi Parashakti. Shakta Hindu and Tantric sects additionally worship her as the reality or Brahman. She is also seen as protector and the one who bestows moksha. Kali is often portrayed standing or dancing on her consort, the Hindu god Shiva, Kali is worshipped by Hindus throughout India. Kālī is the form of kālam. Kālī also shares the meaning of time or the fullness of time with the masculine noun kāla—and by extension, other names include Kālarātri, and Kālikā. The homonymous kāla, appointed time, which depending on context can mean death, is distinct from kāla black, the association is seen in a passage from the Mahābhārata, depicting a female figure who carries away the spirits of slain warriors and animals. She is called kālarātri and also kālī, Kālī is also the feminine form of Kāla, an epithet of Shiva, and thus the consort of Shiva. Hugh Urban notes that although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda, Kali appears in the Mundaka Upanishad not explicitly as a goddess, but as the black tongue of the seven flickering tongues of Agni, the Hindu god of fire. According to David Kinsley, Kāli is first mentioned in Hindu tradition as a distinct goddess around 600 CE, and she is often regarded as the Shakti of Shiva, and is closely associated with him in various Puranas. Her most well known appearance on the battlefield is in the sixth century Devi Mahatmyam, when Vishnu woke up he started a war against the two demons. After a long battle with lord Vishnu when the two demons were undefeated Mahakali took the form of Mahamaya to enchant the two asuras, when Madhu and Kaitabha were enchanted by Mahakali, Vishnu killed them. In the later chapters the story of two demons can be found who were destroyed by Kali, Chanda and Munda attack the goddess Durga. Durga responds with anger that her face turns dark and Kali appears out of her forehead. Kalis appearance is black, gaunt with sunken eyes, and wearing a tiger skin and she immediately defeats the two demons. Later in the battle, the demon Raktabija is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground
15.
Lakshmi
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Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity. She is the wife and shakti of Vishnu, a god in Hinduism. Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples, Lakshmi was also a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics, Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine strength of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was born from the churning of the primordial ocean, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consort Sita and Rukmini. In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi, the marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the supreme goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a pedestal and holds lotus in her hand. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of life considered important to the Hindu way of life, dharma, kāma, artha. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE, Lakshmis iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima are celebrated in her honor, Lakshmi is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean goddess of wealth and fortune, the good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his meditation on creation of life. Sri is described as beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy, the gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents, in the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour
16.
Saraswati
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Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning worshipped throughout Nepal and India. She is a part of the trinity of Saraswati, Lakshmi, all the three forms help the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva to create, maintain and regenerate-recycle the Universe respectively. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in the Rigveda and she has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic period through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami in her honour, the Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India, as well as some Buddhist sects. Saraswati who is revered as a goddess of knowledge, music and arts is found outside Nepal and India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali. It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati which means one with plenty of water, the word Saraswati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the Rigveda. In initial passages, the word refers to Sarasvati River and mentioned with other northwestern Indian rivers such as Drishadvati, Saraswati then connotes a river deity. In Book 2, Rigveda calls Saraswati as the best of mothers, of rivers, –Translated by John Muir In Vedic literature, Saraswati acquires the same significance for early Indians as that accredited to the river Ganges by their modern descendants. In hymns of Book 10 of Rigveda, she is declared to be the possessor of knowledge. In Upanishads and Dharma Sastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, virtuous emoluments, the meaning, Saraswati is known by many names in ancient Hindu literature. Some examples of synonyms for Saraswati include Brahmani, Brahmi, Bharadi, Vani and Vachi, Varnesvari, in Nepali language, her name is written Nepali, सरस्वती. In the Telugu, Sarasvati is also known as Chaduvula Thalli, in Konkani, she is referred to as Shārada, Veenapani, Pustaka dharini, Vidyadāyini. In Kannada, variants of her name include Sharade, Sharadamba, in Tamil, she is also known as Kalaimagal, Kalaivāni, Vāni, Bharathi. She is also addressed as Shāradā, Veenā pustaka dharani, Vākadevi, Vāni, Varadhanāyaki, in India she is locally spelled as Bengali, সরস্বতী, Saraswati. Malayalam, സരസ്വതി, Saraswati. and Tamil, சரஸ்வதி, Sarasvatī, outside Nepal and India, she is known in Burmese as Thurathadi or Tipitaka Medaw, in Chinese as Biàncáitiān, in Japanese as Benzaiten and in Thai as Suratsawadi or Saratsawadi. Saraswati is found in almost every major ancient and medieval Indian literature between 1000 BC to 1500 AD, in Hindu tradition, she has retained her significance as a goddess from the Vedic age up to the present day. In Shanti Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Saraswati is called the mother of the Vedas, in Book 2 of Taittiriya Brahmana, she is called the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music. Saraswati is the energy and power of Brahma
17.
Hindu deities
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Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. The terms and epithets for deity within the traditions of Hinduism vary. The deities of Hinduism have evolved from the Vedic era through the era, regionally within Nepal, India and in southeast Asia. The Hindu deity concept varies from a god as in Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, to 33 Vedic deities. Illustrations of major deities include Vishnu, Sri, Shiva, Parvati, Brahma and these deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of the same Ultimate Reality called Brahman. Major deities have inspired their own Hindu traditions, such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism, some Hindu traditions such as Smartism from mid 1st millennium CE, have included multiple major deities as henotheistic manifestations of Saguna Brahman, and as a means to realizing Nirguna Brahman. Hindu deities are represented with icons and anicons, in paintings and sculptures, called Murtis. Deities in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist, deities in Hinduism are referred to as Deva and Devi. The root of these terms mean heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus. In the earliest Vedic literature, all beings are called Asuras. By the late Vedic period, benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras, in post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful, Hindu deities are part of Indian mythology, both Devas and Devis feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati are gods and hence Devas, in the Puranas and the Itihasas with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. According to the Bhagavad Gita, all beings in the universe have both the qualities and the demonic qualities within each. The Epics and medieval era texts, particularly the Puranas, developed extensive and richly varying mythologies associated with Hindu deities, several of the Purana texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Other texts and commentators such as Adi Shankara explain that Hindu deities live or rule over the body as well in the temple of human body. Edelmann states that gods and anti-gods of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual concepts, for example, god Indra and the antigod Virocana question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self. Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon, in contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power
18.
Vedas
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The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
19.
Upanishads
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The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Sanskrit texts that contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism, some of which are shared with Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Early Upanishads are considered by Hindus as part of their scriptures that discuss the nature of ultimate reality, the Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object, the highest purpose of the Veda. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five of them in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the modern and modern era. Along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for the later schools of Vedanta, among them. With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they started to attract attention from a western audience. Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called it the production of the highest human wisdom, modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and major western philosophers. The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad translates to sitting down near, referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge, monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary adds that, According to native authorities Upanishad means setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit. Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means Ātmavidyā, other dictionary meanings include esoteric doctrine and secret doctrine. The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown, Radhakrishnan states, almost all the early literature of India was anonymous, we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads. The Vedic texts themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participate in the dialogues and are credited in the early Upanishads. There are exceptions to the tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature
20.
Devi Mahatmya
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The Devi Mahatmya or Devi Mahatmyam, or Glory of the Goddess) is a Hindu religious text describing the Goddess as the supreme power and creator of the universe. It is part of the Markandeya Purana, and estimated to have composed in Sanskrit between 400-600 CE. Devi Mahatmyam is also known as the Durgā Saptashatī or Caṇḍī Pāṭha, the text contains 700 verses arranged into 13 chapters. Along with Devi-Bhagavata Purana and Shakta Upanishads such as the Devi Upanishad, in peaceful prosperous times, states the text, the Devi manifests as Lakshmi, empowering wealth creation and happiness. The verses of this story also outline a philosophical foundation wherein the ultimate reality is female, the text is one of the earliest extant complete manuscripts from the Hindu traditions which describes reverence and worship of the feminine aspect of God. The Devi Mahatmya is often ranked in some Hindu traditions to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita, the Devi Mahatmya has been particularly popular in eastern states of India, such as West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Assam, as well as Nepal. It is recited during Navratri celebrations, the Durga Puja festival, Sanskrit māhātmya-, magnanimity, highmindedness, majesty is a neuter abstract noun of māha-ātman-, or great soul. The title devīmāhātmyam is a compound, literally translating to the magnanimity of the goddess. The text is called Saptaśati, as it contains 700 shlokas, Caṇḍī or Caṇḍīka is the name by which the Supreme Goddess is referred to in Devī Māhātmya. According to Coburn, Caṇḍīkā is the violent and impetuous one, from the adjective caṇḍa, fierce, violent, the epithet has no precedent in Vedic literature and is first found in a late insertion to the Mahabharata, where Chaṇḍa and Chaṇḍī appear as epithets. One of the earliest evidence of reverence for the aspect of God appears in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda. Hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the later added Harivamsa section of it. The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the Goddess had become as much a part of the Hindu tradition, as God, Devi Mahatmya is a text extracted from Markandeya Purana, and constitutes the latters chapters 81 through 93. The Purana is dated to the ~3rd century CE, and the Devi Mahatmya was added to the Markandeya Purana either in the 5th or 6th century, the Dadhimati Mata inscription quotes a portion from the Devi Mahatmya. Thus, it can be concluded that the text was composed before the 7th century CE and it is generally dated between 400-600 CE. Wendy Doniger OFlaherty dates the Devi Mahatmya to c.550 CE, the Devi Mahatmya text is a devotional text, and its aim, states Thomas Coburn, is not to analyze divine forms or abstract ideas, but to praise. This it accomplishes with a foundation, wherein the female is the primordial creator, she is also the Tridevi as the secondary creator, the sustainer. She is presented, through a language of praise, as the one who dwells in all creatures, as the soul, as the power to know, the power to will and the power to act
21.
Soundarya Lahari
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The Soundarya Lahari meaning Waves Of Beauty is a famous literary work in Sanskrit believed to be written by sage Pushpadanta and Adi Shankara. Some believe the first part Ananda Lahari was etched on mount Meru by Ganesha himself, sage Gaudapada, the teacher of Shankars teacher Govinda Bhagavadpada, memorised the writings of Pushpadanta which was carried down to Adi Shankara. Its hundred and three shlokas eulogize the beauty, grace and munificence of Goddess Parvati / Dakshayani, consort of Shiva, W. Norman Brown translated it to English which was published as volume 43 of the Harvard Oriental Series in 1958. It is said that once Adi Shankara visited Kailash to worship Shiva, there, the Lord gave him a manuscript containing 100 verses which described the many facets of the Goddess, as a gift to him. While Shankara was returning after visiting Kailash, Nandi stopped him on the way and he snatched the manuscript from him, tore it into two, took one part and gave the other to Shankara. Shankara, desolate, ran to Shiva and narrated the incident to him, Shiva, smiling, commanded him to retain the 41 verses with him as the initial part of the 100 verses and then, write an extra 59 verses in praise of the Goddess himself. Thus, verses 1 -41 are the work of Lord Shiva, shedding great light on the ancient rituals of Tantra, Yantra. Verses 1 -41 describe the experience of the union of Shiva and Shakti. In fact, it opens with the assertion that Only when Shiva is united with Shakti does he have the power to create, the remaining verses, i. e. 42-100 are composed by Adi Shankara himself, which mainly focuses on the appearance of the Goddess. All the 100 verses are known as Soundarya Lahari. The Soundarya Lahari is not only a poem, verses 42100 are more straightforward, they describe the physical beauty of the Goddess and are sometimes referred to as the Soundarya Lahari itself. Many scholars, however, refer to the text with one name, namely. First 41 verses cover the detailed account of internal worship of the Mother and it consists of systematic exposition of the concept of kundalini, Sri Chakra, mantras. This depicts the Supreme Reality as non-dual but with a distinction between Shiva and Shakti, the holder and Power, Being and Will. The Power, that is, the Mother or Maha Tripura Sundari, becomes the dominant factor, the first verse itself clearly describes this idea. “United with Shakti, Siva is endowed with power to create, or otherwise, he is even of movement. ”The same idea is brought out in verse 24, “Brahma creates the universe, Vishnu sustains, Rudra destroys. On receiving mandate from thy creeper like brows, Sadasiva restores everything into activity as in the previous cycle. ”Such dominance of the Mother can be seen in verses 34 and 35 also, there are several legends about this work. One legend says that, once Adi Shankara visited Kailash to worship Shiva, there, the Lord gave him a manuscript containing 100 verses which described the many facets of the Goddess, as a gift to him
22.
Maya (illusion)
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Maya, literally illusion or magic, has multiple meanings in Indian philosophies depending on the context. In ancient Vedic literature, Māyā literally implies extraordinary power and wisdom, in later Vedic texts and modern literature dedicated to Indian traditions, Māyā connotes a magic show, an illusion where things appear to be present but are not what they seem. In Buddhism, Maya is the name of Gautama Buddhas mother, in Hinduism, Maya is also an epithet for goddess, and the name of a manifestation of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, prosperity and love. Maya is also a name for girls, Māyā is a word with unclear etymology, probably comes from the root mā which means to measure. According to William Mahony, the root of the word may be man- or to think, in early Vedic usage, the term implies, states Mahony, the wondrous and mysterious power to turn an idea into a physical reality. Franklin Southworth states the origin is uncertain, and other possible roots of māyā include may- meaning mystify, confuse, intoxicate, delude, as well as māy- which means disappear. Jan Gonda considers the word related to mā, which means mother, as do Tracy Pintchman and Adrian Snodgrass, serving as an epithet for goddesses such as Lakshmi. Maya here implies art, is the power, writes Zimmer. A similar word is found in the Avestan māyā with the meaning of magic power. Words related to and containing Māyā, such as Mayava, occur many times in the Vedas and these words have various meanings, with interpretations that are contested, and some are names of deities that do not appear in texts of 1st millennium BCE and later. The use of word Māyā in Rig veda, in the later era context of magic, illusion, power, the hymn is a call to discern ones enemies, perceive artifice, and distinguish, using ones mind, between that which is perceived and that which is unperceived. Rig veda does not connote the word Māyā as always good or always bad, it is simply a form of technique, mental power and means. Rig veda uses the word in two contexts, implying there are two kinds of Māyā, divine Māyā and undivine Māyā, the former being the foundation of truth. Elsewhere in Vedic mythology, Indra uses Maya to conquer Vritra, varunas supernatural power is called Maya. Māyā, in such examples, connotes powerful magic, which both devas and asuras use against each other, in the Yajurveda, māyā is an unfathomable plan. In the Aitareya Brahmana Maya is also referred to as Dirghajihvi, hostile to gods and sacrifices. In hymns of 8.10.22, Virāj is used by Asuras who call her as Māyā, as follows, The contextual meaning of Maya in Atharvaveda is power of creation, not illusion. Gonda suggests the meaning of Maya in Vedic literature is, wisdom and power enabling its possessor, or being able itself, to create, devise, contrive, effect
23.
Yoga
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Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. There is a variety of Yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism. Among the most well-known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga, the chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra. Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west, following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th, in the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more physical exercise, it has a meditative. One of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as an intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma. On December 1,2016, Yoga was listed as UNESCO’s Intangible cultural heritage, in Sanskrit, the word yoga comes from the root yuj which means to add, to join, to unite, or to attach in its most common senses. By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses, all further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as exertion, endeavour, zeal, there are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on such as connection, contact, union, method, application, addition. In simpler words, Yoga also means combined, thus, bhaktiyoga means devoted attachment in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyāyoga has a sense, meaning connection with a verb. But the same compound is given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras, designating the practical aspects of the philosophy. In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau is considered by commentators as the correct etymology. In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras, according to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga or yuj samādhau. Someone who practices yoga or follows the philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi or yogini
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Tantra
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Tantra is the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that co-developed most likely about the middle of 1st millennium CE. The term tantra, in the Indian traditions, also means any systematic broadly applicable text, theory, system, method, instrument, in Hinduism, the tantra tradition is most often associated with its goddess tradition called Shaktism, followed by Shaivism and Vaishnavism. In Buddhism, the Vajrayana tradition is known for its extensive tantra ideas, Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have influenced other religious traditions such as Jainism, Sikhism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, and the Japanese Shintō tradition. Tantra as genre of literature in Hinduism have been influential to its arts, icons, Hindu puja, temples and iconography are tantric in nature. The Hindu texts that describe these topics are called Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās, in Buddhism, its tantra-genre literature has influenced the artworks in Tibet, historic cave temples of India, and imagery in southeast Asia. Tantra literally means loom, warp, weave, the connotation of the word tantra to mean an esoteric practice or religious ritualism is a colonial era European invention. The term is based on the metaphor of weaving, states Ron Barrett and it implies interweaving of traditions and teachings as threads into a text, technique or practice. The word appears in the hymns of the Rigveda such as in 10.71 and it is found in many other Vedic era texts, such as in section 10.7.42 of the Atharvaveda and many Brahmanas. In these and post-Vedic texts, the meaning of Tantra is that which is principal or essential part, main point, model, framework. The term “Tantra” after about 500 BCE, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism is a bibliographic category, the same Buddhist texts are sometimes referred to as tantra or sutra, for example, Vairocabhisambodhi-tantra is also referred to as Vairocabhisambodhi-sutra. The various contextual meaning of the word Tantra varies with the Indian text, the earliest definitions and expositions on Tantra come from the ancient texts of Panini, Patanjali and the literature of the language-focussed, ritual-oriented Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. The word tantra, states Patanjali, means principal, main, Patanjali also offers a semantic definition of Tantra, stating that it is structural rules, standard procedures, centralized guide or knowledge in any field that applies to many elements. The ancient Mimamsa school of Hinduism uses the term tantra extensively, for example, When an action or a thing, once complete, becomes beneficial in several matters to one person, or to many people, that is known as Tantra. For example, a lamp placed amidst many priests, in contrast, that which benefits by its repetition is called Āvāpa, such as massaging with oil. Medieval texts present their own definitions of Tantra, in modern era scholarship, Tantra has been studied as an esoteric practice and ritualistic religion, sometimes referred to as Tantrism. There is wide gap between what Tantra means to its followers, and what Tantra has been represented or perceived as since colonial era writers began commenting on Tantra, many definitions of Tantra have been proposed ever since, and there is no universally accepted definition of Tantra. André Padoux in his review of Tantra definitions offers two, then rejects both, another definition, more common among observers and non-practitioners, is some set of mechanistic rituals, omitting entirely the ideological side. According to David N. Lorenzen, two different kinds of definitions of Tantra exist, a definition and a broad definition
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Kundalini
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Kundalini, in the concept of Dharma, refers to a form of primal energy said to be located at the base of the spine. Different spiritual traditions teach methods of awakening kundalini for the purpose of reaching spiritual enlightenment and a range of supernormal powers. ”Kundalini awakening is said to result from deep meditation, and consequently enlightenment and bliss. However, as each individual is unique, Kundalini awakenings can happen through a variety of methods not limited to deep meditation and this awakening involves the Kundalini physically moving up the central channel to reach within the Sahasrara Chakra at the top of the head. Many systems of yoga focus on awakening Kundalini through meditation, pranayama breathing, in physical terms, the Kundalini experience is frequently reported to be a feeling of electric current running along the spine. The concept of Kundalini is mentioned in the Upanishads, the Sanskrit adjective kuṇḍalin means circular, annular. It is mentioned as a noun for snake in the 12th-century Rajatarangini chronicle, the 8th-century Tantrasadbhava Tantra uses the term kundalī. The use of kuṇḍalī as a name for Goddess Durga appears often in Tantrism and Shaktism from as early as the 11th century in the Śaradatilaka. It is adopted as a technical term kuṇḍalniī in Hatha yoga during the 15th century, eknath Easwaran has paraphrased the term as the coiled power, a force which ordinarily rests at the base of the spine, described as being coiled there like a serpent. The phrase serpent power was coined by Sir John Woodroffe, who published his translation of two 16th-century treatises on laya yoga in 1919 under this title, numerous accounts describe the experience of Kundalini awakening. When awakened, Kundalini is said to rise up from the muladhara chakra through the central nadi inside or alongside the spine and reaching the top of the head. Energy is said to accumulate in the muladhara and the yogi seeks to send it up to the brain, transforming it into Ojas, the highest form of energy. Physical effects are believed to be a sign of Kundalini awakening by some, one study has measured a drop in temperature on the palms of the hands resulting from this technique. In his article on Kundalini in the Yoga Journal, David Eastman narrates two personal experiences, one man said he felt an activity at the base of his spine starting to flow so he relaxed and allowed it to happen. A feeling of surging energy began traveling up his back, at each chakra he felt an orgasmic electric feeling like every nerve trunk on his spine beginning to fire, a second man describes a similar experience but accompanied by a wave of euphoria and happiness softly permeating his being. He described the energy as being like electricity but hot. He said the more he analyzed the experience, the less it occurred, in his book, Building a Noble World, Shiv R. Suddenly, I felt an impact of a rising force within me. The intensity of this rising kundalini force was so tremendous that my body lifted up a little and fell flat into the aisle, as I lay there with my eyes closed, I could see a continuous fountain of dazzling white lights erupting within me
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Yantra
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Yantra is a mystical diagram, mainly from the Tantric traditions of the Indian religions. They are used for the worship of deities in temples or at home, as an aid in meditation, used for the benefits given by their supposed occult powers based on Hindu astrology and tantric texts. They are also used for adornment of temple floors, due mainly to their aesthetic and symmetric qualities, specific yantras are traditionally associated with specific deities. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, it meant an instrument for restraining or fastening, a prop, support or barrier, etymologically from the root yam to sustain, support and the -tra suffix expressing instruments. The literal meaning is evident in the medical terminology of Sushruta. The meaning of mystical or occult diagram arises in the medieval period and they are often used in daily ritual worship at home or in temples, and sometimes worn as a talisman. As an aid to meditation, yantras represent the deity that is the object of meditation and these yantras emanate from the central point, the bindu. The yantra typically has several geometric shapes radiating concentrically from the center, including triangles, circles, hexagons, octagons, the outside often includes a square representing the four cardinal directions, with doors to each of them. A popular form is the Sri Chakra, or Sri Yantra, Sri Chakra also includes a representation of Shiva, and is designed to show the totality of creation and existence, along with the users own unity with the cosmos. Yantras can be on a surface or three dimensional. Yantras can be drawn or painted on paper, engraved on metal and they tend to be smaller in size than the similar mandala, and traditionally use less color than mandalas. Occult yantras are used as good luck charms, to ward off evil, as medicine, in exorcism. When used as a talisman, the yantra is seen to represent a deity who can be called on at will by the user and they are traditionally consecrated and energized by a priest, including the use of mantras which are closely associated to the specific deity and yantra. Practitioners believe that a yantra that is not energized with mantra is lifeless, gudrun Bühneman classifies three general types of yantras based on their usage, Yantras that are used as foundation for ritual implements such as lamps, vessels, etc. These are typically simple geometric shapes upon which the implements are placed, Yantras used in regular worship, such as the Sri Yantra. These include geometric diagrams and are energized with mantras to the deity, Yantras used in specific desire-oriented rites. These yantras are often made on birch bark or paper, and can include special materials such as flowers, rice paste, ashes, various geometric shapes and images, along with written mantras, form the yantra. Triangles and hexagrams are common, along with circles and lotuses of 4 to 1,000 petals, saiva and Shakta yantras often include prongs of a trident
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Vamachara
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Vāmācāra is a Sanskrit term meaning left-handed attainment and is synonymous with Left-Hand Path or Left-path. It is used to describe a mode of worship or sadhana that is not only heterodox to standard Vedic injunction. These practices are generally considered to be Tantric in orientation. N. N. Bhattacharyya explains the Sanskrit technical term Ācāra as follows, Ācāras are generally of seven kinds -- Veda, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Dakṣiṇa, Vāma, Siddhāṇta, and Kaula, falling into two broad categories -- Dakṣiṇa and Vāma. Interpretations vary regarding the nature and grouping of the ācāras and it is generally held that those who participate in the rituals of Five Ms belong to the category of Vāmācāra. Vāma means pleasant, lovable, agreeable and Dakṣiṇa means south, facing the rising sun towards east, Dakṣiṇa would be the right side. For this reason, the term Vāmācāra is often translated Left-hand practice, an alternate etymology is that it is possible that the first word of the expression Vāmācāra is not vāma or left, but vāmā or woman. An alternate term Vāmamārga is also used, in this compound the ambiguity between vāma and vāmā is not present because the final -a in Vāmamārga is clearly short. Vamachara is particularly associated with the pancha-makara or the Five Ms, in literal terms they are, Madya, Mamsa, Matsya, Mudra, and Maithuna. Mudra usually means ritual gestures, but as part of the five Ms it is parched cereal, vamachara traditions place strict ritual limits on the use of these literal forms and warn against nonsanctioned use. If so used they encourage the person to sin, practitioners of vamachara rituals may make symbolic substitutions for these literal things, which are not permitted in orthodox Hindu practice. The fact that tantric practices can be done without involvement with the literal pancha-makara is emphasized by Swami Madhavananda and they believe that all human beings are natural-born Aghori. Hari Baba has said on several occasions that human babies of all societies are without discrimination, children become progressively discriminating as they grow older and learn the culturally specific attachments and aversions of their parents. Children become increasingly aware of their mortality as they bump their heads and they come to fear their mortality and then palliate this fear by finding ways to deny it altogether. In this sense, Aghor sādhanā is a process of unlearning deeply internalized cultural models, when this sādhanā takes the form of shmashān sādhanā, the Aghori faces death as a very young child, simultaneously meditating on the totality of life at its two extremes. This ideal example serves as a prototype for other Aghor practices, the Brahma Yamala, a Tantric text, says there are three currents of tradition, dakshina, vama, and madhyama. These are characterized by the predominance of each of the three gunas, sattva, rajas, and tamas. According to this text, dakshina is characterized by sattva, and is pure, madhyama, characterized by rajas, is mixed, the Tantras of each class follow a particular line of spiritual practice
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Dakshina
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Dakshina, means south, southern, but also refers to a Tantric concept right-hand path, as well as a Vedic concept of donation or payment for the services of a priest, spiritual guide or teacher. As a Vedic concept, the donation originally consisted of a cow, the term itself is derived from this, the feminine dakṣiṇā being a term for a cow able to calve and give milk in the Rigveda. Dakshina is personified as a goddess along with Brahmanaspati, Indra and Soma in RV1.18.5 and RV10.103.8, and is the reputed author of RV10.107 according to the Anukramani. In later literature, in the Manusmrti and in the Ramayana, gurudakshina refers to the tradition of repaying ones teacher or guru after a period of study or the completion of formal education, or to spiritual guide. This tradition is one of acknowledgment, respect, and thanks and it is a form of reciprocity and exchange between student and teacher. The repayment is not exclusively monetary and may be a task the teacher wants the student to accomplish. There is a story in the Indian epic Mahabharata that discusses proper and improper gurudakshina. This story refers to a tribal boys passion to learn and master archery, the story, like many stories in Mahabharata is an open ended parable on education, personal drive to learn, and what is proper and improper dakshina
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Shri Vidya
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Śrī Vidyā is a Hindu Tantric religious system devoted to the Goddess as Lalitā Tripurasundarī, Bhuvaneshvari etc. A thousand names for this form of Devī are recited in the Lalitā Sahasranāma, the sect accepts and aims to provide both material prosperity and self-realisation. Details of belief vary in different texts but the principles are similar to those found in Kashmir Shaivism. There are various schools, including the so-called left-handed and right-handed practice, initiation must be from a guru. Since we are not Shiva, it has to be the last birth or when we get it, it becomes our last birth, in the principally Shakta theology of Śrī Vidyā the goddess is supreme, transcending the cosmos that is her manifestation. Subhash Kak argues that this is the yantra described in the Śvetāśvatara Upanisad, mantras are believed to reveal the unity of the deity, the guru and initiate and the mantra or sound syllable Itself. The first mantra given to initiates is the Bala Tripurasundari Mantra, here the Goddess is visualized as a small child. The next level mantra is the fifteen-lettered Panchadasi or Panchadasakshari Mantra, a higher mantra is the sixteen-lettered Shodasi or Shodashakshari Mantra. Practical benefits of this spiritual practice results in physical, mental and emotional health leading to a harmonious and effective relationship at home. Apte, Vaman Shivram, The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 81-208-0567-4 Bhattacharyya, history of the Tantric Religion, New Delhi, Manohar, ISBN 81-7304-025-7 Dempsey, Corinne G
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Ramprasad Sen
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Sadhak Rāmprasād Sen was a Shakta poet and saint of eighteenth century Bengal. His bhakti poems, known as Ramprasadi, are popular in Bengal—they are usually addressed to the Hindu goddess Kali. Stories of Ramprasads life typically include legends and myths mixed with biographical details and it is said that, Ramprasad was born into a Tantric family, and showed an inclination towards poetry from an early age. He became a disciple of Krishnananda Agamavagisha, a Tantric scholar, Ramprasad became well known for his devotional songs, eventually becoming the court poet of Raja Krishnachandra of Nadia. His life has been the subject of stories depicting his devotion to. Ramprasads literary works include Vidyasundar, Kali-kirtana, Krishna-kirtana and Shaktigiti, Ramprasad is credited with creating a new compositional form that combined the Bengali folk style of Baul music with classical melodies and kirtan. The new style took root in Bengali culture with many poet-composers combining folk and raga-based melodies, mixing every common style of music from classical to semi-classical and his songs are sung today, with a popular collection—Ramprasadi Sangit —sold at Shakta temples and pithas in Bengal. Biographies of Ramprasad are a mixture of biography, metaphor, Ramprasad was born in Halisahar, a village on the banks of the Ganges about thirty-five miles north of Kolkata, into a Tantric Vaidya family. Due to the absence of records, his actual birth date is not known. His father, Ramram Sen, was an Ayurvedic doctor and Sanskrit scholar, Ramprasads mother Siddheswari was Ramrams second wife. Ramprasad was sent to a Sanskrit tol where he learned Sanskrit grammar, literature, Persian, as a youth, he had a talent for poetry and learning new languages. Ramram hoped his son would follow in his profession, but Ramprasad showed no interest in practical pursuits, as he grew up, his spiritual inclinations caused a great deal of anxiety to his parents. Believing that marriage would make Ramprasad more responsible, his parents married him to a girl named Sarvani when he was years old. In keeping with the custom, the newly wed couple was initiated by the familys spiritual teacher. According to traditional accounts, during initiation when the guru whispered the mantra to him, one year after the initiation he lost his guru. Ramprasad later became the disciple of Krishnananda Agamavagisha, a Tantric yogi, Agamavagisha was a well known devotee of Kali and the author of the Bengali book Tantrasara. Agamavagisha instructed Ramprasad in Tantric sadhanas and worship of Kali, instead of following his parents wishes and looking for a job, it is said that Ramprasad devoted most of his time to sadhana. Ramram died before he could make provisions to support the family, forced finally by poverty, Ramprasad moved to Kolkata and worked as an accountant in the household of Durga Charan Mitra for a monthly salary of thirty rupees
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Ramakrishna
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Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Ramkṛiṣṇo Pôromôhongśo,17 February 1836 –16 August 1886), born Gadadhar Chatterjee or Gadadhar Chattopadhyay, was an Indian mystic and yogi during the 19th-century. Admiration for him amongst Bengali elites led to the formation of the Ramakrishna Mission by his chief disciple Swami Vivekananda. Ramakrishna was born on 17 February 1836, in the village of Kamarpukur, in the Hoogli district of West Bengal, into a poor, pious. Kamarpukur was untouched by the glamour of the city and contained rice fields, tall palms, royal banyans, a few lakes and his parents were Khudiram Chattopadhyay and Chandramani Devi. According to his followers, Ramakrishnas parents experienced supernatural incidents and visions before his birth, in Gaya his father Khudiram had a dream in which Lord Gadadhara, said that he would be born as his son. Chandramani Devi is said to have had a vision of light entering her womb from Shivas temple, although Ramakrishna attended a village school with some regularity for 12 years, he later rejected the traditional schooling saying that he was not interested in a bread-winning education. Kamarpukur, being a transit-point in well-established pilgrimage routes to Puri, brought him contact with renunciates. He could read and write in Bengali, Ramakrishna describes his first spiritual ecstasy at the age of six, while walking along the paddy fields, a flock of white cranes flying against a backdrop of dark thunder clouds caught his vision. He reportedly became so absorbed by this scene that he lost outward consciousness, Ramakrishna reportedly had experiences of similar nature a few other times in his childhood—while worshipping the goddess Vishalakshi, and portraying god Shiva in a drama during Shivaratri festival. From his 10th or 11th year of school on, the trances became common, early on, these experiences have been interpreted as epileptic seizures, an interpretation which was rejected by Ramakrishna himself. Ramakrishnas father died in 1843, after which family responsibilities fell on his elder brother Ramkumar, when Ramakrishna was in his teens, the familys financial position worsened. Ramkumar started a Sanskrit school in Calcutta and also served as a priest, Ramakrishna moved to Calcutta in 1852 with Ramkumar to assist in the priestly work. In 1855 Ramkumar was appointed as the priest of Dakshineswar Kali Temple, Ramakrishna, along with his nephew Hriday, became assistants to Ramkumar, with Ramakrishna given the task of decorating the deity. When Ramkumar died in 1856, Ramakrishna took his place as the priest of the Kali temple, after Ramkumars death Ramakrishna became more contemplative. He began to look upon the image of the goddess Kali as his mother, Ramakrishna reportedly had a vision of the goddess Kali as the universal Mother, which he described as. Houses, doors, temples and everything else vanished altogether, as if there was nothing anywhere, and what I saw was an infinite shoreless sea of light, a sea that was consciousness. However far and in whatever direction I looked, I saw shining waves, one after another, rumors spread to Kamarpukur that Ramakrishna had become unstable as a result of his spiritual practices at Dakshineswar. Ramakrishna himself mentioned that they could find the bride at the house of Ramchandra Mukherjee in Jayrambati, the five-year-old bride, Saradamani Mukhopadhyaya was found and the marriage was duly solemnised in 1859
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Abirami Pattar
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Abhirami Pattar was a Hindu saint from the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu. He is famed as the author of a collection of hymns called Abhirami Anthadhi which is regarded as one of the foremost works of modern Tamil literature. Abhirami refers to the Goddess Abirami, Pattar is the Tamil word for One who worships or The Priest of. Subramaniya Iyer was born to Amirthalinga Iyer in the village of Thirukadaiyur, the village was famous for its Shiva temple, called Amritaghateswarar-Abirami Temple, Thirukkadaiyur. Right from his childhood, Subramaniya Iyer was drawn to the temple, as he grew, Iyer developed a fanatical devotion to the goddess Abhirami. He would sit in a corner of the temple meditating upon the Goddess, according to sources, soon, a particular section of the populace began to regard him as a madman. Text of the Abirami Anthadhi from Project Madurai
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Navaratri
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Navratri, also spelled Navaratri or Navarathri, is a multi-day Hindu festival celebrated in the autumn every year. It is observed for different reasons and celebrated differently in various parts of the Indian subcontinent, theoretically, there are four seasonal Navratri. However, in practice, it is the post-monsoon autumn festival called Sharad Navratri that is the most observed in the honor of the divine feminine Devi. The festival is celebrated in the half of the Hindu calendar month Ashvin. In the eastern and northeastern states of India, the Durga Puja is synonymous with Navratri, in the northern and western states, the festival is synonymous with Rama Lila and Dussehra that celebrates the battle and victory of god Rama over the demon king Ravana. In southern states, the victory of different goddesses, of Rama or Saraswati is celebrated, in all cases, the common theme is the battle and victory of Good over Evil based on a regionally famous epic or legend such as the Ramayana or the Devi Mahatmya. Celebrations include stage decorations, recital of the legend, enacting of the story, the festival also starts the preparation for one of the most important and widely celebrated Diwali, the festival of lights, which is celebrated twenty days after the Vijayadashami or Dussehra. The word Navratri means nine nights in Sanskrit, nava meaning nine, according to some Hindu texts such as the Shakta and Vaishnava Puranas, Navaratri theoretically falls twice or four times a year. Of these, the Sharada Navaratri near autumn equinox is the most celebrated, in all cases, Navaratri falls in the bright half of the Hindu luni-solar months. The celebrations vary by region, leaving much to the creativity, Sharada Navaratri, the most celebrated of the four navaratris, named after sharada which means autumn. It is observed the lunar month of Ashvin, in many regions the festival falls after autumn harvest, and in others during harvest. Vasanta Navaratri, the second most celebrated, named after vasanta which means spring and it is observed the lunar month of Chaitra. In many regions the festival falls after spring harvest, and in others during harvest, the other two navratris are minor and observed regionally or by individuals, Magha Navaratri, in Magha, winter season. In some regions, the Hindu god of love, Kama is revered, ashada Navaratri, in Ashadha, start of the monsoon season. The Sharada Navratri commences on the first day of the fortnight of the lunar month of Ashvini. The festival is celebrated for nine nights once every year during this month, the festivities extend beyond goddess Durga and god Rama. Various other goddesses such as Saraswati and Lakshmi, gods such as Ganesha, Kartikeya, Shiva, for example, a notable pan-Hindu tradition during Navratri is the adoration of Saraswati, the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning, music and arts through Ayudha Puja. On this day, which falls on the ninth day of Navratri after the Good has won over Evil through Durga or Rama, peace
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Durga Puja
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Durga Puja, also called Durgotsava and Navaratri, is an annual Hindu festival in the Indian subcontinent that reveres the goddess Durga. It is observed in the Hindu calendar month of Ashvin, typically September or October of the Gregorian calendar and it is a major festival in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism across India and Shakta Hindu diaspora. Durga Puja festival marks the battle of goddess Durga with the shape-shifting, deceptive and powerful buffalo demon Mahishasura, and her emerging victorious. Thus, the festival epitomises the victory of Good over Evil, the primary goddess revered during Durga Puja is Durga, but her stage and celebrations feature other major deities of Hinduism such as goddess Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha and Kartikeya. The latter two are considered to be children of Durga, the Hindu god Shiva, as Durgas husband, is also revered during this festival. The festival begins on the first day with Mahalaya, marking Durgas advent in her battle against evil, starting with the sixth day, the goddess is welcomed, festive Durga worship and celebrations begin in elaborately decorated temples and pandals hosting the statues. Lakshmi and Saraswati are revered on the following days, the festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. The prominence of Durga Puja increased during the British Raj in its provinces of Bengal, Durga Puja has been a ten day festival, of which the last five are typically special and an annual holiday in regions such as West Bengal and Tripura where it is particularly popular. In the contemporary era, the importance of Durga Puja is as much as a festival as a religious one wherever it is observed. In Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Durga Puja is also called Akalbodhan, Sharadiya Pujo, Sharodotsab, Maha Pujo, Maayer Pujo, Durga Pujo, in Bangladesh, Durga Puja used to be celebrated as Bhagabati Puja. It is also called Durga Puja in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Delhi, Durga is an ancient deity of Hinduism, according to archeological and textual evidence available. However, the origins of Durga puja are unclear and undocumented. The word Durga, and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28,5.34,8.27,8.47,8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda. A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, while the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her or about Durga puja that is found in later Hindu literature. A key text associated with Durga puja observations is Devi Mahatmya, Durga was likely well established before the time this Hindu text was composed, which scholars variously estimate to between 400 to 600 CE. Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals, Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era. Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga and she appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnus eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer. The prominent mention of Durga in this popular epics may have led to her worship, the Indian texts that mention the Durga Puja festival are inconsistent
35.
Diwali
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Diwali or Deepavali is the Hindu festival of lights celebrated every year in autumn in the northern hemisphere. It is a holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago. One of the most popular festivals of Hinduism, it signifies the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, knowledge over ignorance. Its celebration includes millions of lights shining on housetops, outside doors and windows, around temples, in the Gregorian calendar, Diwali night falls between mid-October and mid-November. Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate, and decorate their homes and offices, after puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai, and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Deepavali also marks a major shopping period in nations where it is celebrated, the name of festive days as well as the rituals of Diwali vary significantly among Hindus, based on the region of India. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra, Diwali or Sanskrit dīpāvali means series of lights, and is derived from dīpam light, lamp and oli glow of light. Diwali is also known as festival of lights. Diwali dates back to ancient times in India, as a festival after the summer harvest in the Hindu calendar month of Kartika. The diyas are mentioned in Skanda Purana to symbolically represent parts of sun, the giver of light and energy to all life. Hindus in some regions of India associate Diwali with the legend of Yama, the Nachiketa story about right versus wrong, true wealth versus transient wealth, knowledge versus ignorance is recorded in Katha Upanishad composed in 1st millennium BC. King Harsha in the 7th century Sanskrit play Nagananda mentions Deepavali as Deepapratipadutsava, the Persian traveller and historian Al Biruni, in his 11th century memoir on India, wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by Hindus on New Moon day of the month of Kartika. Diwali is one of the happiest holidays in India and Nepal with significant preparations, people clean their homes and decorate them for the festivities. People also buy gifts for family members and friends which typically include sweets, dry fruits and it is also the period when children hear ancient stories, legends about battles between good and evil or light and darkness from their parents and elders. Girls and women go shopping and create rangoli and other creative patterns on floors, near doors, youth and adults alike help with lighting and preparing for patakhe. There is significant variation in practices and rituals. Depending on the region, prayers are offered one or more deities, with most common being Lakshmi – the goddess of wealth. On Diwali night, fireworks light up the neighborhood skies, later, family members and invited friends celebrate the night over food and sweets
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Kali Puja
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It coincides with the pan-Indian Lakshmi Puja day of Diwali. While the Bengalis, Odias, Assamese and Maithils adore goddess Kali on this day the rest of India worships goddess Lakshmi on Diwali, mahanisha puja is performed by the Maithili people of Mithila region in India and Nepal. The festival of Kali Puja is not an ancient one, Kali Puja was practically unknown before the 18th century, however a late 17th century devotional text Kalika mangalkavya –by Balram mentions an annual festival dedicated to Kali. It was introduced in Bengal during the 18th century, by King Krishnachandra of Navadvipa, Kali Puja gained popularity in the 19th century, with Krishanachandra’s grandson Ishvarchandra and the Bengali elite, wealthy landowners began patronizing the festival on a grand scale. Along with Durga Puja, now - Kali Puja is the biggest goddess festival in Bengal, Kali puja worshipers honor goddess Kali in their homes in the form of clay sculptures and in pandals. She is worshipped at night with Tantric rites and mantras and she is prescribed offerings of red hibiscus flowers, animal blood in a skull, sweets, rice and lentils, fish and meat. It is prescribed that a worshiper should meditate throughout the night until dawn, homes may also practice rites in the Brahmanical tradition with ritual dressing of Kali in her form as Adya Shakti Kali. Animals are ritually sacrificed on Kali Puja day and offered to the goddess, a celebration of Kali Puja in Kolkata and in Guwahati is also held in a large cremation ground where she is believed to dwell. The Mahavidyas is a group of ten Tantric goddesses headed by Kali, people visit these pandals throughout the night. Kali Puja is also the time for magic shows and theatre, recent custom has ncorporated wine consumption. In the Kalighat Temple in Kolkata and in Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, the temple is visited by thousands of devotees who offer animal sacrifices to the goddess. Another famous temple dedicated to Kali in Kolkata is Dakshineswar Kali Temple, the famous Kali devotee Ramakrishna was a priest at this temple. The celebrations have changed little from his time, two other major Kali Puja observations are Ratanti Kali Puja and Phalaharini Kali Puja. Ratanti puja is celebrated on Magha Krishna Chaturdashi and Phalaharini puja is celebrated on Jyeshta Amavashya of Bengali calendar, the Phalaharini Kali Puja is specially important in the life Sri Ramakrishna and Sri Sarada Devi, since on this day in 1872 Sri Ramakrishna worshipped Sri Sarada Devi as Shodashi. In many Bengali and Assamese households, Kali is worshipped daily, image=shodasi_puja_500. jpg McDermott, Rachel Fell, Kripal, Jeffrey John. Encountering Kālī, in the margins, at the center, in the West, offering flowers, feeding skulls, popular goddess worship in West Bengal. Kali, the goddess of Dakshineswar. Mother of my heart, daughter of my dreams, kinsley, David R. Tantric visions of the divine feminine, the ten mahāvidyās
37.
Vasant Panchami
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Vasant Panchami, also spelled Basant Panchami, is a Hindu spring festival. It is observed on the day of the Indian traditional calendar month of Magha. The festival is celebrated in various ways depending on the region, many revere goddess Saraswati, the Hindu deity of learning, arts and music. She is celebrated with visits to her temples, by playing music, as well as the day when parents sit down with their children, initiate them into writing letters of alphabet or study together. Others mark it as the festival of god Kama, the Hindu deity of love, by remembering the loved one particularly ones spouse or special friend and its link with the god of love and its traditions have led some scholars to call it a Hindu form of Valentines Day. Others wear yellow clothes and eat rice to emulate the yellow mustard flower fields. The Vasant Panchami also marks the start of preparation for Holika bonfire and Holi, Vasant Panchami has a specific meaning, Vasant means spring and Panchami means the fifth day. Vasant Panchami falls on the day of spring. Vasant Panchami is celebrated every year on the day of the bright half of the Hindu luni-solar calendar month of Magha. It is treated as the start of spring, though it is generally winter-like in northern India, the festival is particularly observed in the north, central and western parts by Hindus of India and in Nepal. It has been a tradition of Sikhs as well. For many Hindus, Vasant Panchami is the dedicated to goddess Saraswati who is their ancient goddess of knowledge, language, music. She is the wife of Brahma, and she symbolizes creative energy and power in all its form, including longing, the season and festival also reflects the agricultural fields which are ripening with yellow flowers of mustard crop, which Hindus associate with Saraswatis favorite color. People dress in saris or shirts or accessories, share yellow colored snacks. Some add saffron to their rice then eat yellow cooked rice as a part of an elaborate feast, many families mark this day by sitting with babies and young children, encouraging their children to write their first words with their fingers, some just study or create music together. The day before Vasant Panchami, Saraswatis temples are filled with food so that she can join the celebrants in the traditional feasting the following morning, in temples and educational institutions, statues of Saraswati are dressed in yellow and worshiped. Many educational institutions arrange special prayers or pujas in the morning to seek blessing of the goddess, poetic and musical gatherings are held in some communities in reverence for Saraswati. In Nepal, Bihar and eastern states of India such as West Bengal, Odisha and Assam, people visit her temples, in southern states such as Andhra Pradesh, the same day is called Sri Panchami where Sri refers to her as another aspect of the one goddess Devi
38.
Teej
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Teej is a generic name for a number of festivals that are celebrated in Nepal, Northern and Western India. Haryali Teej, Kajari Teej and Hartalika Teej welcome the monsoon season and are celebrated primarily by girls and women, with songs, dancing, the monsoon festivals of Teej are primarily dedicated to Goddess Parvati and her union with Lord Shiva. Teej refers to the festivals, observed particularly in western and northern states of India. The festivals celebrate the bounty of nature, arrival of clouds and rain, greenery and birds with social activity, rituals, the festivals are dedicated, in many parts of India and Nepal, to Parvati. Teej refers to the day that falls every month after the new moon. The monsoon festivals of Teej include Haryali Teej, Kajari Teej, women also pray to goddess Parvati seeking the wellness of their husband, children and their own self. Haryali Teej is celebrated on the day of the bright half of the North Indian Lunar month of Shraavana. As Shraavana month falls during monsoon or rainy season when the surroundings become green, a fast is kept and the focus is the moon. The Hariyali Teej festival is celebrated to remember the reunion of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. Goddess Parvati fasted and was austere for many years and was accepted by Lord Shiva as his wife in her 108 birth, Goddess Parvati is also known as Teej Mata. Sindhara Teej, On Teej festival married daughters receive the gifts by her mother such clothes, bangles, ghewar a special sweet is given to her on this day. These gifts are known as Sindhara The traditional areas of celebration are, Punjab region, the festival is celebrated in Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh. Teej is known as teeyan in Punjab and is seen as a festival which is dedicated to the onset of the monsoon. The festival is celebrated by women of all faiths, and lasts from the day of the bright half of the lunar month of Sawan as per the Punjabi calendar to the full moon of Sawan. Teeyan involves women getting together and performing Gidda, married women visiting their families and it is also traditional for women to ride on swings. Fairs are organised in Schools and Colleges where dance competitions are held, Haryali Teej is one of the famous festivals of Haryana, and is celebrated as an official holiday. Many functions are organised by the Government of Haryana to celebrate this festival, boys traditionally flew kites from morning to evening, though this tradition is losing its charm in big cities due to high rise buildings and lack of terrace space. Swings are set up in open courtyards, under trees for the season, girls apply henna to their hands and feet and are excused from household chores on this day
39.
Shakti Peetha
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The Shakti Peetha are significant shrines and pilgrimage destinations in Shaktism, the goddess-focused Hindu tradition. There are 51 or 108 Shakti peethas by various accounts, of which between 4 to 18 are named as Maha in medieval Hindu texts. Most of these places of goddess worship are in India, but some are in Nepal, Bangladesh. Various legends explain how the Shakti peetha came into existence, the sites where these portions of Sati goddess fell, are the Shakti peetha. Lord Brahma performed a yajna to please Shakti and Shiva, Goddess Shakti emerged, separating from Shiva and helped Brahma in the creation of the universe. Brahma decided to give Shakti back to Shiva, therefore, his son Daksha performed several yagnas to obtain Shakti as his daughter in the form of Sati. It was then decided that Sati was brought into this world with the motive of getting married to Shiva. However, due to Lord Shivas curse to Brahma that his head was cut off due to his lie in front of Shiva, Daksha started hating Lord Shiva and decided not to let Lord Shiva. However, Sati got attracted to Shiva and finally one day Shiva and this marriage only increased Dakshas hatred towards Lord Shiva. Daksha performed a yagna with a desire to revenge on Lord Shiva near Munimandala present Muramalla Andhra Pradesh. Daksha invited all the deities to the yajna except Lord Shiva, the fact that she was not invited did not deter Sati from attending the yagna. She expressed her desire to attend the yagna to Shiva, who tried his best to dissuade her from going, Shiva eventually relented and Sati went to the yagna. Sati, being an uninvited guest, was not given any respect at the yagna, Sati was unable to bear her fathers insults toward her husband, so she immolated herself. He came there and started fighting him, still immersed in grief, Shiva picked up the remains of Satis body, and performed the Tandava, the celestial dance of destruction, across all creation. The other Gods requested Vishnu to intervene to stop this destruction, towards which Vishnu used the Sudarshana Chakra, the various parts of the body fell at several spots all through the Indian subcontinent and formed sites which are known as Shakti Peethas today. At all the Shakti Peethas, the Goddess Shakti is accompanied by her consort, Shakti is an aspect of the Supreme Being Adi parashakti, the mother of the trimurti, the holy trinity in Hindu religion & scriptures. The history of Daksha yagna and Shaktis self immolation had immense significance in shaping the ancient Sanskrit literature and it led to the development of the concept of Shakti Peethas and there by strengthening Shaktism. Enormous stories in Puranas & other Hindu religious books took the Daksha yagna as the reason for its origin
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