1.
Marilyn Hall Patel
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Marilyn Hall Patel is a retired federal judge who presided in the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California. She was Chief District Judge of that jurisdiction from 1997 until 2004, Patel was born Marilyn Hall in Amsterdam, New York. She obtained a BA from Wheaton College in 1959 and a Juris Doctor degree from Fordham University in 1963, from 1963 until 1967 she worked as an attorney in private practice in New York City. From 1967 until 1971 she was counsel for the US Immigration and Naturalization Service in San Francisco. She then returned to practice in San Francisco before becoming adjunct professor of law at the University of California Hastings College of the Law. In 1976 she was appointed to the bench of the Municipal Court for the Oakland-Piedmont Judicial District, on May 9,1980, President Jimmy Carter nominated Patel to fill the seat vacated by Lloyd Hudson Burke on the US District Court for Northern California. She was confirmed by the United States Senate in June of that year and she was the Chief District Judge for the Northern District from 1997 until 2004, the first woman to hold the position. Her replacement as Chief District Judge was Judge Vaughn R. Walker, in 1966 she married Indian-American banker Magan C. The couple have two sons, Brian and Gian, Patel won the California Women Lawyers Rose Bird Memorial Award in 2003. Fred Korematsu, a Japanese American, had been convicted of failing to comply with government orders to leave his home in San Leandro, California, patels injunction and final ruling meant that Napster was responsible for policing its internet file sharing network for materials that violate record companies copyrights. Patels decision was affirmed on appeal to the Ninth Circuit, Patel ruled that a retailer can be sued if its website is inaccessible to the blind. In a 1987 suit brought against the Fire Department of San Francisco, in addition to clarifying the departments responsibilities with regard to the race of applicants, the decree ensured access for women to front-line firefighter roles. In a 1999 ruling, Patel found that the layout of Macys department stores violated the Americans with Disabilities Act, many other retailers in other jurisdictions followed suit. In 2003 she overturned the murder conviction of Foster City. Nickerson had spent nineteen years on death row at San Quentin State Prison before new witnesses, ruling, Patel said it was more probable than not that Nickerson was innocent. Her colleague, Judge Jeremy Fogel, has considered the constitutionality of Californias lethal-injection protocol in a few cases, patels decisions in 2008 included one for the plaintiffs in Okinawa Dugong v. Gates/Okinawa Dugong v. In 2007 and 2008, Patel reviewed the standards employed by the Oakland Police Department for public strip, US Government biography of Judge Patel Rose Bird award citation
2.
James Ware (judge)
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William James Ware is a retired federal judge of the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California. Born in Birmingham, Alabama, Ware received a B. A. in 1969 from California Lutheran University, Ware was a U. S. Army Reserve Second Lieutenant in 1972 and also served in the U. S. Army as a Military Police Officer in 1973. Ware also served as a U. S. Army Reserve Captain in the Military Police from 1973 to 1986 after graduating from Stanford Law School, from 1972 until 1988, Ware worked as an attorney in private practice in Palo Alto, California. From 1988 to 1990, Ware was a judge on the Santa Clara County Superior Court. Ware was nominated to his current U. S. District Court seat on August 3,1990 by President George H. W. Bush and was confirmed by the U. S. Senate on September 28,1990 and he received his commission on October 1,1990. He became Chief Judge of the Northern District of California on January 1,2011, in August 2012, Ware retired from the federal bench despite having six more years of eligibility as the Chief Judge of the Northern District of California. On June 27,1997, President Bill Clinton nominated Ware to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, to replace J. Clifford Wallace, Ware had a hearing before the U. S. Senate Judiciary Committee in October 1997. However, Wares nomination unraveled amid a scandal that ultimately resulted in a judicial reprimand. According to a story Judge Ware had told many audiences, he was riding his bike with his brother Virgil on the handlebars when Virgil was shot and killed by white racists. The father of the slain boy contacted the Alabama courts to report that the California judge was impersonating his own son James Ware who was an employee in a Birmingham power plant. The Alabama courts contacted the California courts, who convened the ethics hearing, Judge Ware was reprimanded but allowed to retain his lifetime appointment as district judge. In 1998, Clinton appointed Kim McLane Wardlaw to the seat to which Ware had been nominated, Ware is known for hearing a number of Internet business-related cases such as the sex. com ownership case and RealNetworks vs. Microsoft suit despite little in the way of training or experience to make him particularly well suited to preside over these influential cases. In 2006, he heard the Google search terms suit and he also ordered Google to deactivate the Gmail account. In 2001, Ware sentenced hacker Max Butler to 18 months in prison for infiltrating United States Department of Defense computers, on June 14,2011, Ware ruled that former Chief Judge Vaughn Walker did not have to recuse himself before he declared Proposition 8 unconstitutional. On November 13,2011, Ware made a decision to out a lawsuit by the parents of Daniel Galli, Austin Carvalho, Matt Dariano. The lawsuit was over an incident on May 5,2010, the school sent these students home for fear of inciting violence against the Mexican-American portion of the school body. The lawsuit claimed that their right to free expression had been violated and they added that there had been discrimination as students wearing Mexican flag colours were not censored
3.
Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers
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Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers is a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Rogers was born Maria Yvonne Gonzalez in 1965 in Houston, Texas and she earned an Artium Baccalaureus in 1987 from Princeton University and a Juris Doctor in 1991 from University of Texas School of Law. From 1991 until 2003, Rogers worked as a litigator in private practice in San Francisco at the law firm of Cooley Godward LLP and she was an equity partner at the firm from 1999 until 2001. Rogers was a member of the grand jury in Alameda County, California from 2005 until 2007. Rogers served as a pro tem judge in Alameda County, California from 2007 until 2008, in 2008, Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger appointed Rogers, a Democrat, to the Alameda County Superior Court. She replaced Judge Carlos G. Ynostroza on the bench, the Senate confirmed her in an 89–6 vote on November 15,2011. She received her commission on November 21,2011 and she is the first Latina to serve as a federal judge in the Northern District of California. In December 2014, Rogers presided over a trial against Apple. On December 16,2014, the reached a verdict in favor of Apple. Rogers was elected to the American Law Institute in 1990 and was elected to the ALI Council in 2009 and she currently chairs the ALIs Membership Committee and serves as an Adviser on ALIs Principles of Election Law, Resolution of Election Disputes project. Rogers, has served in positions in the Obama administration. The couple live in Piedmont, California, Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
4.
Watseka, Illinois
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Watseka is a city in and the county seat of Iroquois County, Illinois, United States. It is located approximately 15 miles west of the Illinois-Indiana state line on U. S. Route 24, the population of Watseka was 5,255 according to the 2010 census, which was a 7.3 percent decrease from the 2000 census. Incorporated in 1865, the name Watseka derives from the Potawatomi name Watch-e-kee, Daughter of the Evening Star, the Old Iroquois County Courthouse was constructed in 1866, with two additions built in 1881 and 1927. In the early 1960s, an Iroquois County resident, Mrs. Katherine Clifton, bequeathed to the county in her will a sum of money. It is the courthouse in the United States built entirely with private funds. The old courthouse was advertised for sale and fell into disuse, in 1967, during the Centennial Celebration of Watseka, the Iroquois County Historical Society was organized, and circulated petitions throughout the county not to sell the Old Courthouse. The petitions were approved by the County Board of Supervisors, in 1975, the Old Courthouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Watseka is located near the center of Iroquois County, at the intersection of U. S. Route 24, the Iroquois River winds along the north side of the town and is joined by Sugar Creek on the west side of town. The south half of the town is in Belmont Township, the north half is in Middleport Township, according to the 2010 census, Watseka has a total area of 3.05 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,670 people,2,314 households, the population density was 2,165.4 people per square mile. There were 2,463 housing units at a density of 940.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 96. 75% White,0. 62% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 48% Asian,0. 86% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 61% of the population. 31. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city, the population was out with 23. 7% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,25. 1% from 25 to 44,21. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 89.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.7 males, the median income for a household in the city was $30,440, and the median income for a family was $40,000. Males had an income of $30,516 versus $19,680 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,638, about 12. 7% of families and 15. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22. 1% of those under age 18 and 8. 6% of those age 65 or over
5.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
6.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
7.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
8.
Stanford Law School
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Stanford Law School is a professional graduate school of Stanford University, located in the Silicon Valley near Palo Alto, California. Stanford Law has consistently been regarded as one of the most prestigious law schools in the world, Stanford Law School employs more than 90 full-time and part-time faculty members and enrolls over 550 students who are working toward their Doctor of Jurisprudence degree. Stanford Law also confers four advanced degrees, a Master of Laws, a Master of Studies in Law, a Master of the Science of Law. Each fall, Stanford Law enrolls a J. D. class of approximately 180 students, Stanford also maintains eleven full-time legal clinics, including the nations first and most active Supreme Court litigation clinic, and offers 27 formal joint degree programs. Stanford first offered a curriculum in legal studies in 1893, when the university hired its first two law professors, former U. S. president Benjamin Harrison and Nathan Abbott, Abbott headed the new program and assembled a small faculty over the next few years. In 1900, the department moved from its location in Encina Hall to the northeast side of the Inner Quadrangle. These larger facilities included Stanford’s first law library, beginning to focus more on professional training, the school implemented its first three-year curriculum and became one of 27 charter members of the Association of American Law Schools. In 1901, the school awarded its first professional degree, the Bachelor of Laws, eight years later, Frederic Campbell Woodward became the first dean of the law school, and in 1923, the law school received accreditation from the American Bar Association. In 1924, Stanfords law program officially transitioned into a professional school when it began requiring a bachelors degree for admission. The 1940s and 1950s brought considerable change to the law school, after World War II caused the law schools enrollment to drop to fewer than 30 students, the school quickly expanded once the war ended in 1945. The decision that Stanford should remain a law school with a very limited enrollment emerged during this period. For the third time in its history, the law school relocated in the 1970s, in the 1960s and 1970s, the law school aimed to diversify its student body. Additionally, in 1966, the sought to academically diversify its student body by collaborating with the Stanford Business School to create its first joint-degree program. In 1968, Stanford appointed Thelton Henderson, future judge of the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California, Henderson expanded minority enrollment from a single student to approximately a fifth of the student body. Stanford Laws commitment to diversity continues today, and The Princeton Review currently ranks Stanford Law as one of the ten best law schools for minority students, earning national recognition in the 1980s and 1990s, the law school embarked on innovating its curriculum. Stanford offered new courses focusing on law and technology, environmental law, intellectual property law, in 1984, the law school launched its first clinical program, the East Palo Alto Community Law Project. By the 21st century, a new focus on interdisciplinary education emerged, in 2009, the law school transitioned from a semester system to a quarter system to align itself with Stanfords other graduate schools. Stanford Law School is known for its student-to-faculty ratio, one of the lowest in the country, the first-year class of approximately 180 students is divided into six smaller sections of 30 students each
9.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
10.
Hollingsworth v. Perry
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Hollingsworth v. Perry refers to a series of United States federal court cases that legalized same-sex marriage in the State of California. The case began in 2009 in the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California and this decision overturned ballot initiative Proposition 8, which had banned same-sex marriage. After the State of California refused to defend Proposition 8, the sponsors of Proposition 8 intervened and appealed to the Supreme Court. The case was litigated during the governorships of both Arnold Schwarzenegger and Jerry Brown, and was known as Perry v. Schwarzenegger and Perry v. Brown. It eventually reached the United States Supreme Court as Hollingsworth v, the salient effect of the ruling was that same-sex marriage in California resumed under the district court trial decision from 2010. The case was docketed with the Supreme Court at 570 U. S. ___, in May 2008, the California Supreme Court held in the case In re Marriage Cases that state statutes limiting marriage to opposite-sex applicants violated the California Constitution. The following month, same-sex couples were able to marry in California, in November 2008, Californias electorate adopted Proposition 8, a constitutional amendment that restored the opposite-sex limitation on marriage. Following the adoption of Proposition 8, several lawsuits were filed that challenged the validity of the amendment under various state constitutional provisions. On May 26,2009, the California Supreme Court held, in Strauss v. Horton, that Proposition 8 was a lawful enactment, the couples legal team was led by David Boies and former U. S. Solicitor General Theodore Olson, who had opposed each other in Bush v. Gore. They were listed on the 2010 Time 100 for their nonpartisan, Lambda Legal and the American Civil Liberties Union opposed the filing because they felt a federal challenge at this time might do more harm than good. Olson and AFER rebuffed this argument and defended the timing of the lawsuit, following a pre-trial hearing on July 2,2009, the three legal groups moved to intervene in the lawsuit, as did the City of San Francisco in a separate filing. The plaintiffs opposed allowing the groups or the City to intervene, on August 19, Judge Walker denied the legal groups motions to intervene but granted the Citys, albeit in a limited capacity. In May 2009, the Alameda County Clerk-Registrar, Patrick OConnell, denied Kristin Perry, for the same reason, Dean Logan, the Los Angeles County Clerk, denied Paul Katami and Jeffrey Zarrillo a marriage license. The couples sued the two county clerks and several officials, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Attorney General Jerry Brown. Several groups sought to intervene as plaintiffs, including the groups who had prosecuted the In re Marriage Cases, San Francisco also filed a motion to intervene in the case. City Attorney Dennis Herrera said that his office is singularly well-prepared to help put anti-gay discrimination on trial based on the facts, Walker permitted only San Francisco to intervene, as it could speak to the impact of Proposition 8 on local governments. He also ordered the general to assist San Francisco in analyzing Proposition 8s impact
11.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
12.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
13.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
14.
United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary
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The United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, informally the Senate Judiciary Committee, is a standing committee of the United States Senate, of the United States Congress. The Judiciary Committee, with 20 members, is in charge of conducting hearings prior to the Senate votes on confirmation of judges nominated by the president. In recent years, this role has made the committee increasingly a point of contention, with numerous party-line votes and standoffs over which judges should be approved. The committee also has a jurisdiction over matters relating to federal criminal law, as well as human rights, immigration law, intellectual property rights, antitrust law. It is also Senate procedure that all proposed Constitutional Amendments pass through the Judiciary Committee, the committee is one of the oldest in the Senate. It was initially created in 1816, source,2013 Congressional Record, Vol.159, Page S296 to 297 United States House Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary Official Website
15.
United States Olympic Committee
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Founded in 1894 and headquartered in Colorado Springs, the United States Olympic Committee is the National Olympic Committee for the United States. In addition, the USOC is one of only four NOCs in the world that serve as the National Paralympic Committee for their country. The USOC is responsible for supporting, entering and overseeing U. S, the Olympic Movement is overseen by the International Olympic Committee. Similarly, the National Paralympic Committee is the governing body responsible for the selection. The USOC is one of 204 NOCs and 174 NPCs within the international Olympic and Paralympic Movements, forty-seven NGBs are members of the USOC. Unlike most other nations, the United States does not have a sports ministry, the USOC was reorganized by the Ted Stevens Olympic and Amateur Sports Act, originally enacted in 1978. It is a federally chartered nonprofit corporation and does not receive financial support. Pursuant to the Act, the USOC has the right to use and authorize the use of Olympic-related marks, images. The USOC licenses that right to sponsors as a means of generating revenue in support of its mission, in 1921, the committee adopted a constitution and bylaws to formally organize the American Olympic Association. From 1928 to 1953, its president was Avery Brundage, who went on to become the president of the IOC. In 1940, the AOA changed its name to the United States of America Sports Federation and, in 1945, in 1950, federal mandate allowed the USOA to solicit tax-deductible contributions as a private, non-profit corporation. After several constitutional revisions were made to the charter in 1961. The Amateur Sports Act of 1978 established the USOC as the body for all Olympic-related athletic activity in the United States. The provisions protect individual athletes, and provide the USOC’s counsel, virgin Islands, which fall under the authority of separate NOCs and NPCs. U. S. Paralympics, a division of the USOC, was founded in 2001, in 2006, the USOC created the Paralympic Military Program with the goal of providing Paralympic sports as a part of the rehabilitation process for injured soldiers. The USOC moved its headquarters from New York City to Colorado Springs on July 1,1978. S, in October 2007, the ARCO Training Center in Chula Vista, California was closed temporarily due to the Harris Fire, one of many that ravaged southern California. Several national law firms were enlisted to aid, Free of charge, in responding to claims of misconduct in sport. In February 2011 the USOC launched a campaign in conjunction with the Ad Council called Play Asterisk Free aimed at teens
16.
Gay Olympics
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It retains similarities with the Olympic Games, including the Gay Games flame which is lit at the opening ceremony. The games are open to all who wish to participate, without regard to sexual orientation, competitors come from many countries, including those where homosexuality remains illegal and hidden. The Federation of Gay Games is the body of the Gay Games. From its statement of concept and purpose, The purpose of The Federation of Gay Games, singer Tina Turner performed at the opening ceremonies, and Stephanie Mills performed at the closing ceremonies. The 1986 games took place in San Francisco from August 10 to 17,1986, singers Jennifer Holliday and Jae Ross were the featured performers during the closing ceremonies. The 1990 games took place in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, approximately 7,300 athletes took part in 27 sports, with another 1,500 cultural participants attending. Opening and closing ceremonies were at BC Place Stadium and this was the first games to be held outside the United States, and it is also notable for being the first games in which Masters world records were set. The event was heralded by controversy from social conservatives. The government of then-Premier Bill Vander Zalm refused to fund the event, the 1994 games took place in New York City, New York, from June 18 to 25,1994. The games coincided with the 25th-anniversary events of the Stonewall riots and were themed on Unity, actor Sir Ian McKellen gave the closing address at Yankee Stadium on June 25,1994. The 1998 games took place in Amsterdam, Netherlands, from August 1 to 8,1998, the opening and closing ceremonies took place in the Amsterdam Arena. The 2002 game took place in Sydney, New South Wales, when Gay Games VI was chosen to be in Sydney, Australia it was partially because of already present GLQBTI sport teams. Gay Games VII were held in Chicago, Illinois, from July 15 to July 22,2006, for more on the controversy surrounding Chicagos selection as host city, see Schism in LGBT sports communities over Gay Games VII below. On March 16,2005, the FGG announced that Cologne, Germany, Johannesburg, South Africa, Cologne was elected at the FGG annual meeting in Chicago on November 14,2005. The games were held in Cologne from July 31 to August 6,2010 and this marked the second time the games were held in Europe, with the first being in Amsterdam in 1998. On March 17,2009, the FGG announced that groups from Boston, Massachusetts, Cleveland, Ohio, on September 29,2009, at the FGG Site Selection Meeting in Cologne, Germany, Cleveland was chosen as presumptive host of Gay Games IX in 2014. The host organization, Cleveland Special Events Corporation, later expanded the host city to include nearby Akron and they also chose to style their event as Gay Games 9 rather than the traditional Roman numeral Gay Games IX. On July 31,2012, the announced that he is in seven cities had been approved as prospective bidders, by August 31,2012, a letter of intent to bid were received from all groups except those in Brazil
17.
Nancy Pelosi
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Nancy Patricia DAlesandro Pelosi is an American politician who is the Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, representing Californias 12th congressional district. A member of the Democratic Party, Pelosi represents Californias 12th congressional district, the district was numbered as the 5th during Pelosis first three terms in the House, and as the 8th from 1993 to 2013. She served as the House Minority Whip from 2002 to 2003, Pelosi is the first woman, the first Californian and first Italian-American to lead a major party in Congress. On November 17,2010, Pelosi was elected as the Democratic Leader by House Democrats, Pelosi is Italian-American and was born Nancy Patricia DAlesandro in Baltimore, Maryland. She is the youngest of six children of Annunciata M. Nancy, who was born in Campobasso, South Italy, on 25 March 1909, Congressman from Maryland and a Mayor of Baltimore. Pelosis brother, Thomas DAlesandro III, also a Democrat, was mayor of Baltimore from 1967 to 1971, Pelosi was involved with politics from an early age. In her outgoing remarks as the 60th Speaker of the House and she graduated from the Institute of Notre Dame, a Catholic all-girls high school in Baltimore, and from Trinity College in Washington, D. C. in 1962 with a B. A. in political science. Pelosi interned for Senator Daniel Brewster alongside future House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and she met Paul Frank Pelosi while she was attending Trinity College. They married in Baltimore at the Cathedral of Mary Our Queen on September 7,1963, after moving to San Francisco, Pelosi worked her way up in Democratic politics. She became a friend of one of the leaders of the California Democratic Party, in 1976, Pelosi was elected as a Democratic National Committee member from California, a position she would hold until 1996. She was elected as party chair for Northern California on January 30,1977, and for the California Democratic Party, Pelosi was appointed Finance Chair of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, the campaign arm of the U. S. Senate Democrats, in 1985. That same year, she ran to succeed Chuck Manatt as chair of the Democratic National Committee, Pelosi left her post as DSCC finance chair in 1986. Phillip Burton died in 1983 and was succeeded by his wife, in late 1986, Sala became ill with cancer and decided not to run for reelection in 1988. She picked Pelosi as her successor, guaranteeing her the support of the Burtons contacts. Sala died on February 1,1987, just a month after being sworn in for a full term. Pelosi represents one of the safest Democratic districts in the country, Democrats have held the seat since 1949 and Republicans, who currently make up only 13 percent of registered voters in the district, have not made a serious bid for the seat since the early 1960s. She won the seat in her own right in 1988 and has been reelected 10 more times with no substantive opposition and she has not participated in candidates debates since her 1987 race against Harriet Ross. The strongest challenge Pelosi has faced was in 2008 when anti-war activist Cindy Sheehan polled 16%, in the House, she served on the Appropriations and Intelligence Committees, and was the ranking Democrat on the Intelligence Committee until her election as Minority Leader
18.
George H. W. Bush
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George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
19.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
20.
Law and economics
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Law and economics or economic analysis of law is the application of economic theory to the analysis of law that begin mostly with scholars from the Chicago school of economics. Economic concepts are used to explain the effects of laws, to assess which legal rules are economically efficient, as used by lawyers and legal scholars, the phrase law and economics refers to the application of microeconomic analysis to legal problems. Because of the overlap between legal systems and political systems, some of the issues in law and economics are also raised in political economy, constitutional economics, approaches to the same issues from Marxist and critical theory/Frankfurt School perspectives usually do not identify themselves as law and economics. Here, consciously non-neoclassical approaches to economics are used for the analysis of legal problems, as early as in the 18th century, Adam Smith discussed the economic effects of mercantilist legislation. However, to economics to analyze the law regulating nonmarket activities is relatively new. A European law & economics movement around 1900 did not have any lasting influence, in 1961, Ronald Coase and Guido Calabresi independently from each other published two groundbreaking articles, The Problem of Social Cost and Some Thoughts on Risk Distribution and the Law of Torts. This can be seen as the point for the modern school of law. The University was headed by Robert Maynard Hutchins, a collaborator of Luhnow’s in setting up this “Chicago School. ”The University already had Frank Knight, George Stigler, Henry Simons. Soon, it would also have not just Hayek himself, but Director’s brother-in-law and Stigler’s friend Milton Friedman, and also Robert Fogel, Robert Lucas, Eugene Fama, Richard Posner, and Gary Becker. In 1958, Director founded the Journal of Law & Economics, which he co-edited with Nobel laureate Ronald Coase, in 1962, he helped to found the Committee on a Free Society. After retiring from the University of Chicago School of Law in 1965, Director relocated to California and he died September 11,2004, at his home in Los Altos Hills, California, ten days before his 103rd birthday. In the early 1970s, Henry Manne set out to build a center for law and he began at Rochester, worked at Miami, but was soon made unwelcome, moved to Emory, and ended up at George Mason. The last soon became a center for the education of judges—many long out of law school and never exposed to numbers, Manne also attracted the support of the John M. Olin Foundation, whose support accelerated the movement. Today, Olin centers for Law and Economics exist at many universities, Economic analysis of law is usually divided into two subfields, positive and normative. Positive law and economics uses economic analysis to predict the effects of legal rules. So, for example, an economic analysis of tort law would predict the effects of a strict liability rule as opposed to the effects of a negligence rule. Positive law and economics has also at times purported to explain the development of rules, for example the common law of torts. Normative law and economics goes one further and makes policy recommendations based on the economic consequences of various policies
21.
Auction
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An auction is a process of buying and selling goods or services by offering them up for bid, taking bids, and then buying the item to the highest bidder. The open ascending price auction is arguably the most common form of auction in use today, participants bid openly against one another, with each subsequent bid required to be higher than the previous bid. An auctioneer may announce prices, bidders may call out their bids themselves, in economic theory, an auction may refer to any mechanism or set of trading rules for exchange. The word auction is derived from the Latin augeō which means I increase or I augment, for most of history, auctions have been a relatively uncommon way to negotiate the exchange of goods and commodities. In practice, both haggling and sale by set-price have been more common. Indeed, before the century the few auctions that were held were sporadic. Nonetheless, auctions have a history, having been recorded as early as 500 B. C. According to Herodotus, in Babylon auctions of women for marriage were held annually, the auctions began with the woman the auctioneer considered to be the most beautiful and progressed to the least. It was considered illegal to allow a daughter to be sold outside of the auction method, during the Roman Empire, following military victory, Roman soldiers would often drive a spear into the ground around which the spoils of war were left, to be auctioned off. Later slaves, often captured as the spoils of war, were auctioned in the forum under the sign of the spear, the Romans also used auctions to liquidate the assets of debtors whose property had been confiscated. For example, Marcus Aurelius sold household furniture to pay off debts, One of the most significant historical auctions occurred in the year 193 A. D. when the entire Roman Empire was put on the auction block by the Praetorian Guard. On March 23 The Praetorian Guard first killed emperor Pertinax, then offered the empire to the highest bidder, didius Julianus outbid everyone else for the price of 6,250 drachmas per guard, an act that initiated a brief civil war. Didius was then beheaded two months later when Septimius Severus conquered Rome, from the end of the Roman Empire to the eighteenth century auctions lost favor in Europe, while they had never been widespread in Asia. In some parts of England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries auction by candle began to be used for the sale of goods and leaseholds, sometimes, other unpredictable processes, such as a footrace, were used in place of the expiration of a candle. This type of auction was first mentioned in 1641 in the records of the House of Lords, the practice rapidly became popular, and in 1660 Samuel Pepyss diary recorded two occasions when the Admiralty sold surplus ships by an inch of candle. The London Gazette began reporting on the auctioning of artwork at the coffeehouses, the first known auction house in the world was Stockholm Auction House, Sweden, founded by Baron Claes Rålamb in 1674. Other early auction houses that are still in operation include Dorotheum, Mallams, Bonhams, Phillips de Pury & Company, Freemans, by the end of the 18th century, auctions of art works were commonly held in taverns and coffeehouses. These auctions were held daily, and auction catalogs were printed to announce available items, in some cases these catalogs were elaborate works of art themselves, containing considerable detail about the items being auctioned
22.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
23.
Wired (magazine)
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Wired is a monthly American magazine, published in print and online editions, that focuses on how emerging technologies affect culture, the economy, and politics. Owned by Condé Nast, it is headquartered in San Francisco, California, several spin-offs have been launched including, Wired UK, Wired Italia, Wired Japan and Wired Germany. In its earliest colophons, Wired credited Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan as its patron saint, from its beginning, the strongest influence on the magazines editorial outlook came from techno-utopian co-founder Stewart Brand and his associate Kevin Kelly. From 1998 to 2006, Wired magazine and Wired News had separate owners, however, Wired News remained responsible for republishing Wired magazines content online due to an agreement when Condé Nast purchased the magazine. In 2006, Condé Nast bought Wired News for $25 million, the founding designers were John Plunkett and Barbara Kuhr, beginning with a 1991 prototype and continuing through the first five years of publication, 1993–98. Wired, which touted itself as the Rolling Stone of technology, a great success at its launch, it was lauded for its vision, originality, innovation and cultural impact. In its first four years, the magazine won two National Magazine Awards for General Excellence and one for Design. The founding executive editor of Wired, Kevin Kelly, was an editor of the Whole Earth Catalog and the Whole Earth Review, six authors of the first Wired issue had written for Whole Earth Review, most notably Bruce Sterling and Stewart Brand. However, the first issue did contain a few references to the Internet, including online-dating and Internet sex, the last page, a column written by Nicholas Negroponte, was written in the style of an e-mail message, but contained obviously fake, non-standard email addresses. Wired was among the first magazines to list the email address of its authors and contributors, associate publisher Kathleen Lyman was brought on board to launch Wired with an advertising base of major technology and consumer advertisers. The magazine was followed by a companion website HotWired, a book publishing division, HardWired, a Japanese edition. Wired UK was relaunched in April 2009, in 1994, John Battelle, co-founding editor, commissioned Jules Marshall to write a piece on the Zippies. The cover story broke records for being one of the most publicized stories of the year and was used to promote Wireds HotWired news service, HotWired spawned websites Webmonkey, the search engine HotBot, and a weblog, Suck. com. In June 1998, the magazine launched an index, The Wired Index. The fortune of the magazine and allied enterprises corresponded closely to that of the dot-com bubble, in 1996, Rossetto and the other participants in Wired Ventures attempted to take the company public with an IPO. The initial attempt had to be withdrawn in the face of a downturn in the stock market, the second try was also unsuccessful. Rossetto and Metcalfe lost control of Wired Ventures to financial investors Providence Equity Partners in May 1998, Wired was purchased by Advance Publications, who assigned it to Advances subsidiary, New York-based publisher Condé Nast Publications. Wired survived the bubble and found new direction under editor-in-chief Chris Anderson in 2001
24.
Libertarianism
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Libertarianism is a collection of political philosophies that uphold liberty as a core principle. Libertarians seek to maximize freedom and autonomy, emphasizing freedom of choice, voluntary association, individual judgment. Libertarians share a skepticism of authority and state power, however, they diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing political and economic systems. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the functions of state and private power. Some libertarians advocate laissez-faire capitalism and strong private property rights, such as in land, infrastructure, an additional line of division is between minarchists and anarchists. While minarchists think that a centralized government is necessary, anarchists and anarcho-capitalists propose to completely eliminate the state. The first recorded use of the term libertarian was in 1789, the word was again used in a political sense in 1802, in a short piece critiquing a poem by the author of Gebir, and has since been used with this meaning. Déjacque also used the term for his anarchist publication Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social, in the mid-1890s, Sébastien Faure began publishing a new Le Libertaire while Frances Third Republic enacted the lois scélérates, which banned anarchist publications in France. Libertarianism has frequently used as a synonym for anarchism since this time. Although the word continues to be widely used to refer to socialists internationally. Libertarianism in the United States has been described as conservative on issues and liberal on personal freedom. There is contention about whether right, left, and socialist libertarianism represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme, all libertarians begin with a conception of personal autonomy from which they argue in favor of civil liberties and a reduction or elimination of the state. Right-libertarianism developed in the United States in the century and is the most popular conception of libertarianism in that region. It is commonly referred to as a continuation or radicalization of classical liberalism, right-libertarians value the social institutions that enforce conditions of capitalism, while rejecting institutions that function in opposition to these institutions. These may be the byproducts of conservatism, one or more of its historically specific, but they are not its animating purpose. Such a view might seem miles away from the defense of the free market, with its celebration of the atomistic. When the libertarian looks out upon society, he does not see isolated individuals, he sees private, often hierarchical, groups, where a father governs his family and an owner his employees. Left-libertarianism encompasses those libertarian beliefs that claim the Earths natural resources belong to everyone in a manner, either unowned or owned collectively
25.
Pacific Research Institute
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PRI was founded in 1979 by British philanthropist Antony Fisher. The organization is active in the areas of education, economics, health care. From 1996 through 2009, the published an annual Index of Leading Environmental Indicators. PRI started the Center for Medicine in the Public Interest, a New York-based think tank focusing on health policy, state Policy Network Official website Organizational Profile – National Center for Charitable Statistics
26.
Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation
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The court ruled that, Apple cannot get patent-like protection for the idea of a graphical user interface, or the idea of a desktop metaphor. In the midst of the Apple v. Microsoft lawsuit, Xerox also sued Apple alleging that Macs GUI was heavily based on Xeroxs, the district court dismissed Xeroxs claims without addressing whether Apples GUI infringed Xeroxs. Apple lost all claims in the Microsoft suit except for the ruling that the trash can icon, the lawsuit was filed in 1988 and lasted four years, the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1994, and Apples appeal to the U. S. Supreme Court was denied. Apple added additional claims to the suit when Microsoft released Windows 3.0, after oral arguments, the court insisted on an analysis of specific GUI elements that Apple claimed were infringements. Midway through the suit, Xerox filed a lawsuit against Apple claiming Apple had infringed copyrights Xerox held on its GUIs. Xerox had invited the Macintosh design team to view their GUI computers at the PARC research lab, these visits had been very influential on the development of the Macintosh GUI. Xeroxs lawsuit appeared to be a move to ensure that if Apple v. Microsoft established that look and feel was copyrightable, then Xerox would be the primary beneficiary. The Xerox case was dismissed, for a variety of legal reasons, the district court ruled that it would require a standard of virtual identity between Windows and the Macintosh at trial in order for Apple to prove copyright infringement. Apple believed this to be too narrow of a standard and that a broad look. Illicit copying could occur if the works as a whole are virtually identical. However, the court did reverse the district courts decision not to award attorneys fees to Microsoft. Citing Brown Bag Software v. Symantec Corp. the circuit court dissected the GUI in order to separate expression from ideas. The court outlined five ideas that it identified as basic to a GUI desktop, windows, icon images of items, manipulations of icons, menus. The court established that Apple could not make claims based on these ideas. The court also pointed out many of Apples claims fail on an originality basis. Apple admittedly licensed many of its representations from Xerox, and copyright protection extends to original expression. Apple returned to its look and feel argument, stating that while the individual components were not original. The court rejected these arguments because the parts were not original and this also meant that the court avoided a more far-reaching look and feel copyright precedent ruling
27.
TD Ameritrade
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TD Ameritrade is a brokerage firm based in Omaha, Nebraska. The letters TD are derived from Toronto-Dominion Bank, the largest shareholder, the company provides services for individuals and institutions that are investing online. It also provides margin lending, and cash management services, as of September 30,2016, Ameritrade had 6,950,000 funded customer accounts and client assets of $773.8 billion. In fiscal year 2016, the company executed an average of 462,918 client transactions per day. In 1975, the Securities and Exchange Commission banned the practice of fixed brokerage commissions and J. Joseph Ricketts and 3 partners opened First Omaha Securities, Inc. in Omaha, in 1983, Ameritrade Clearing Inc. was established as a clearing broker. In 1988, the introduced the first quote and order entry system via the touch-tone phone. In 1995, the company acquired K. Aufhauser & Company, in January 1996, TransTerras Accutrade launched Accutrade for Windows, which led to a surge in investing online. In September 1996, TransTerra merged with Ameritrade, in March 1997, Ameritrade became a public company via an initial public offering. In February 2001, Ameritrade acquired TradeCast, which had approximately 60 broker/dealer, hedge fund, in July 2001, Ameritrade acquired National Discount Brokers Corporation, adding $6.3 billion in client assets. In September 2002, Ameritrade merged with Datek Online Holdings Corporation, in June 2003, Ameritrade purchased Mydiscountbroker. com. In 2004, Ameritrade completed the purchase of Bidwell and Company in January, BrokerageAmerica in February, in January 2006, Ameritrade Holding Corporation acquired TD Waterhouse from Toronto-Dominion Bank and was renamed TD Ameritrade. In May 2008, CEO Joe Moglia announced he would be vacating the CEO position, fredric Tomczyk, the former COO, was named his successor. In January 2009, TD Ameritrade acquired Thinkorswim, a producer of software for active traders, in a cash, in 2013, the company opened a new $250 million headquarters in Omaha. In October 2016, TD Ameritrade announced the acquisition of Scottrade in a $4 billion transaction, in November 2007, the company reported that hackers gained access to most of its clients names, Social Security numbers, dates of birth, addresses, phone numbers and trading activity. In 2011, after being sued in a class action lawsuit, the settlement was criticized for netting the attorneys almost as much money as the victims. In 2009, TD Ameritrade settled a lawsuit alleging it had marketed auction rate securities as short-term investments, the settlement included a $456 million payment and the buyback of the securities, compensating investors for losses. TD Ameritrade recommended to its customers to invest cash holdings in a money market fund that was an affiliate of the Reserve Primary Fund, TD Ameritrade received commissions from the fund for steering customers. TD Ameritrade was accused of having a conflict of interest as a result of commissions that it received, for having poor marketing ethics, and for misrepresenting the safety of the investment
28.
Hearst Communications
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Hearst Communications, often referred to as simply Hearst, is an American mass media and business information conglomerate. The Hearst company is based in the Hearst Tower in Midtown Manhattan and it was founded by William Randolph Hearst as an owner of newspapers, and the Hearst family remains involved in its ownership and management. Under William Randolph Hearsts will, a board of thirteen trustees administers the Hearst Foundation, the William Randolph Hearst Foundation. The foundations shared ownership until tax law changed to prevent this, Frank A. Bennack Jr. former chief executive officer and executive vice chairman of the corporation John G. Conomikes, former executive of the corporation Gilbert C. In 1880, George Hearst, mining entrepreneur, American publisher, on March 4,1887, he turned the Examiner over to his son, 23-year-old William Randolph Hearst. He pushed his staff to write exciting stories, and wrote editorials worded with force. Within a few years, the new Examiner was a success, in 1895, Hearst purchased the New York Journal, laying the foundation for one of the major newspaper dynasties in American history. He established Hearsts Chicago American in 1900, renamed the morning edition of the New York Journal as the New York American in 1901, the Los Angeles Examiner was launched in 1903 followed by the Boston American one year later. Hearst experimented with every aspect of publishing, from page layouts to editorial crusades. His newspapers introduced innovations such as presses, halftone photographs on newsprint, comic sections printed in color. Stories by Hearst correspondents from around the world were sold to newspapers, giving rise to the Hearst International News Service. In 1903, Hearst Magazines was begun with the publication of Motor magazine, within the next 10 years Hearst acquired several popular titles, starting in 1905 with Cosmopolitan and Good Housekeeping in 1911. Also in 1911, Hearst bought a middling monthly magazine called World To-Day, in June 1914, its title was shortened to Hearsts, and it was ultimately retitled Hearsts International in May 1922. In 1953 Hearst Magazines bought Sports Afield magazine which it kept until 1999 when it was sold to Robert E. Petersen, Hearst began producing film feature in the mid-1910s, creating one of the earliest animation studios, the International Film Service. Hearst established Cosmopolitan Pictures in the 1920s, distributing his films under the newly created Metro Goldwyn Mayer, in 1929, Hearst and MGM created the Hearst Metrotone newsreels. In order to spare serious cutbacks at San Simeon, Hearst merged Hearsts International magazine with Cosmopolitan effective March 1925, Hearst died in 1951, and the Hearsts International disappeared from the magazine cover altogether in April 1952. In the 1920s and 1930s, Hearst owned the biggest media conglomerate in the world, in 1924 he also merged his Milwaukee operations with the Pfister family, owners of The Milwaukee Sentinel. Hearst owned the evening Wisconsin News while the Pfisters kept the Sentinel adding Hearsts features from the now-folded Telegram, in 1925, Hearst sold the Syracuse Telegram to the owners of the Syracuse Journal, while selling the New York Mirror in 1928
29.
San Francisco Chronicle
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It was founded in 1865 as The Daily Dramatic Chronicle by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H. de Young. The paper is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which bought it from the de Young family in 2000. The paper benefited from the growth of San Francisco and was the largest circulation newspaper on the West Coast of the United States by 1880. Like many other newspapers, it has experienced a fall in circulation in the early 21st century. The newspaper publishes two web sites, SFGate, which has a mixture of news and web features. Between World War II and 1971, new editor Scott Josephine Newhall took a bold, the newspaper grew in circulation to become the citys largest, overtaking the rival San Francisco Examiner. The demise of other San Francisco dailies through the late 1950s and early 1960s left the Examiner, from 1965 on the two papers shared a single classified-advertising operation. This arrangement stayed in place until the Hearst Corporation took full control of the Chronicle, beginning in the early 1990s, the Chronicle started to face competition beyond the borders of San Francisco. The Chronicle launched five zoned sections to appear in the Friday edition of the paper, the sections covered San Francisco, and four different suburban areas. They each featured a unique columnist, enterprise pieces and local news specific to the community, the newspaper added 40 full-time staff positions to work in the suburban bureaus. The de Young family controlled the paper, via the Chronicle Publishing Company, until July 27,2000, following the sale, the Hearst Corporation transferred the Examiner to the Fang family, publisher of the San Francisco Independent and AsianWeek, along with a $66-million subsidy. Under the new owners, the Examiner became a free tabloid, in 1949, the de Young family founded KRON-TV, the Bay Areas third television station. Until the mid-1960s, the station, operated from the basement of the Chronicle Building, KRON moved to studios at 1001 Van Ness Avenue. The frequent bold-faced, all-capital-letter headlines typical of the Chronicles front page were eliminated, editor Ward Bushees note heralded the issue as the start of a new era for the Chronicle. On July 6,2009, the paper unveiled some alterations to the new design that included yet newer section fronts and wider use of color photographs and graphics. In a special section publisher Frank J. Vega described new, the newer look was accompanied by a reduction in size of the broadsheet. On November 9,2009, the Chronicle became the first newspaper in the nation to print on high-quality glossy paper, the high-gloss paper is used for some section fronts and inside pages. As of 2013 the publisher of the Chronicle is Jeffrey Johnson, audrey Cooper was named editor-in-chief in January 2015 and is the first woman to hold the position
30.
Oracle Corporation
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Oracle Corporation is a multinational computer technology corporation, headquartered in Redwood Shores, California. In 2015 Oracle was the second-largest software maker by revenue, after Microsoft, larry Ellison co-founded Oracle Corporation in 1977 with Bob Miner and Ed Oates under the name Software Development Laboratories. Ellison took inspiration from the 1970 paper written by Edgar F. Codd on relational database management systems named A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks and he heard about the IBM System R database from an article in the IBM Research Journal provided by Oates. Also derived from Codds theories, Ellison wanted to make Oracles product compatible with System R, SDL changed its name to Relational Software, Inc in 1979, then again to Oracle Systems Corporation in 1982, to align itself more closely with its flagship product Oracle Database. At this stage Bob Miner served as the senior programmer. In 1995, Oracle Systems Corporation changed its name to Oracle Corporation, officially named Oracle, but sometimes referred to as Oracle Corporation, part of Oracle Corporations early success arose from using the C programming language to implement its products. This eased porting to different operating systems, many of the products have been added to Oracles portfolio through acquisitions. Oracles E-delivery service provides generic downloadable Oracle software and documentation, Oracle Database Release 10, In 2004, Oracle Corporation shipped release 10g as the then latest version of Oracle Database. Release 11, Release 11g became the current Oracle Database version in 2007, Oracle Corporation released Oracle Database 11g Release 2 in September 2009. This version was available in four commercial editions—Enterprise Edition, Standard Edition, Standard Edition One, the licensing of these editions shows various restrictions and obligations that are considered complex. The Enterprise Edition, the most expensive of the Database Editions, has the fewest restrictions —, Oracle Corporation constrains the Standard Edition and Standard Edition One with more licensing restrictions, in accordance with their lower price. Release 12, Release 12c became available on July 1,2013, Oracle acquired Rdb in 1994 from Digital Equipment Corporation. Oracle has since made many enhancements to product and development continues as of 2008. Released in 2008, the Oracle Beehive collaboration software provides team workspaces, email, calendar, instant messaging, customers can use Beehive as licensed software or as software as a service. Oracle also sells a suite of business applications, users can access these facilities through a browser interface over the Internet or via a corporate intranet. The Social Engagement and Monitoring cloud provides the most effective and efficient responses across social, SEM is able to route correct responses to the right team, member, or customer-experience channel to ensure the best customer service. The analysis helps vendors to understand what is important to customers and it identifies trends, spikes, and anomalies to make real-time course corrections. It also can identify brand advocates, the SEM cloud identifies customer intention and interests by analyzing the common ways customers talk about a product or a service
31.
PeopleSoft
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It existed as an independent corporation until its acquisition by Oracle Corporation in 2005. The PeopleSoft name and product line are now marketed by Oracle, PeopleSoft Financial Management Solutions and Supply Chain Management are part of the same package, commonly known as Financials and Supply Chain Management. Founded in 1987 by Ken Morris and David Duffield, PeopleSoft was originally headquartered in Walnut Creek, California before moving to Pleasanton, Duffield envisioned a client–server version of Integral Systems popular mainframe HRMS package. The companys sole venture backing came from IBM, george J. Still, Jr. from Norwest Venture Partners joined the Board of Directors. PeopleSoft version 1, released in the late 1989, was the first fully integrated, PeopleSoft expanded its product range to include a financials module in 1992, distribution in 1994, and manufacturing in 1996 after the acquisition of Red Pepper. The original architecture for the PeopleSoft suite of products built on an approach with a dedicated client. With the release of version 8, the suite was rewritten as an n-tier web-centric design called PeopleSoft Internet Architecture. The new format allowed all of a companys business functions to be accessed, originally, a small number of security and system setup functions still needed to be performed on a fat-client machine, however, this is no longer the case. The PeopleSoft application suite can function as an ERP system, similar to SAP, implementation focuses on PeopleSofts proprietary PeopleTools technology. The metadata describes data for user interfaces, tables, messages, security, navigation, portals and this set of tools can make the PeopleSoft suite platform-independent. Application Engine - a batch-processing facility In 2003, PeopleSoft performed a friendly merger with smaller rival JD Edwards, the latters similar product line, World and OneWorld, targeted mid-sized companies too small to benefit from PeopleSofts applications. JD Edwards software used the Configurable Network Computing architecture, which shielded applications from both the system and the database back-end. PeopleSoft branded the OneWorld product PeopleSoft EnterpriseOne, beginning in 2003, Oracle began to maneuver for control of the PeopleSoft company. In June 2003, Oracle made a $13 billion bid in a corporate takeover attempt. In February 2004, Oracle decreased their bid to approximately $9.4 billion, complicating Oracles takeover attempt was PeopleSofts poison pill, allowing their customers to potentially receive refunds of 2-5x the amount they had paid in the case of a takeover. Later that month, the U. S. Department of Justice filed suit to block Oracle, in September 2004, the suit was rejected by a U. S. Federal judge, who found that the Justice Department had not proven its anti-trust case. In October, the decision was handed down by the European Commission. Though Oracle had reduced its offer to $7.7 billion in May, in December 2004, Oracle announced that it had signed a definitive merger agreement to acquire PeopleSoft for approximately $10.3 billion
32.
United States Department of Justice
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The department was formed in 1870 during the Ulysses S. Grant administration. In its early years, the DOJ vigorously prosecuted Ku Klux Klan members, the Department of Justice administers several federal law enforcement agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Drug Enforcement Administration. The department has responsibility to investigate instances of fraud, to represent the United States in legal matters such as in the Supreme Court. The department also has responsibilities to review actions of law enforcement conduct by the Violent Crime Control. The Department is headed by the United States Attorney General, who is nominated by the President, the current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions. The U. S. Attorney General was initially a one-person and it was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, but this grew with the bureaucracy. At one time the Attorney General gave legal advice to the U. S. Congress as well as the President, until March 3,1853, the salary of the Attorney General was set by statute at less than the amount paid to other Cabinet members. Early Attorneys General supplemented their salary by engaging in private practice of law. Following unsuccessful efforts to put the Attorney Generals Office on a footing, in 1869. On February 19,1868, Lawrence introduced a bill in Congress to create the Department of Justice, President Ulysses S. Grant then signed the bill into law on June 22,1870. The Department of Justice officially began operations on July 1,1870, just prior to the Civil War, in February 1861, the Confederate States of America established a Department of Justice. Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as Americas first Solicitor General, both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s. In the first few years of Grants first term in there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice. The result was a decrease in violence in the South. Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was better or stronger then Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists. Akermans successor, George H. Williams, in December 1871, the law did create a new office, that of Solicitor General, to supervise and conduct government litigation in the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1884, control of federal prisons was transferred to the new department, new facilities were built, including the penitentiary at Leavenworth in 1895, and a facility for women located in West Virginia, at Alderson was established in 1924. The U. S. Department of Justice building was completed in 1935 from a design by Milton Bennett Medary, upon Medarys death in 1929, the other partners of his Philadelphia firm Zantzinger, Borie and Medary took over the project
33.
California Proposition 8 (2008)
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Proposition 8, known informally as Prop 8, was a California ballot proposition and a state constitutional amendment passed in the November 2008 California state elections. Proposition 8 was ultimately ruled unconstitutional by a court in 2010, although the court decision did not go into effect until June 26,2013. The official proponents justifications for the measure were analyzed in over fifty pages covering eighty findings of fact, the state government supported the ruling and refused to defend the law. The ruling was stayed pending appeal by the proponents of the initiative, on February 7,2012, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, in a 2-1 decision, reached the same conclusion as the district court, but on narrower grounds. The court ruled that it was unconstitutional for California to grant marriage rights to same-sex couples, the ruling was stayed pending appeal to the United States Supreme Court. The decision left the district courts 2010 ruling intact, in 2000, the State of California adopted Proposition 22 which, as an ordinary statute, forbade recognition or licensing of same-sex marriages in the state. Proposition 8 was created by opponents of same-sex marriage prior to the ruling on In re Marriage Cases as a voter ballot initiative. The proposition did not affect domestic partnerships in California, nor did it reverse same-sex marriages that had performed during the interim period May to November 2008. Proposition 8 came into effect on November 5,2008. Demonstrations and protests occurred across the state and nation, in Strauss v. Horton, the California Supreme Court upheld Proposition 8, but allowed the existing same-sex marriages to stand. Although upheld in State court, Proposition 8 was ruled unconstitutional by the federal courts, Walker issued a stay against enforcing Proposition 8 and a stay to determine suspension of his ruling pending appeal. The State of California did not appeal the ruling leaving the initiative proponents, the California Supreme Court ruled that they did. This left the federal district court ruling against Proposition 8 as the final outcome. To qualify for the ballot, Proposition 8 needed 694,354 valid petition signatures, the initiative proponents submitted 1,120,801 signatures, and on June 2,2008, the initiative qualified for the November 4,2008 election ballot through the random sample signature check. Proposition 8 consisted of two sections and its full text was, Section I. Section 7.5 is added to the California Constitution, to read, On July 16,2008, the petition asserted the proposition should not be on the ballot on the grounds it was a constitutional revision that only the Legislature or a constitutional convention could place before voters. Opponents also argued that the petitions circulated to qualify the measure for the ballot inaccurately summarized its effect, the court denied the petition without comment. As a general rule, it is improper for courts to adjudicate pre-election challenges to a measures substantive validity and they also declared that the same-sex marriages performed prior to the passing of Prop 8 would remain valid
34.
California Proposition 22 (2000)
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Proposition 22 was a law enacted by California voters in March 2000 to restrict marriage to opposite-sex couples. In May 2008, it was struck down by the California Supreme Court as contrary to the state constitution, the Act was proposed by means of the initiative process. It was authored by state Senator William Pete Knight and is known informally as the Knight initiative, voters adopted the measure on March 7,2000, with 61% in favor to 39% against. The margin of victory surprised many, since a Field Poll immediately prior to the election estimated support at 53%, with 40% against and 7% undecided. The Act added Section 308.5 of the Family Code and this 4–3 decision invalidated Proposition 22 and some related California laws. Proposition 22 provoked debate long after its passage, in November 2008 California voters overturned the In re Marriage Cases decision by approving an amendment of the state constitution called Proposition 8. In June 2013, the United States Supreme Court in Hollingsworth v. Prior to 1977 and this stated that marriage is a personal relation arising out of a civil contract, to which consent of the parties making that contract is necessary. That year, the legislature amended the definition of marriage to remove any ambiguity. In 1992 the legal definition of marriage was moved from the Civil Code to Section 300 of the Family Code and this stated that a marriage contracted outside this state that would be valid by the laws of the jurisdiction in which the marriage was contracted is valid in this state. Advocates of Proposition 22 described Section 308 as a loophole, apparently forcing California to recognize a same-sex marriage validly contracted in other state. The official citation of Proposition 22, the California Defense of Marriage Act, is almost the same as that of a law, the Defense of Marriage Act. This federal law had a purpose, and was intended to prevent any state from being obligated to recognize a same-sex marriage contracted in another state. Central to many subsequent disputes over Prop 22s effect is a distinction between statutes enacted by the legislature and initiative statutes enacted directly by the electorate, in 1999, California enacted the first in a series of domestic partnership provisions. California courts have entertained several challenges to legislative expansions of the domestic partnership scheme enacted after Prop 22, California Courts of Appeal rejected those claims, noting that domestic partnerships already existed as a legal institution separate from marriage at the time Prop 22 was enacted. In September 2005, the California legislature passed a bill, A. B.849, governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the bill. In his veto message, Schwarzenegger argued that passing a law that would implicitly repeal Section 308.5 required the assent of the electorate. In ruling on the disputes between Prop 22 and the domestic partnership enactments, California Courts of Appeal have reached differing conclusions as to Prop 22s scope within the marriage statutes. In Armijo v. With the passage of Proposition 22, then, the Armijo court may not have ruled that the historical purpose of Prop 22 limited its scope to out of state marriages
35.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
36.
8 (play)
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It was created by Dustin Lance Black in light of the courts denial of a motion to release a video recording of the trial and to give the public a true account of what transpired in the courtroom. The play is written in the style of verbatim theatre reenactment, using transcripts from the trial, journalist records, and media interviews from the plaintiffs, defendants and proponents involved. 8 first premiered on September 19,2011 at the Eugene ONeill Theatre in New York City, a radio adaptation was broadcast on JOY94.9, a GLBTIQ community radio station in Melbourne, Australia, on 27 March 2014. In May 2009, AFER filed a lawsuit, Perry v. Schwarzenegger, the same-sex couples were represented by David Boies and former U. S. Solicitor General Theodore Olson, two high profile attorneys who opposed each other in the U. S. Supreme Court case, the defense presented only two expert witnesses who were willing to testify under oath. David Blankenhorn, who had allowed to testify for the defense, was ultimately judged as lacking the qualifications to offer opinion testimony. During Blankenhorns cross-examination, he identified 23 benefits of adopting same-sex marriage, published on page 203 of his book The Future of Marriage, opponents of same-sex marriage were unable to provide credible evidence proving their claim that same-sex marriage would harm society or the institution of marriage. The following is a list of the cast of characters, along with the actors that portrayed them in the two premieres
37.
Brad Pitt
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William Bradley Brad Pitt in Shawnee Oklahoma. He is an American actor and producer and he has received multiple awards and nominations including an Academy Award as producer under his own company Plan B Entertainment. Pitt first gained recognition as a hitchhiker in the road movie Thelma & Louise. His first leading roles in big-budget productions came with the dramas A River Runs Through It and Legends of the Fall, Pitt starred in the cult film Fight Club and the heist film Oceans Eleven and its sequels, Oceans Twelve and Oceans Thirteen. As a public figure, Pitt has been cited as one of the most influential and powerful people in the American entertainment industry, as well as the worlds most attractive man and his personal life is also the subject of wide publicity. Divorced from actress Jennifer Aniston, to whom he was married for five years and they have six children together, three of whom were adopted internationally. In September 2016, Jolie filed for divorce from Pitt, William Bradley Pitt was born in Shawnee, Oklahoma, to William Bill Alvin Pitt, manager of a trucking company, and Jane Etta, a school counsellor. The family soon moved to Springfield, Missouri, where he lived together with his siblings, Douglas. Pitt has described Springfield as Mark Twain country, Jesse James country, having grown up with a lot of hills, Pitt attended Kickapoo High School, where he was a member of the golf, swimming and tennis teams. He participated in the schools Key and Forensics clubs, in school debates, following his graduation from high school, Pitt enrolled in the University of Missouri in 1982, majoring in journalism with a focus on advertising. As graduation approached, Pitt did not feel ready to settle down and he loved films—a portal into different worlds for me—and, since films were not made in Missouri, he decided to go to where they were made. Two weeks before earning his degree, Pitt left the university and moved to Los Angeles, while struggling to establish himself in Los Angeles, Pitt took lessons from acting coach Roy London. Pitts acting career began in 1987, with uncredited parts in the films No Way Out, No Mans Land and his television debut came in May 1987 with a two-episode role on the NBC soap opera Another World. In November of the same year Pitt had a guest appearance on the ABC sitcom Growing Pains and he appeared in four episodes of the CBS primetime series Dallas between December 1987 and February 1988 as Randy, the boyfriend of Charlie Wade. Later in 1988, Pitt made a guest appearance on the Fox police drama 21 Jump Street, in the same year, the Yugoslavian–U. S. Co-production The Dark Side of the Sun gave Pitt his first leading film role, the film was shelved at the outbreak of the Croatian War of Independence, and was not released until 1997. He made guest appearances on television series Head of the Class, Freddys Nightmares, Thirtysomething, and Growing Pains. Pitt was cast as Billy Canton, an addict who takes advantage of a young runaway in the 1990 NBC television movie Too Young to Die. the story of an abused teenager sentenced to death for a murder
38.
Bob Balaban
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Robert Elmer Bob Balaban is an American actor, author, producer, and director. He was one of the producers nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture for Gosford Park, Balaban was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Eleanor and Elmer Balaban, who owned several movie theatres and later was a pioneer in cable television. His mother acted under the name Eleanor Barry and his uncles were dominant forces in the theatre business, they founded the Balaban and Katz Theatre circuit in Chicago, a chain which included the Chicago and Uptown Theatres. Balabans father, Elmer, and uncle, Harry, founded the H & E Balaban Corporation in Chicago and they later owned a powerful group of television stations and cable television franchises. His uncle Barney Balaban was president of Paramount Pictures for nearly 30 years from 1936-64 and his maternal grandmothers second husband, Sam Katz, was a vice president at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer beginning in 1936. Sam had been partners with Bobs uncles Abe, Barney, John. Sam served as President of the Publix theatre division of Paramount Pictures, Balaban began his college career at Colgate University where he joined Phi Kappa Tau Fraternity and then transferred to New York University. He lives on the Upper West Side of Manhattan with his family and his paternal grandparents emigrated from Russia to Chicago, while his mothers family was from Germany, Russia, and Romania. One of his earliest appearances in film was in Midnight Cowboy, prior to that, he filled the role of Linus in the original off-Broadway production of Youre A Good Man, Charlie Brown in 1967. In 1979 he received a Tony Award nomination for his role in The Inspector General, during the 1980s he appeared in films such as Altered States and 2010. He directed the Randy Quaid picture Parents, and the Armin Mueller-Stahl picture The Last Good Time, Balaban appeared in Miami Vice as reporter Ira Stone. In the 1990s, Balaban had a role on the fourth season of Seinfeld as Russell Dalrymple. He also played Warren Littlefield, a real-world NBC executive, in The Late Shift and he continued his ties to Littlefield in 2012 with his performance of Littlefields autobiography, Top of the Rock, Inside the Rise and Fall of Must See TV. In 1999, Balaban made a guest appearance in the sitcom Friends as Phoebe Buffays father Frank in The One With Joeys Bag. In 2010, Balaban appeared as Judge Clayton Horn, the judge who presided over the obscenity trial of Lawrence Ferlinghetti. In 2001, Balaban produced Gosford Park, for which he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture and he also appeared in the movie as Morris Weissman, a Hollywood producer. He appeared in an episode of Entourage as a known for writing prescriptions for medical marijuana. He directed the film Bernard and Doris, starring Susan Sarandon and he has directed several episodes of the Showtime series Nurse Jackie
39.
Los Angeles Times
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The Los Angeles Times, commonly referred to as the Times or LA Times, is a paid daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, since 1881. It was the largest metropolitan newspaper in circulation in the United States in 2008, the Times is owned by tronc. The Times was first published on December 4,1881, as the Los Angeles Daily Times under the direction of Nathan Cole Jr. and it was first printed at the Mirror printing plant, owned by Jesse Yarnell and T. J. Unable to pay the bill, Cole and Gardiner turned the paper over to the Mirror Company. Mathes had joined the firm, and it was at his insistence that the Times continued publication, in July 1882, Harrison Gray Otis moved from Santa Barbara to become the papers editor. Otis made the Times a financial success, in an era where newspapers were driven by party politics, the Times was directed at Republican readers. As was typical of newspapers of the time, the Times would sit on stories for several days, historian Kevin Starr wrote that Otis was a businessman capable of manipulating the entire apparatus of politics and public opinion for his own enrichment. Otiss editorial policy was based on civic boosterism, extolling the virtues of Los Angeles, the efforts of the Times to fight local unions led to the October 1,1910 bombing of its headquarters, killing twenty-one people. Two union leaders, James and Joseph McNamara, were charged, the American Federation of Labor hired noted trial attorney Clarence Darrow to represent the brothers, who eventually pleaded guilty. Upon Otiss death in 1917, his son-in-law, Harry Chandler, Harry Chandler was succeeded in 1944 by his son, Norman Chandler, who ran the paper during the rapid growth of post-war Los Angeles. Family members are buried at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery near Paramount Studios, the site also includes a memorial to the Times Building bombing victims. The fourth generation of family publishers, Otis Chandler, held that position from 1960 to 1980, Otis Chandler sought legitimacy and recognition for his familys paper, often forgotten in the power centers of the Northeastern United States due to its geographic and cultural distance. He sought to remake the paper in the model of the nations most respected newspapers, notably The New York Times, believing that the newsroom was the heartbeat of the business, Otis Chandler increased the size and pay of the reporting staff and expanded its national and international reporting. In 1962, the paper joined with the Washington Post to form the Los Angeles Times-Washington Post News Service to syndicate articles from both papers for news organizations. During the 1960s, the paper won four Pulitzer Prizes, more than its previous nine decades combined, eventually the coupon-clipping branches realized that they could make more money investing in something other than newspapers. Under their pressure the companies went public, or split apart, thats the pattern followed over more than a century by the Los Angeles Times under the Chandler family. The papers early history and subsequent transformation was chronicled in an unauthorized history Thinking Big and it has also been the whole or partial subject of nearly thirty dissertations in communications or social science in the past four decades. In 2000, the Tribune Company acquired the Times, placing the paper in co-ownership with then-WB -affiliated KTLA, which Tribune acquired in 1985
