1.
Chokha
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The Chokha is a wool coat with a high neck that is part of the traditional male dress of the peoples of the Caucasus. France may be known for its berets, and Spain for its mantillas, nearly every Georgian household has photos of ancestors adorned in chokhas. Once a symbol of resistance to Bolshevik Russia’s 1921 takeover of an independent Georgia, the chokha has now come to represent a Georgia reborn, increasingly worn by Georgian men at weddings and official functions, the eye-catching garb is finally experiencing a comeback in Georgia. The Chokha revival is taking place in parallel with a resurgence of interest in other mainstays of Georgian culture – the Georgian Orthodox Church, Georgian folk dancing, “When you love your Chokha, you love your country. When you love your country, you love your traditions, the Chokha emphasizes I am a Georgian. A leader of the All-Georgia Chokha Society said, the Chokha is truly a strong representation of Georgian national pride. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili ordered high-ranking Georgian officials working abroad to present themselves in national costumes at the official meetings. There are Four types of Chokha, Kartl-Kakheti chokha, Khevsur Chokha, Adjarian chokha, Caucasian Chokha originated in Caucasus in mountainous sites of Georgia, though the word Chokha isnt in Georgian language but from Persian. Originally the cloth in Georgia was referred as Talavari but later on after Persian invasions in Georgia, the name of the cloth mostly known as chokha, the Russians who came to the Caucasus through Circassia called it Cherkeska, and the Cossacks adopted it as their national cloth. In Circassian Language Chokha is known as Shwakh-Tsia which means covers the horseman or simply Tsia which means from fabric, the authentic Caucasian Chokha became instantly popular in entire Caucasus, it derived from caucasus and has been commonly used in Southern and Northern slopes of it. In earlier Georgian records Chokha was mostly referred as Talavari, in Georgia, the Black chokha was reserved to the Order of Chokhosani who represented the elite society of the citizens. These were people with special dedications such as, Great generals, heroes or some of the famous poets, not even all of Lords were allowed in Chokhosani Order and those who did proudly represented this rank in their Garbs. Chokha is sewn of thick fabric and flares out at the bottom, in some parts of the Caucasus there are also female chokhas. In the late 19th century and early 20th century there were three types of chokhas, the Khevsur chokha, the Kartl-Kakheti chokha and general Caucasian chokha, the Khevsur chokha was worn in the Khevsureti province of Georgia in the Greater Caucasus mountains. Khevsur chokha is considered to be the closest to the version of chokha. It is mostly short with trapezoid shapes, the front side of the chokha has rich decorations and cuts on the sides, which extend to the waist. The Khevsur chokha has rich decorations made up of crosses and icons, the Kartl-Kakheti chokha is longer than the Khevsur chokha and has triangle-like shapes on the chest exposing the inner cloth called arkhalukhi. It tends to have bandoliers on both sides of the chest, spaces filled with bullet-like decorations called Masri, the bottom sides usually had cuts on the sides and people wore it usually without belts
2.
Alexander Roinashvili
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Alexander Roinashvili was the first Georgian photographer. He is known for his photos of the Caucasian landscapes and portraits of contemporary Georgian intellectuals, born in the mountainous community of Dusheti, east Georgia, then part of the Russian Empire, Roinashvili took photographic classes at the Khlamov studio in Tiflis. He began his career as a photographer in Tiflis in 1865 and soon set up his own studio
3.
Tiflis Governorate
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Tiflis Governorate was one of the guberniyas of the Russian Empire with its centre in Tiflis. In 1897 it constituted 44,607 sq. kilometres in area and had a population of 1,051,032 inhabitants, the governorate used to border Elisabethpol Governorate, Erivan Governorate, Kutaisi Governorate, Zakatali okrug, Dagestan Oblast, Terek Oblast, and Kars Oblast. It covered present southeastern Georgia, northern Armenia and northwestern Azerbaijan, Tiflis Governorate was established in 1846 along with the Kutaisi Governorate, after the dissolution of the Georgia-Imeretia Governorate. It was initially formed from uyezds of Tiflis, Gori, Telavi, Signakh, Yelizavetpol, Erivan, Nakhichevan and Alexandropol and okrugs of Zakataly, in 1849, uyezds of Erivan, Nakhichevan and Alexandropol were attached to Erivan Governorate. In 1859 Ossetian okrug became part of Gori district and Tushino-pshaw-Khevsurian okrug was renamed to Tionets, in 1868 Yelizavetpol uyezd was part of Elisabethpol Governorate. In 1874, the part of Akhaltsikhe uyezd was to become Akhalkalaki one. Finally southern part of Tiflis Uyezd was to become Borchali Uyezd, the governorate lasted in these boundaries for 50 years, until the Democratic Republic of Georgia was founded. Ethnic Georgians constituted 44. 3% of the population, followed by Armenians, Azeris, Russians, Ossetians, Avars, Greeks, Turks, more than half of the population adhered to Eastern Orthodox Christianity with significant Muslim, Catholic and Jewish minorities. The administration tasks in the governorate were executed by a governor, sometimes, a military governor was appointed as well. William Henry Beable, Governments or Provinces of the Former Russian Empire, Tiflis, Russian Gazetteer and Guide, London, Russian Outlook – via Open Library
4.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
5.
Georgia (country)
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Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi, Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres, and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy, during the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century, a unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various treaties with Iran. Since the establishment of the modern Georgian republic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil, the countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and it contains two de facto independent regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgias sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Georgia probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān, starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi, the medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the name Sakartvelo consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i, specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, ancient Greeks and Romans referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. Today the full, official name of the country is Georgia, before the 1995 constitution came into force the countrys name was the Republic of Georgia. The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era, the proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC. The earliest evidence of wine to date has found in Georgia. In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, the classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east
6.
Tbilisi
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Tbilisi, commonly known by its former name Tiflis, is the capital and the largest city of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Kura River with a population of roughly 1.5 million inhabitants. Founded in the 5th century by the monarch of Georgias ancient precursor the Kingdom of Iberia, Tbilisi has since served, with intermissions, as the capital of various Georgian kingdoms and republics. Under Russian rule, from 1801 to 1917 Tiflis was the seat of the Imperial Viceroy governing both sides of the entire Caucasus. Tbilisis varied history is reflected in its architecture, which is a mix of medieval, classical, Middle Eastern, Art Nouveau, historically, Tbilisi has been home to people of diverse cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds, though it is overwhelmingly Eastern Orthodox Christian. Archaeological studies of the region have indicated human settlement in the territory of Tbilisi as early as the 4th millennium BC, according to an old legend, the present-day territory of Tbilisi was covered by forests as late as 458. One widely accepted variant of the legend of Tbilisis founding states that King Vakhtang I Gorgasali of Georgia went hunting in the wooded region with a falcon. The Kings falcon allegedly caught or injured a pheasant during the hunt, King Vakhtang became so impressed with the hot springs that he decided to cut down the forest and build a city on the location. The name Tbilisi derives from Old Georgian Tbilisi, and further from Tpili, the name Tbili or Tbilisi was therefore given to the city because of the areas numerous sulphuric hot springs that came out of the ground. King Dachi I Ujarmeli, who was the successor of Vakhtang I Gorgasali, Tbilisi was not the capital of a unified Georgian state at that time and did not include the territory of Colchis. It was, however, the city of Eastern Georgia/Iberia. During his reign, King Dachi I oversaw the construction of the wall that lined the citys new boundaries. From the 6th century, Tbilisi grew at a steady pace due to the favourable and strategic location which placed the city along important trade. Tbilisis favourable and strategic location did not necessarily bode well for its existence as Eastern Georgias/Iberias capital, in the year 627, Tbilisi was sacked by the Byzantine/Khazar armies and later, in 736–738, Arab armies entered the town under Marwan II Ibn-Muhammad. After this point, the Arabs established an emirate centered in Tbilisi, in 764, Tbilisi, still under Arab control was once again sacked by the Khazars. In 853, the armies of Arab leader Bugha Al-Turki invaded Tbilisi in order to enforce its return to Abbasid allegiance, the Arab domination of Tbilisi continued until about 1050. In 1068, the city was again sacked, only this time by the Seljuk Turks under Sultan Alp Arslan. In 1122, after fighting with the Seljuks that involved at least 60,000 Georgians and up to 300,000 Turks. After the battles for Tbilisi concluded, David moved his residence from Kutaisi to Tbilisi, making it the capital of a unified Georgian State, from 12–13th centuries, Tbilisi became a dominant regional power with a thriving economy and a well-established social system/structure
7.
Mtatsminda Pantheon
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The Mtatsminda Pantheon of Writers and Public Figures is a necropolis in Tbilisi, Georgia, where some of the most prominent writers, artists, scholars, and national heroes of Georgia are buried. It is located in the churchyard around St. David’s Church Mamadaviti on the slope of Mount Mtatsminda and was established in 1929. Atop the mountain is Mtatsminda Park, an amusement park owned by the municipality of Tbilisi, the first celebrities to be buried at this place were the Russian writer Alexander Griboyedov and his Georgian wife Nino Chavchavadze. The Pantheon was officially opened in 1929 to celebrate a 100-year anniversary of Griboyedov’s death in Iran, since then, several illustrious Georgians have been buried or reburied there. The Pantheon is administered by the Government of Tbilisi and is frequented by locals as well as the city’s visitors
8.
Georgians
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The Georgians or Kartvelians are a nation and ethnic group who constitute a majority of the population in Georgia. Large Georgian communities are present throughout Russia, Turkey, Greece, Iran, Ukraine, United States. Georgians arose from the ancient Colchian and Iberian civilizations, there are also small Georgian Catholic and Muslim communities in Tbilisi and Adjara, as well as a significant number of irreligious Georgians. By the early 11th century they formed a unified Kingdom of Georgia and inaugurated the Georgian Golden Age and this lasted until being weakened by Mongol invasions, as well as internal divisions following the death of George V the Brilliant, the last of the great kings of Georgia. To ensure Georgias survival, in 1783 Heraclius II of Georgia forged an alliance with the Russian Empire, the Russo-Georgian alliance, however, backfired as Russia was unwilling to fulfill the terms of the treaty, proceeding to annex the troubled kingdom in 1801. Georgians briefly reasserted their independence from Russia under the First Georgian Republic from 1918-1921, Georgians call themselves Kartvelebi, their land Sakartvelo, and their language Kartuli. According to The Georgian Chronicles, the ancestor of the Kartvelian people was Kartlos, however, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the latter being one of the proto-Georgian tribes that emerged as a dominant group in ancient times. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians, the term Georgians is derived from the country of Georgia. Starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. Scholars usually refer to them as Proto-Kartvelian tribes, the Georgian people in antiquity have been known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Colchians and Iberians. East Georgian tribes of Tibarenians-Iberians formed their kingdom in 7th century BCE, however, western Georgian tribes established the first Georgian state of Colchis before the foundation of the Iberian Kingdom in the east. According to the scholars of Georgia, the formations of these two early Georgian kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia, resulted in the consolidation and uniformity of the Georgian nation. The ancient Jewish chronicle by Josephus mentions Georgians as Iberes who were also called Thobel, diauehi in Assyrian sources and Taochi in Greek lived in the northeastern part of Anatolia, a region that was part of Georgia. This ancient tribe is considered by scholars as ancestors of the Georgians. Modern Georgians still refer to this region, which now belongs to present-day Turkey, as Tao-Klarjeti, some people there still speak the Georgian language. Colchians in the ancient western Georgian Kingdom of Colchis were another proto-Georgian tribed and they are first mentioned in the Assyrian annals of Tiglath-Pileser I and in the annals of Urartian king Sarduri II, and are also included western Georgian tribe of the Meskhetians. Iberians, also known as Tiberians or Tiberanians, lived in the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Iberia, both Colchians and Iberians played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the modern Georgian nation
9.
Epic poetry
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An epic poem, epic, epos, or epopee is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation. Milman Parry and Albert Lord have argued that the Homeric epics and these works form the basis of the epic genre in Western literature. Nearly all Western epic self-consciously presents itself as a continuation of the tradition begun by these poems, classical epic employs dactylic hexameter and recounts a journey, either physical or mental or both. Epics also tend to highlight cultural norms and to define or call into question cultural values, another type of epic poetry is epyllion, which is a brief narrative poem with a romantic or mythological theme. The term, which means little epic, came into use in the nineteenth century, the most famous example of classical epyllion is perhaps Catullus 64. The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral history poetic traditions, in these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. Early twentieth-century study of living oral traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and this facilitates memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it. Parry and Lord also contend that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance, poets in literate societies have sometimes copied the epic format. The earliest surviving European examples are the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes and Virgils Aeneid, other obvious examples are Nonnus Dionysiaca, Tulsidas Sri Ramacharit Manas. In his work Poetics, Aristotle defines an epic as one of the forms of poetry, contrasted with lyric poetry, an attempt to delineate ten main characteristics of an epic, Begins in medias res. The setting is vast, covering many nations, the world or the universe, Begins with an invocation to a muse. Begins with a statement of the theme, contains long lists, called an epic catalogue. Shows divine intervention on human affairs, features heroes that embody the values of the civilization. Often features the tragic heros descent into the Underworld or hell, the hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat him in his journey and returns home significantly transformed by his journey. The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by the society the epic originates from, many epic heroes are recurring characters in the legends of their native culture. Conventions of epics, Preposition, Opens by stating the theme or cause of the epic and this may take the form of a purpose, of a question, or of a situation. Invocation, Writer invokes a Muse, one of the nine daughters of Zeus, the poet prays to the Muses to provide him with divine inspiration to tell the story of a great hero
10.
Modernism
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Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
11.
Host and Guest
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Host and Guest is an epic poem by the Georgian poet, writer and philosopher Vazha-Pshavela. The poem was first published in 1893 in Tbilisi, and it is considered to be the masterpiece of the Georgian literature and it is compulsory reeding in Georgian schools. A film based on the poem was made in 1967 by Tengiz Abuladze, though the host, Joqola, is Muslim, and his guest, Zviadauri, is Christian, the poem refers only very vaguely to their differing religious and cultural traditions. It is more about the intertwining of their fates -- and the dignity with which they face their inevitable ends -- once theyve tripped the wire of their communities savage. These are men who value action over words, so the clipped exchanges Reed writes for them convey an earthy stoicism, after Joqola invites his new companion to his home, to gut and celebrate their kill, their joy is evoked in a virile, ritualized dance. In the manner of all kinds of knee-jerk vengefulness, things fall apart for them and Joqolas wife. The village, outraged at Joqolas flouting of the taboo against giving comfort to the enemy, rally around the rabble-rousing elder Musa, who demands that Joqola turn over his guest to them. The dissident Joqola, however, citing the revered local mandate for civility and hospitality - The guest, he recites, the descent into calamity is orchestrated with a paradoxical beauty. From a sacrifice conducted in the cemetery to the outfitting of combatants in the rival village. Drumbeats and ethereal recorded voices further cement the tension and this Poem is translated into several languages, including, English, French, Russian, German, Spanish, Italian and other languages. The poem begins, The poem ends, See this for English translation by Lela Jgerenaia, the film version made by Tengiz Abuladze in 1967 was his great cinematic success in Georgia. Kist people Khevsurians 1893 in poetry Poems free text translated by Lela Jgerenaia ABOUT LITERATURE – VAZHA-PSHAVELA The Plea review
12.
Mononymous person
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A mononymous person is an individual who is known and addressed by a mononym, or single name. In some cases, that name has been selected by the individual, in other cases, it has been determined by the custom of the country or by some interested segment. In the case of historical figures, it may be the one of the individuals names that has survived and is still known today. The structure of persons names has varied across time and geography, in some societies, individuals have been mononymous, receiving only a single name. Alulim, first king of Sumer, is one of the earliest names known, Narmer, later, Biblical names were typically mononymous, as were names in the surrounding cultures of the Fertile Crescent. Mononyms in other ancient cultures include the Celtic queen Boudica and the Numidian king Jugurtha, however the historical record of eg Boudicca is scanty, and there is no evidence that she did not also have other names. Between Columbus arrival in the New World and the late 19th century, examples include Moctezuma, Anacaona, Agüeybaná, Diriangen, Urracá, Guamá, Atahualpa, Lempira, Lautaro, Tamanaco, Pocahontas, Auoindaon, Cangapol, and Tecumseh. Uniquely, the Dutch-Seneca diplomat Cornplanter received both a Seneca-language mononym from his mother and a name and surname from his father. His later descendants, such as Jesse Cornplanter, used Cornplanter as the name instead of Abeel. In the 19th century, most chiefs involved in the Apache Wars had mononym birth names, and some replaced those with mononymous nicknames, Geronimo, Victorio, Cochise, and so on. Since the medieval period, mononyms in the west have almost exclusively used to identify people who already had surnames. These nicknames were either adopted by the persons themselves or conferred by contemporaries, some French authors have shown a preference for mononyms. In the 17th century, the dramatist and actor Jean-Baptiste Poquelin took the stage name Molière. In the 18th century, François-Marie Arouet adopted the mononym Voltaire, the new name combined several features. Arouet would not have served the purpose, given that names associations with roué, in the 20th century, a fourth French writer, Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette, used her actual surname as her mononym pen name, Colette. Some French actors and singers have used their name or surname as a stage mononym. In the 17th and 18th centuries, most Italian castrato singers used mononyms as stage names, the German writer, mining engineer and philosopher, Georg Friedrich Philipp Freiherr von Hardenberg, became famous as Novalis. In 2002 Multatuli was proclaimed by the Society for Dutch Literature to have been the most important Dutch writer of all time, the Dutch writer Jan Hendrik Frederik Grönloh wrote under the pseudonym Nescio
13.
Pshavi
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2) the c. 3) a half-dozen villages along the upper reaches of the Iori River Valley, which flows south into Tianeti. An early twentieth-century census of Pshavi counted 210 households in Pshavi proper and 368 in Lower Pshavi, the Pshavs speak a dialect of Georgian close to that spoken by their neighbours, the Khevsurs. Their history, traditions and customs are similar to those of their eastern Georgian neighbours. The popular Georgian poet Luka Razikashvili, best known by his pen name Vaja-Pshavela, was born in the village of Chargali, which now houses his house museum. Pkhovi A Soviet-era 1,50,000 topographical map of Pshavi proper and another of Lower Pshavi. kmz files for use with Google Earth plotting all the villages of Pshavi proper and of Lower Pshavi
14.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
15.
Saint Petersburg State University
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Saint Petersburg State University is a Russian federal state-owned higher education institution based in Saint Petersburg. It is the oldest and one of the largest universities in Russia, the university has two primary campuses, one on Vasilievsky Island and the other in Peterhof. During the Soviet period, it was known as Leningrad State University and it was named after Andrei Zhdanov in 1948. Saint Petersburg State University is the second best multi-faculty university in Russia after Moscow State University, the university has a reputation for having educated the majority of Russias political elite, these include presidents Vladimir Putin and Dimitry Medvedev, both of whom studied Law at the university. The university is Russias oldest university, founded in 1724 by Peter the Great, Saint Petersburg state university is included in all ratings and lists of the best universities in the world and is one of the leaders in all indicators in Russia. The university was the first from Russian universities to join The Coimbra Group and it is disputed by the university administration whether Saint Petersburg State University or Moscow State University is the oldest higher education institution in Russia. The Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, renamed the Main Pedagogical Institute in 1814, was established in 1804, in 1823 most of the university moved from the Twelve Collegia to the southern part of the city beyond the Fontanka. In 1824 a modified version of the charter of Moscow University was adopted as the first charter of the Saint Petersburg Imperial University, in 1829 there were 19 full professors and 169 full-time and part-time students at the university. In 1830 Tsar Nicholas returned the building of the Twelve Collegia back to the university. In 1835 a new Charter of the Imperial Universities of Russia was approved, however, Pyotr Pletnyov was reappointed Rector and ultimately became the longest-serving rector of Saint Petersburg University. In 1855 Oriental studies were separated from the Faculty of History and Philology, in 1859–1861 female part-time students could attend lectures in the university. In 1861 there were 1,270 full-time and 167 part-time students in the university, of them 498 were in the Faculty of Law, many Russian, Georgian etc. managers, engineers and scientists studied at the Faculty of law therefore. During 1861–1862 there was student unrest in the university, and it was closed twice during the year. The students were denied freedom of assembly and placed under police surveillance, after the unrest, in 1865, only 524 students remained. A decree of the Emperor Alexander II of Russia adopted on 18 February 1863 restored the right of the university assembly to elect the rector and it also formed the new faculty of the theory and history of art as part of the faculty of history and philology. In March 1869, student unrest shook the university again but on a smaller scale, by 1869,2,588 students had graduated from the university. In 1880 the Ministry of National Enlightenment forbade students to marry, in 1882 another student unrest took place in the university. In 1884 a new Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities was adopted, on March 1,1887 a group of the university students was arrested while planning an attempt on the life of Alexander III of Russia
16.
Occult
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The occult is knowledge of the hidden. In common English usage, occult refers to knowledge of the paranormal, as opposed to knowledge of the measurable, the terms esoteric and arcane can also be used to describe the occult, in addition to their meanings unrelated to the supernatural. Occultism is the study of practices, including magic, alchemy, extra-sensory perception, astrology, spiritualism, religion. Alchemy was common among important seventeenth-century scientists, such as Isaac Newton, Newton was even accused of introducing occult agencies into natural science when he postulated gravity as a force capable of acting over vast distances. By the eighteenth century these unorthodox religious and philosophical concerns were well-defined as occult, inasmuch as they lay on the outermost fringe of accepted forms of knowledge and they were, however, preserved by antiquarians and mystics. Occult science is the research into or formulation of occult concepts in a manner that resembles the way natural science researches or describes phenomena. In his 1871 book Primitive Culture, the anthropologist Edward Tylor used the term occult science as a synonym for magic, Occult qualities are properties that have no known rational explanation, in the Middle Ages, for example, magnetism was considered an occult quality. Newtons contemporaries severely criticized his theory that gravity was effected through action at a distance, some religions and sects enthusiastically embrace occultism as an integral esoteric aspect of mystical religious experience. This attitude is common within Wicca and many other modern pagan religions, some other religious denominations disapprove of occultism in most or all forms. They may view the occult as being anything supernatural or paranormal which is not achieved by or through God, monistic in contrast to Christian dualistic beliefs of a separation between body and spirit, Gnostic i. e. Walker, Benjamin. Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric and the Supernatural, harold W. Percival, Joined the Theosophical Society in 1892. Blavatsky, Occultism versus the Occult Arts, Lucifer, May 1888 Bardon, true to His Ways, Purity & Safety in Christian Spiritual Practice, ISBN 1-932124-61-6. ISBN 1-57863-150-5 Forshaw, Peter, The Occult Middle Ages, in Christopher Partridge, The Occult World, London, Routledge,2014 Gettings, Fred, Vision of the Occult, ISBN 0-7126-1438-9 Kontou, Tatiana – Willburn, Sarah. The Ashgate Research Companion to Nineteenth-Century Spiritualism and the Occult, ISBN 978-0-7546-6912-8 Martin, W. Rische, J. Rische, K. & VanGordon, K. W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.201 p. N. B, the scope of this study also embraces the occult. ISBN 0-8028-0262-1 Partridge, Christopher, The Occult World, London, the Tree of Life, An Illustrated Study in Magic. Newton, Isaac, Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John by Sir Isaac Newton Rogers, L. W. Hints to Young Students of Occultism. Albany, NY, The Theosophical Book Company, joseph H. Peterson, Twilit Grotto, Archives of Western Esoterica Occult Science and Philosophy of the Renaissance
17.
Brothers Grimm
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Their first collection of folk tales, Childrens and Household Tales, was published in 1812. The brothers spent their formative years in the German town of Hanau and their fathers death in 1796 caused great poverty for the family and affected the brothers for many years after. They both attended the University of Marburg where they developed a curiosity about German folklore, which grew into a dedication to collecting German folk tales. The rise of romanticism during the 19th century revived interest in folk stories. With the goal of researching a scholarly treatise on folk tales, between 1812 and 1857, their first collection was revised and republished many times, growing from 86 stories to more than 200. The popularity of the Grimms best folk tales has endured well, Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm was born on 4 January 1785 and his brother Wilhelm Carl Grimm on 24 February 1786. They were the second- and third-eldest surviving siblings in a family of nine children, in 1791, the family moved to the countryside town of Steinau, when Philipp was employed there as district magistrate. The family became prominent members of the community, residing in a home surrounded by fields. Biographer Jack Zipes writes that the brothers were happy in Steinau, the children were educated at home by private tutors, receiving strict instruction as Lutherans that instilled in both a lifelong religious faith. In 1796, Philipp Grimm died of pneumonia, plunging his family into poverty, Dorothea depended on financial support from her father and sister, first lady-in-waiting at the court of William I, Elector of Hesse. Jacob was the eldest living son, and he was forced at age 11 to assume adult responsibilities for the two years. The two boys adhered to the advice of their grandfather, who continually exhorted them to be industrious, the brothers left Steinau and their family in 1798 to attend the Friedrichsgymnasium in Kassel, which had been arranged and paid for by their aunt. By then, they were without a provider, forcing them to rely entirely on each other. The two brothers differed in temperament, Jacob was introspective and Wilhelm was outgoing, sharing a strong work ethic, they excelled in their studies. In Kassel, they became aware of their inferior social status relative to high-born students who received more attention. Still, each brother graduated at the head of his class, Jacob in 1803, after graduation from the Friedrichsgymnasium, the brothers attended the University of Marburg. The university was small with about 200 students and there they became aware that students of lower social status were not treated equally. They were disqualified from admission because of their standing and had to request dispensation to study law
18.
Bakhtrioni uprising
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The Bakhtrioni Uprising was a general revolt of the Georgian Kingdom of Kakheti against the political domination of Safavid Persia, in 1659. It is named after the battle, which took place at the fortress of Bakhtrioni. The uprising happened during a century of demographic, economic, in the first half of the 17th century, Kakhetian king Teimuraz I had time and again struggled to maintain independence, or at least large autonomy, from the Persian Empire. After successfully repelling an expedition sent by Shah Abbas I, Kakheti was invaded again by the Shah himself in 1616. In the following decades, the Persians tried to put Kakheti under control of the more submissive Kingdom of Kartli, led by Georgian prince Rostom, the forced installation of the Qizilbash was the immediate motive for the uprising. Kakheti had been divided in two regions, the south-eastern part was under the power of the Beylerbey of Karabakh. Up to 80000 Turcomans migrated to Kakheti and they started building a fortress at Bakhtrioni, and transforming the ancient monastery of Alaverdi into one. The uprising was, as in 1615, inspired by the noble families remained faithful to Teimuraz I. However, according to Georgian accounts, the mass of the population took part in it, as they were being evicted of their villages, among the leaders were also Bidzina Choloqashvili, Shalva, eristavi of Ksani, and his brother Elizbar Eristvisshvili. Georgian mountain people, such as the Tushs, the Khevsurians and the Pshavs, also joined the rebellion, under the leadership of Zezva Gaprindauli, Nadir Khosharauli, the Georgian forces, once united, attacked the Turcoman fortresses at Bakhtrioni and Alaverdi and vanquished them. They then defeated Turcoman forces in places of Kakheti. However, the organisation and isolation of the rebels allowed the Persians, now under personal direction of Shah Abbas II, to successfully counter-attack. The Eristavi Zaal was murdered by his own nephews at the order of the shah, upon those news, Bidzina Choloqashvili, Shalva of Ksani and Elizbar Eristvisshvili asked the shah for forgiveness, but he had them delivered to the tribes that the insurgees had massacred earlier. They were tortured and put to death and they would be canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Kakheti remained under Persian rule, even if the rebels had succeeded in defeating the Turcomans, in 1664, the autonomy of Kakheti was restored, as the Persians agreed to have Archil, son of the King of Kartli, installed as King of Kakheti. The uprising soon entered Georgian collective memory, and many songs and poems were composed about it, the battle at Bakhtrioni, and the heroism of the mountaineers, inspired Vazha-Pshavela his epic poem Bakhtrioni, while Akaki Tsereteli wrote a whole novel about it, Bashi-Achuki
19.
Kakheti
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Kakheti is a region formed in the 1990s in eastern Georgia from the historical province of Kakheti and the small, mountainous province of Tusheti. The region comprises eight districts, Telavi, Gurjaani, Kvareli, Sagarejo, Dedoplistsqaro, Signagi, Lagodekhi. Kakheti is bordered by the Russian Federation to the Northeast, Azerbaijan to the Southeast, the Georgian David Gareja monastery complex is partially located in this province and is subject to a border dispute between Georgian and Azerbaijani authorities. It also includes the region of Hereti whose name has fallen into gradual oblivion since the 15th century. It was incorporated into the united Georgian Kingdom at the beginning of the eleventh century, only in the beginning of the twelfth century did Georgian King David the Builder incorporate Kakheti into his Kingdom successfully. After the disintegration of the Georgian Kingdom, Kakheti became an independent Kingdom in the 1460s, from the early 16th century till the early 19th century, Kakheti and its neighboring Kartli came under intermittent Iranian rule. During all these centuries the region was a part of Iran and it supplied many notable generals, administrators, women. In 1762, the Kakhetian Kingdom was united with the neighboring Georgian Kingdom of Kartli into the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti under King Erekle II. Following the Treaty of Georgievsk and the sack of Tblisi by Agha Mohammad Khan, Russian suzerainty over Kakheti and the rest of Georgia was recognized by Qajar Iran in the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan. In 1918–1921 Kakheti was part of the independent Democratic Republic of Georgia, in 1922–1936 part of the Transcaucasian SFSR, since the Georgian independence in 1991, Kakheti has been a region of the republic of Georgia. The travel infrastructure in Kakheti is fast developing, since it is the most visited region of Georgia, one can choose to stay in a guest house, in a small and comfortable hotel, or a beautiful boutique-style hotel while traveling in this region. Telavi and Signagi are the most visited towns, Signagi was renovated three years ago. Until recently there were only some family hotels, but now Signagi features several hotels, list of sovereigns of Kakheti www. kakheti. net - information Kakheti region website Kakheti regional administration website Kakheti travel guide from Wikivoyage
20.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
21.
Nikolay Zabolotsky
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Nikolay Alexeyevich Zabolotsky - was a Russian poet, childrens writer and translator. He was a Modernist and one of the founders of the Russian avant-garde absurdist group Oberiu, nikolay Alekseevich Zabolotsky was born on May 7,1903 in Kizicheskaya sloboda. His early life was spent in the towns of Sernur and Urzhum, in 1920, Zabolotsky left his family and moved to Moscow, enrolling simultaneously in the departments of medicine and philology at the Moscow University. A year later, he moved to Petrograd and enrolled in the Pedagogical Institute of Saint Petersburg State University, Zabolotsky had already begun to write poetry at this time. During this period, Zabolotsky also met his wife, E. V. In 1928, Zabolotsky founded the avant-garde group Oberiu with Daniil Kharms, the groups acronym stood for The Association of Real Art. During this period, Zabolotsky began to be published and his first book of poetry, Columns, was a series of grotesque vignettes on the life that Vladimir Lenins New Economic Policy had created. It included the poem The Signs of the Zodiac Fade, an absurdist lullaby that,67 years later, in 1996, in 1937, Zabolotsky published his second book of poetry. This collection showed the subject matter of Zabolotskys work moving from social concerns to elegies and this book is notable for its inclusion of pantheistic themes. Amidst Joseph Stalins increased censorship of the arts, Zabolotsky fell victim to the Soviet governments purges, in 1938, he was sent for five years to Siberia. This sentence was prolonged until the war was over, in 1944 after his appeal he was freed of guard, but still continued the sentence in exile in Karaganda. In Siberia he continued his work and was occupied with translation of The Tale of Igors Campaign. This followed with his release in 1945, upon his return to Moscow in 1946, Zabolotsky was restored as member of Union of Soviet Writers. He also translated several Georgian poets and traveled frequently to Georgia, Zabolotsky also resumed his work as an original poet. However, the literature of his post-exile years experienced drastic stylistic changes and his poetry began to take a more traditional, conservative form and was often compared to the work of Tyutchev. The last few years of Zabolotskys life were beset by illness and he suffered a debilitating heart attack and, from 1956 onward, spent much of his time in the town of Tarusa. A second heart attack claimed his life on October 14,1958 in Moscow
22.
Osip Mandelstam
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Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam was a Russian poet and essayist who lived in Russia during and after its revolution and the rise of the Soviet Union. He was the husband of Nadezhda Mandelstam and one of the foremost members of the Acmeist school of poets and he was arrested by Joseph Stalins government during the repression of the 1930s and sent into internal exile with his wife Nadezhda. Given a reprieve of sorts, they moved to Voronezh in southwestern Russia, in 1938 Mandelstam was arrested again and sentenced to a camp in Siberia. He died that year at a transit camp, Mandelstam was born in Warsaw to a wealthy Polish Jewish family. His father, a merchant by trade, was able to receive a dispensation freeing the family from the pale of settlement and, soon after Osips birth. In 1900, Mandelstam entered the prestigious Tenishevsky School, the writer Vladimir Nabokov and other significant figures of Russian and Soviet culture have been among its alumni. His first poems were printed in 1907 in the schools almanac, in April 1908, Mandelstam decided to enter the Sorbonne in Paris to study literature and philosophy, but he left the following year to attend the University of Heidelberg in Germany. In 1911, he decided to continue his education at the University of Saint Petersburg and he converted to Methodism and entered the university the same year. He did not complete a formal degree, Mandelstams poetry, acutely populist in spirit after the first Russian revolution in 1905, became closely associated with symbolist imagery. In 1911, he and several other young Russian poets formed the Poets Guild, under the leadership of Nikolai Gumilyov. The nucleus of this became known as Acmeists. Mandelstam wrote the manifesto for the new movement, The Morning Of Acmeism, in 1913 he published his first collection of poems, The Stone, it was reissued in 1916 under the same title, but with additional poems included. The Stalin epigram, also known as The Kremlin Highlander is a poem by Osip Mandelstam. The poem describes the climate of fear in the Soviet Union, Mandelstam read the poem only to a few friends, including Boris Pasternak and Anna Akhmatova. The poem played a role in his own arrest and the arrests of Akhmatovas son and husband, Lev Gumilev, the Kremlin Caucasian in line 4 refers to Stalins Caucasus Mountains origin. The phrase Ossetian torso in the line refers to the ethnicity of Stalin. Mandelstam was said to have had an affair with the poet Anna Akhmatova and she insisted throughout her life that their relationship had always been a very deep friendship, rather than a sexual affair. In the 1910s, he was in love, secretly and unrequitedly, with a Georgian princess and St. Petersburg socialite Salomea Andronikova, in 1922, Mandelstam married Nadezhda Khazina in Kiev, Ukraine, where she lived with her family
23.
Boris Pasternak
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Boris Leonidovich Pasternak was a Soviet Russian poet, novelist, and literary translator. In his native Russian, Pasternaks first book of poems, My Sister, Pasternaks translations of stage plays by Goethe, Schiller, Calderón and Shakespeare remain very popular with Russian audiences. Outside Russia, Pasternak is best known as the author of Doctor Zhivago, Doctor Zhivago was rejected for publication in the USSR. At the instigation of Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, Doctor Zhivago was smuggled to Milan and published in 1957, Pasternak was born in Moscow on 10 February,1890 into a wealthy assimilated Ukrainian Jewish family. His father was the Post-Impressionist painter, Leonid Pasternak, professor at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and his mother was Rosa Kaufman, a concert pianist and the daughter of Odessa industrialist Isadore Kaufman and his wife. Pasternak had a younger brother Alex and sisters Lydia and Josephine, sometimes willful boys were recommended after a incident of insubordination to some civil as well as religious authority, which were often the same. From 1904 to 1907 Boris Pasternak was the cloister-mate of Peter Minchakievich, Minchakievich came from an Orthodox Ukrainian family and Pasternak came from a Jewish Ukrainian family. Some confusion has arisen as to Pasternak attending an academy in his boyhood years. The uniforms of their monastery Cadet Corp were only similar to those of The Czar Alexander the Third Military Academy, as Pasternak, most schools used a distinctive military looking uniform particular to them as was the custom of the time in Eastern Europe and Russia. Boyhood friends, they parted in 1908, friendly but with different politics, Pasternak went to the Moscow Conservatory to study music, and Minchakievich went to Lviv University to study history and philosophy. The character of Strelnikov in Dr. Zhivago is a character, his bad dimension is based upon Leon Trotsky. Several of Pasternaks characters are composites, I believe that this is at the root of my distinctiveness. Most intensely of all my mind was occupied by Christianity in the years 1910–12, when the foundations of this distinctiveness – my way of seeing things. Shortly after his birth, Pasternaks parents had joined the Tolstoyan Movement, novelist Leo Tolstoy was a close family friend, as Pasternak recalled, my father illustrated his books, went to see him, revered him, and. the whole house was imbued with his spirit. In a 1956 essay, Pasternak recalled his fathers feverish work creating illustrations for Tolstoys novel Resurrection, the novel was serialized in the journal Niva by the publisher Fyodor Marx, based in St Petersburg. The sketches were drawn from observations in such places as courtrooms, prisons and on trains, to ensure that the sketches met the journal deadline, train conductors were enlisted to personally collect the illustrations. Joiners glue was boiling on the stove, the illustrations were hurriedly wiped dry, fixed, glued on pieces of cardboard, rolled up, tied up. The parcels, once ready, were sealed with sealing wax, regular visitors to the Pasternaks home also included Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Scriabin, Lev Shestov, Rainer Maria Rilke
24.
Marina Tsvetaeva
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Marina Ivanovna Tsvetaeva was a Russian and Soviet poet. Her work is considered some of the greatest in twentieth century Russian literature. She lived through and wrote of the Russian Revolution of 1917, in an attempt to save her daughter Irina from starvation, she placed her in a state orphanage in 1919, where she died of hunger. Tsvetaeva left Russia in 1922 and lived with her family in increasing poverty in Paris, Berlin and her husband Sergei Efron and her daughter Ariadna Efron were arrested on espionage charges in 1941, and her husband was executed. As a lyrical poet, her passion and daring linguistic experimentation mark her as a chronicler of her times. Marina Tsvetaeva was born in Moscow, the daughter of Ivan Vladimirovich Tsvetaev, a professor of Fine Art at the University of Moscow, Tsvetaevas mother, Maria Alexandrovna Meyn, Ivans second wife, was a concert pianist, highly literate, with German and Polish ancestry. Growing up in considerable comfort, Tsvetaeva would later come to identify herself with the Polish aristocracy. Tsvetaevas two half-siblings, Valeria and Andrei, were the children of Ivans deceased first wife, Varvara Dmitrievna Ilovaiskaya, Tsvetaevas only full sister, Anastasia, was born in 1894. The children quarrelled frequently and occasionally violently, there was considerable tension between Tsvetaevas mother and Varvaras children, and Tsvetaevas father maintained close contact with Varvaras family. Tsvetaevas father was kind, but deeply wrapped up in his studies and he was also still deeply in love with his first wife, he would never get over her. Maria Tsvetaeva had had an affair before her marriage, from which she never recovered. Maria Tsvetaeva disapproved of Marinas poetic inclination, she wanted her daughter to become a pianist, in 1902 Tsvetaevas mother contracted tuberculosis. There, away from the constraints of a bourgeois Muscovite life, Tsvetaeva was able for the first time to run free, climb cliffs. There were many Russian émigré revolutionaries residing at that time in Nervi, in June 1904 Tsvetaeva was sent to school in Lausanne. Changes in the Tsvetaev residence led to changes in school, and during the course of her travels she acquired the Italian, French. She gave up the strict musical studies that her mother had imposed and turned to poetry and she wrote With a mother like her, I had only one choice, to become a poet. In 1908, aged 16, Tsvetaeva studied literary history at the Sorbonne, during this time, a major revolutionary change was occurring within Russian poetry, the flowering of the Russian Symbolist movement, and this movement was to colour most of her later work. It was not the theory which was to attract her, but the poetry and her own first collection of poems, Vecherny Albom, self-published in 1910, promoted her considerable reputation as a poet
25.
Golden ratio
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In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The figure on the right illustrates the geometric relationship, expressed algebraically, for quantities a and b with a > b >0, a + b a = a b = def φ, where the Greek letter phi represents the golden ratio. Its value is, φ =1 +52 =1.6180339887 …, A001622 The golden ratio is also called the golden mean or golden section. Other names include extreme and mean ratio, medial section, divine proportion, divine section, golden proportion, golden cut, the golden ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other plant parts. The golden ratio has also used to analyze the proportions of natural objects as well as man-made systems such as financial markets. Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio φ if a + b a = a b = φ, one method for finding the value of φ is to start with the left fraction. Through simplifying the fraction and substituting in b/a = 1/φ, a + b a =1 + b a =1 +1 φ, multiplying by φ gives φ +1 = φ2 which can be rearranged to φ2 − φ −1 =0. First, the line segment A B ¯ is about doubled and then the semicircle with the radius A S ¯ around the point S is drawn, now the semicircle is drawn with the radius A B ¯ around the point B. The arising intersection point E corresponds 2 φ, next up, the perpendicular on the line segment A E ¯ from the point D will be establish. The subsequent parallel F S ¯ to the line segment C M ¯, produces, as it were and it is well recognizable, this triangle and the triangle M S C are similar to each other. The hypotenuse F S ¯ has due to the cathetuses S D ¯ =1 and D F ¯ =2 according the Pythagorean theorem, finally, the circle arc is drawn with the radius 5 around the point F. The golden ratio has been claimed to have held a fascination for at least 2,400 years. But the fascination with the Golden Ratio is not confined just to mathematicians, biologists, artists, musicians, historians, architects, psychologists, and even mystics have pondered and debated the basis of its ubiquity and appeal. In fact, it is fair to say that the Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines like no other number in the history of mathematics. Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. Euclid explains a construction for cutting a line in extreme and mean ratio, throughout the Elements, several propositions and their proofs employ the golden ratio. The golden ratio is explored in Luca Paciolis book De divina proportione, since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter φ or less commonly by τ. Timeline according to Priya Hemenway, Phidias made the Parthenon statues that seem to embody the golden ratio, plato, in his Timaeus, describes five possible regular solids, some of which are related to the golden ratio
26.
Synetic Theater
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Synetic Theater is a non-profit physical theater company located in the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area. It performs at the Crystal City Theatre in Arlington Virginia, since its formation its productions have received numerous awards. It made its debut in April 2002 with a wordless adaptation of Shakespeares Hamlet. The production was remounted the following season, receiving the Helen Hayes Award for Outstanding Resident Play, Outstanding Choreography, the following year Synetic merged with Classika Theater, a childrens theater based in Shirlington, Virginia. In 2014 Synetic Co-Founders Paata and Irina Tsikurishvili were honored as Washingtonians of the Year by Washingtonian Magazine for their contributions to the Washington theater community, the Synetic Theaters offices and administrative spaces are located 2611 Jefferson Davis Hwy. St.103 Arlington, VA22202 in the Crystal City area of Arlington, until 2010 Synetic performed most of its shows in the Arlington County run Rosslyn Spectrum. In September 2010 it moved into the Crystal City Theatre space outfitted by the Arena Stage after the latter moved back into its newly renovated spaces in Washington D. C, between 2006–2010, it performed one show each spring in the Kennedy Center. In the 2009–2010 season it produced the premiers of its Silent Shakespeare series at the Shakespeare Theatre Companys Lansburgh Theatre, with the companys move to Crystal City, the relationship with the Shakespeare Theatre Company and the Lansburgh Theatre ended. Alice in Wonderland, Sep 30 - Nov 8,2015, as You Like It, Dec 9,2015 – Jan 17,2016. Romeo and Juliet†, Feb 17 - Mar 27,2016, the Man in the Iron Mask, May 11 - Jun 19,2016. Twelfth Night†, July 13 - August 7,2016, † Remounted 2014-2015 The Island of Dr. Moreau, Oct 1 - Nov 2,2014. Beauty and the Beast, Dec 3,2014 – Jan 4,2015, much Ado About Nothing, Feb 11 - Mar 15,2015. A Tale of Two Cities, May 13 - Jun 14,2015, a Midsummer Nights Dream†, July 15 - August 9,2015. † Remounted 2013-2014 The Picture of Dorian Gray, Sept.26,2013 — Nov.3,2013 Twelfth Night,9,2014 — Feb 16,2014 Hamlet. Kennedy Center Since many of Synetics company members were from Georgia, Synetic Theater was invited to perform in Tbilisi, Georgia. Remount performances of King Lear and Host and Guest were presented at the Rustaveli Theatre 3-19 Nov 2012, the tour was supported by the U. S. Department of State, the Mid-Atlantic Arts Foundation and the Trust for Mutual Understanding. In 2013 Synetic raised funds for new space in Crystal City near the theater space. The studio has 3 classrooms that can be used for camps, classes and rehearsal space as well as a green room, in 2014 Synetic Theater produced its 10th silent Shakespeare adaptation Twelfth Night
27.
Grigol Robakidze
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Grigol Robakidze was a Georgian writer, publicist, and public figure primarily known for his prose and anti-Soviet émigré activities. He was born on October 28,1880, in the village of Sviri, after the graduation from Kutaisi Classical Gymnasium, he took courses at the University of Tartu and the University of Leipzig. Robakidze returned from Germany in 1908, and gradually became a person among the young Georgian symbolists. In 1915, he founded and led the Blue Horns, a new group of symbolist poets and writers which would play an important role. In 1917, he played a role in founding of the Union of Georgian Writers and he was Involved in the national-liberation movement of Georgia of 1914-1918. Robakidze got a diplomatic post in 1919, when he took part in Paris Peace Conference as a secretary of the state delegation of the Democratic Republic of Georgia. After Georgias Soviet Occupation in 1921, he remained in the country and his famous play Lamara was staged by the leading Georgian director Sandro Akhmeteli in 1930, a performance which became a prize-winner at the 1930 Moscow Drama Olympiad. His defection, along with Vladimir Mayakovsky’s suicide silenced most of his fellow poets for a long while, as an émigré, Robakidze had rather unhappy life. During World War II, he participated in the right-wing patriotic émigré organizations such as the Committee of Independence of Georgia, after the war, his two books on Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler were believed to favour Nazism. Famous representatives of the Georgian Political Emigration rejected this claim and he died as broken man in Geneva on November 19,1962. He was later reburied to the Cemetery of Leuville-sur-Orge, France, in her book Ali and Nino – Literary Robbery. Tamar Injia claims that Ali and Nino, A Love Story by Kurban Said is extensively plagiarized from, by comparing passages from both novels, the author argues that sections from Ali and Nino, A Love Story are copied from the The Snake’s Skin. Additionally, by analyzing the literal parallels in both novels, the author shows “side-by-side” similarities in content, namely repeated stories, myths, legends, characters, the specific passages in question relate to excursions that Ali and Nino made to Tbilisi and to Iran. Georgian poet Vazha Pshavela. -Russkaya Mysl, August,1911 Georgian Modernism. -Russian journal ARS, Tbilisi,1918 Portraits, Tbilisi,1919 Lamara, Tbilisi,1928 Das Schlangenhemd. Ed. - Bedi Kartlisa- Le destin de la Georgie, No 16, Paris,1954 Vom Weltbild der Georgier. - Atlantis, October,1961, Zürich Hymne an Orpheus. - Collection Grigol Robakidze, the Third Shore of Grigol Robakidze and Vladimir Nabokov. Dichter schreiben über sich selbst, Jena,1940 Nikos Kazantzakis, toda Raba, Paris,1962 Grigol Robakidze, Published by Dr. Karlo Inasaridze, Munich,1984 Urushadze, Levan. Grigol Robakidze as a Political Figure, periodical Scientific Journal Prometheus 5, no
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Miho Mosulishvili
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Mikheil Miho Mosulishvili is a Georgian writer and playwright. Mosulishvili graduated in 1986 from Tbilisi State University, afterwards, he worked as a geologist and as a journalist in various newspapers, published several Georgian stories, novels and plays, and translated three novels of Boris Akunin. His plays were performed in Georgia at theaters, on television and on radio, some of his works have been translated into Latvian, English, German, Armenian and Russian. His main works are Flight Without a tun and biographical novel Vazha-Pshavela
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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