1.
Rungis International Market
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The Marché International de Rungis is the principal market of Paris, located in the commune of Rungis, in the southern suburbs. It is the largest wholesale market in the world. Since its origins in the 10th century, the market of Paris was located in the centre of the city. It became too small to accommodate all of the demand, and, in 1969. Rungis has been selected because of its access by rail and highway. The market is the property of the French State and administered by the Semmaris, wholesalers are plentiful and the competition is strong. The market starts at 1am and ends around 11am, clients are professionals, distributors and restaurants. Veterinary, phytosanitary controls and property checkouts are omnipresent, the waste of the market is recycled and the energy generated by the incinerator is used to heat up the market and Orly Airport nearby. Official website of the market Official website of the market La page relative à léconomie
2.
Calf
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A calf is the young of domestic cattle. Calves are reared to become adult cattle, or are slaughtered for their meat, called veal, the term calf is also used for some other species. Calf is the term used from birth to weaning, when it becomes known as a weaner or weaner calf, the birth of a calf is known as calving. A calf that has lost its mother is an orphan calf, bobby calves are young calves which are to be slaughtered for human consumption. A vealer is a fat calf weighing less than about 330 kg which is at about eight to nine months of age, a young female calf from birth until she has had a calf of her own is called a heifer. In the American Old West, a motherless or small, runty calf was sometimes referred to as a dogie, the term calf is also used for some other species. Calves may be produced by means, or by artificial breeding using artificial insemination or embryo transfer. Calves are born after a gestation of nine months and they usually stand within a few minutes of calving, and suckle within an hour. By a week old the calf is able to follow the mother all the time, some calves are ear tagged soon after birth, especially those that are stud cattle in order to correctly identify their dams, or in areas where tagging is a legal requirement for cattle. A calf must have the very best of everything until it is at least eight months old if it is to reach its maximum potential, typically when the calves are about two months old they are branded, ear marked, castrated and vaccinated. The single suckler system of rearing calves is similar to that occurring naturally in wild cattle and this system is commonly used for rearing beef cattle throughout the world. Cows kept on poor forage produce an amount of milk. A calf left with such a mother all the time can easily drink all the milk, leaving none for human consumption. For dairy production under such circumstances, the access to the cow must be limited, for example by penning the calf. In more intensive farming, cows can easily be bred and fed to produce far more milk than one calf can drink. In the multi-suckler system, several calves are fostered onto one cow in addition to her own, more commonly, calves of dairy cows are fed formula milk from a bottle or bucket from soon after birth. Purebred female calves of cows are reared as replacement dairy cows. Most purebred dairy calves are produced by artificial insemination, by this method each bull can serve very many cows, so only a very few of the purebred dairy male calves are needed to provide bulls for breeding
3.
Beef
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Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle. Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times, Beef is a complete source of protein, and provides many of the essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that humans need. Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak, Some cuts are processed, and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in varieties of blood sausage. Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock, Beef from steers and heifers is very similar. According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit, heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses, depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older bulls is usually tougher, so it is used for mince. Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. According to the data from OECD, the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014, cattle are considered sacred in the culture of India and there is prohibition on selling and consumption of beef in much of India. Though India is the largest producer and exporter of meat in the world. In 2015, the worlds largest exporters of beef including the meat, were India, Brazil. Beef production is important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus. The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou, after the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal by the peasants, Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times, some of the earliest known paintings, such as those of Lascaux. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide access to beef, milk. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids, examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent
4.
Essential amino acid
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An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism, and thus must be supplied in its diet. The nine amino acids humans cannot synthesize are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline, and tyrosine. Five amino acids are dispensable in humans, meaning they can be synthesized in the body and these five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine. Pyrrolysine, sometimes considered the 22nd amino acid, is not used by humans, eukaryotes can synthesize some of the amino acids from other substrates. Consequently, only a subset of the amino acids used in protein synthesis are essential nutrients, estimating the daily requirement for the indispensable amino acids has proven to be difficult, these numbers have undergone considerable revision over the last 20 years. The following table lists the WHO recommended daily amounts currently in use for essential amino acids in adult humans, food sources are identified based on the USDA National Nutrient Database Release. The recommended daily intakes for children aged three years and older is 10% to 20% higher than adult levels and those for infants can be as much as 150% higher in the first year of life, cysteine, tyrosine, and arginine are always required by infants and growing children. Various attempts have been made to express the quality or value of various kinds of protein, measures include the biological value, net protein utilization, protein efficiency ratio, protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score and complete proteins concept. Thus, various feedstuffs may be fed in combination to increase net protein utilization, eating various plant foods in combination can provide a protein of higher biological value. Certain native combinations of foods, such as corn and beans, soybeans and rice, or red beans and rice, for example, while 100 g of raw broccoli only provides 28 kcal and 3 g of protein, it has over 100 mg of protein per kcal. An egg contains five times as many calories but only four times as much protein, however, a carrot has only 23 mg protein per kcal or twice the minimum recommendation, a banana meets the minimum, and an apple is below recommendation. It is recommended that adult humans obtain 10–35% of their calories as protein, the US FDA daily reference value of 50 g protein per 2000 kcal is 25 mg/kcal per day. This led William Cumming Rose to the discovery of the amino acid threonine. Roses later work showed that eight amino acids are essential for human beings. Longer term studies established histidine as also essential for adult humans, the distinction between essential and non-essential amino acids is somewhat unclear, as some amino acids can be produced from others. The sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and homocysteine, can be converted into each other but neither can be synthesized de novo in humans, likewise, cysteine can be made from homocysteine but cannot be synthesized on its own. So, for convenience, sulfur-containing amino acids are considered a single pool of nutritionally equivalent amino acids as are the aromatic amino acid pair. Likewise arginine, ornithine, and citrulline, which are interconvertible by the cycle, are considered a single group
5.
Dietary minerals
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In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
6.
Garlic
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Garlic is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, garlic is native to the region between the Mediterranean and China, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant and it grows up to 1.2 m in height. Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 and it is pollinated by bees and other insects. Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized, the wild garlic, crow garlic, and field garlic of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale and Allium canadense, known as garlic or wild garlic. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek, and not a true garlic, single clove garlic originated in the Yunnan province of China. A. sativum var. ophioscorodon Döll, called Ophioscorodon, or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic and it is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, in colder climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring or early summer. The cloves must be planted deep enough to prevent freeze/thaw, which causes mold or white rot, Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, when selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic, the latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small. Garlic scapes are removed to all the garlics energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked, Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases
7.
Shiitake
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The shiitake is an edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed in many Asian countries. It is considered a medicinal mushroom in some forms of traditional medicine, the fungus was first described scientifically as Agaricus edodes by Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1877. It was placed in the genus Lentinula by David Pegler in 1976, the fungus has acquired an extensive synonymy in its taxonomic history, Agaricus edodes Berk. Mastoleucomyces edodes Kuntze Cortinellus edodes S. Ito & S. Imai Lentinus edodes Singer Collybia shiitake J. Schröt, tricholoma shiitake Lloyd Lentinus shiitake Singer Lentinus tonkinensis Pat. Lentinus mellianus Lohwag The mushrooms Japanese name shiitake is composed of shii, for the tree Castanopsis cuspidata that provides the dead logs on which it is typically cultivated, the specific epithet edodes is the Latin word for edible. It is also commonly called sawtooth oak mushroom, black forest mushroom, black mushroom, golden oak mushroom, or oakwood mushroom. Shiitake grow in groups on the wood of deciduous trees, particularly shii, chestnut, oak, maple, beech, sweetgum, poplar, hornbeam, ironwood, mulberry. Its natural distribution includes warm and moist climates in southeast Asia, the earliest written record of shiitake cultivation is seen in the Records of Longquan County compiled by He Zhan in 1209 during the Southern Song dynasty. The Japanese cultivated the mushroom by cutting trees with axes. Before 1982, the Japan Islands variety of these mushrooms could only be grown in traditional locations using ancient methods, a 1982 report on the budding and growth of the Japanese variety revealed opportunities for commercial cultivation in the United States. Shiitake are now widely cultivated all over the world, and contribute about 25% of total production of mushrooms. Commercially, shiitake mushrooms are grown in conditions similar to their natural environment on either artificial substrate or hardwood logs. In a 100 gram amount, raw shiitake mushrooms provide 34 calories and are 90% water, 7% carbohydrates, 2% protein, raw shiitake mushrooms are rich sources of B vitamins and contain moderate levels of some dietary minerals. When dried to about 10% water, the contents of numerous nutrients increase substantially, like all mushrooms, shiitakes produce vitamin D2 upon exposure of their internal ergosterol to ultraviolet B rays from sunlight or broadband UVB fluorescent tubes. Fresh and dried shiitake have many uses in the cuisines of East Asia, in Japan, they are served in miso soup, used as the basis for a kind of vegetarian dashi, and as an ingredient in many steamed and simmered dishes. In Chinese cuisine, they are often sautéed in vegetarian dishes such as Buddhas delight, one type of high-grade shiitake is called donko in Japanese and dōnggū in Chinese, literally winter mushroom. Another high-grade of mushroom is called huāgū in Chinese, literally flower mushroom, both of these are produced at lower temperatures. Basic research is ongoing to assess whether consumption of shiitake mushrooms affects disease properties and this effect – presumably caused by the polysaccharide, lentinan – is more common in Asia but may be growing in occurrence in Europe as shiitake consumption increases
8.
Rigatoni
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Rigatoni are a form of tube-shaped pasta of varying lengths and diameters. They are larger than penne and ziti, and sometimes slightly curved, rigatoni characteristically have ridges down their length, sometimes spiraling around the tube. And unlike penne, rigatonis ends are cut square to the walls instead of diagonally. The word rigatoni comes from the Italian word rigato, which means ridged or lined, rigatoncini are a smaller version, close to the size of penne. Their name takes on the diminutive suffix -ino denoting their relative size, rigatoni is a particular favorite pasta shape in the south of Italy, especially in Sicily. Its namesake ridges make better adhesive surfaces for sauces and grated cheese than smooth-sided pasta like ziti, List of pasta List of Italian dishes
9.
Italian cuisine
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Italian cuisine is the culinary typical or originating from Italy. It has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots stretching to antiquity, Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the rather than on elaborate preparation. Ingredients and dishes vary by region, many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine, with many variations. Coffee, specifically espresso, has become important in Italian cuisine, Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century, Italian food started to form after the fall of the Roman Empire, when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions. Many different types of bread and pasta were made, and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation. For example, the north of Italy is known for its risottos, the central/middle of the country is known for its tortellini, the first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BCE. He wrote a poem that spoke of using top quality and seasonal ingredients and he said that flavors should not be masked by spices, herbs or other seasonings. He placed importance on simple preparation of fish, simplicity was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed. By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century CE, it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices, the Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers. The Romans reared goats for butchering, and grew artichokes and leeks, with culinary traditions from Rome and Athens, a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine. Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century, introducing spinach, almonds, Normans also introduced casseroles, salt cod and stockfish, which remain popular. Food preservation was either chemical or physical, as refrigeration did not exist, meats and fish would be smoked, dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring, root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled. Other means of preservation included oil, vinegar or immersing meat in congealed, rendered fat, for preserving fruits, liquor, honey and sugar were used. The northern Italian regions show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the south reflects Arab influence, the oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina written in Naples
10.
French cuisine
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French cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices from France. In the 14th century Guillaume Tirel, a chef known as Taillevent, wrote Le Viandier. During that time, French cuisine was influenced by Italian cuisine. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine. They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations, gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country, knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines. Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education, in November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the worlds intangible cultural heritage. In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy, multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called service en confusion, or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers, the sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Meals often ended with an issue de table, which changed into the modern dessert. The ingredients of the time varied according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey. Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse, livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked, bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt, fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent, artificial freshwater ponds held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and other fish. Poultry was kept in yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare, rabbit, kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy, rue, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today
11.
Mediterranean cuisine
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Mediterranean cuisine is the food from the lands around the Mediterranean Sea and its preparation. This geographical area broadly follows the distribution of the olive tree, the regions food came to be seen as a more or less unified cuisine following the cookery writer Elizabeth Davids book, A Book of Mediterranean Food. The region spans a variety of cultures with distinct cuisines, in particular the Maghrebi, Levantine, Ottoman, Greek, Italian, Provençal. Mediterranean cuisine encompasses the ways that these and other ingredients, including meat, are dealt with in the kitchen, the cookery writer Elizabeth Davids introduction to A Book of Mediterranean Food defines her scope as the cooking of the Mediterranean shores. David defines the region as coextensive with the range of the olive tree, the olives natural distribution is limited by frost and by availability of water. It does not grow in most of France, most of the north of Italy, the olive tree, the emblematic tree on more than one account, traces the bounds of a frontier of landscapes and lives on either side of which the Mediterranean begins or ends. Above Montelimar, nicknamed Gates of Provence, is the limit of the olive, essid, as already mentioned, identifies the trinity of basic ingredients of traditional Mediterranean cuisine as the olive, wheat, and the grape, yielding oil, bread, and wine respectively. The archaeologist Colin Renfrew calls this the Mediterranean triad, the olive appears to come from the region of Persia and Mesopotamia, at least 6,000 years ago. It spread from there to areas, and has been cultivated since the early Bronze Age in southern Turkey, the Levant. The ten countries with the largest harvests are all near the Mediterranean, together, the olive yields bitter fruits, made edible by curing and fermentation, and olive oil. Some 90% of the production goes into olive oil. Wheat was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, in and near the Levant some 10,000 years ago and its ancestors include wild emmer wheat, this was hybridised, harvested and sown to create domestic strains with larger grains, in ears that shatter less readily than wild forms. It had been spread across the Mediterranean region as far as Spain by 5,000 BC, Wheat is a staple food in the Mediterranean region. Wheat bread was already important in the empire of Ancient Rome. Other staple wheat-based Mediterranean foods include pasta and semolina products such as couscous, in turn, these are made into dishes such as the Greek dessert galaktoboureko, consisting of filo pastry parcels around a custard made with semolina. A widespread wheat dish from Turkey and the Levant to Iran and India is halva, a dessert of sweetened semolina with butter, milk, winemaking started in Italy in the ninth century BC, and in France around 600 BC. Grapes are grown for making wine, for drying as raisins, wine grapes are often rich in tannins, while raisins and table grape varieties are chosen for their flavour. Grape production remains important in the Mediterranean area, with a part of the worlds harvest
12.
Cotoletta
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Cotoletta is an Italian word for veal breaded cutlet. Various breaded meat dishes prepared in Latin America were inspired by the cotoletta and are known as milanesa, in South America, Milanesa a la napolitana is made similar to the cotoletta with a preparation of cheese and tomato. Cotoletta alla milanese is a fried cutlet similar to Wiener Schnitzel and it is fried in clarified butter only and traditionally uses exclusively milk-fed veal. Cotoletta a orecchio di elefante is another type of milanese, launched in recent years by trendy Milanese restaurants. This version uses a thinner but larger cut of meat, and is deboned and tenderized prior to frying, similarly to the American preparation of breaded pork tenderloin and this is the most common cotoletta eaten in Italy in everyday life because it is easy and fast to prepare. In the typical osteria in Milan the first version is more common. Cotoletta alla palermitana is similar to a milanese but the veal is brushed with lard or olive oil instead of butter, and then grilled instead of being deep fried. The breadcrumb is very mixed with oregano and/or Parmesan cheese. This cutlet is the one among its sisters that does not have eggs in its breading. List of Italian dishes List of veal dishes
13.
Wiener Schnitzel
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Wiener Schnitzel, or Wienerschnitzel in Switzerland, is a very thin, breaded and pan fried cutlet made from veal. It is one of the best known specialities of Viennese cuisine, the Wiener Schnitzel is one of the national dishes of Austria. The designation Wiener Schnitzel first appeared in the end of the 19th century, in the popular southern German cookbook by Katharina Prato, it was mentioned as eingebröselte Kalbsschnitzchen. According to a tale, field marshal Joseph Radetzky von Radetz brought the recipe from Italy to Vienna in 1857, in 2007, linguist Heinz Dieter Pohl discovered that this story had been invented. Before this time, the story was unknown in Austria, after Radetzky had returned, the emperor personally requested the recipe from him. Pohl relates this anecdote with the words, This story is scientifically meaningless, it does not cite any sources, no such Count Attems appears in any biographical work about the Austrian monarchy, which would have corresponded to this time and position. The Schnitzel was then mentioned in the 19th century as Wiener Schnitzel analogically to the Wiener Backhendl, there are documents in the Milan archive of Saint Ambrose dated in 1148 where Lumbolos cum panitio are mentioned, which can be translated as little chops with breadcrumbs. This can be a hint that a similar to the Cotoletta alla Milanese already existed at that time. The dish is prepared from veal slices, butterfly cut, about 4 mm thin and lightly pounded flat, slightly salted, the bread crumbs must not be pressed into the meat, so that they stay dry and can be souffléd. Finally the Schnitzel is fried in a proportion of lard or clarified butter at a temperature from 160 to 170 °C until it is golden yellow. The Schnitzel must swim in the fat, otherwise it will not cook evenly, during the frying the Schnitzel is repeatedly slightly tossed around the pan. Also during the frying, fat can be scooped from the pan with a spoon, the Schnitzel is done after it turns golden yellow or brown. The dish is served in Austria with Kopfsalat, potato salad, cucumber salad. Currently it is served with rice, french fries or roasted potatoes. It is common to serve it with a slice of lemon, to give the bread crumbs more taste, and it has however become common in Northern Germany to serve it with lemon, cucumber slices, sardines and capers, to achieve a pleasant appearance. Any sauces, e. g. mushroom sauce, are considered a taboo, a popular variation is made with pork instead of veal, because pork is cheaper than veal. To avoid mixing up different products, the Austrian and German food committees have decided that a Wiener Schnitzel must be made of veal, a Schnitzel made of pork can be called Schnitzel Wiener Art or Wiener Schnitzel vom Schwein. The Verwaltungsgericht Arnsberg 2009 decided about the acceptability of the latter name, the result was that in common parlance in Germany, a Wiener Schnitzel no more referred exclusively to a veal dish, but instead to a breaded steak in general
14.
Escalope
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An escalope is a piece of boneless meat that has been thinned out using a mallet, rolling pin or beaten with the handle of a knife, or merely butterflied. The mallet breaks down the fibers in the meat, making it more tender, the meat is then coated and fried. The typical sizes of a used in the food industry range from 113 to 227 g. Paillard is an older French culinary term referring to a quick-cooking, in France, it has been largely replaced by the word escalope. The cut is known as scallop in the US, not to be confused with the shellfish scallop, the term escalope originated in France. It first appeared in cookery terminology late in the 17th century as an expression in the northeast of rural France originally meaning a shelled nut or mollusk. In those days, an escalope was undoubtedly always veal, cutlet Chicken Paillard Saltimbocca Scaloppine Wiener Schnitzel
15.
Paupiette
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A paupiette is a piece of meat, beaten thin, and rolled with a stuffing of vegetables, fruits or sweetmeats. It is often featured in recipes from Normandy and it is often fried or braised, or baked in wine or stock. They are very popular in France, being sold ready-prepared in supermarkets, paupiettes can be made with various items such as chicken, beef, lamb, fish, veal, cabbage, turkey escalopes or slices of calves sweetbreads. A paupiette is a type of roulade and sometimes called a braciole, paupiette may also refer to a classic French fish dish whereby a thin slice of fish is stuffed, rolled and secured with string before cooking in a stock. A synonym of paupiette is, in Belgium, oiseau sans tête, paupiettes de Volaille Florentine, where the stuffing is spinach and prosciutto and rice. Paupiettes of lamb à la créole, where the stuffing is pork forcemeat with onions, paupiettes of turkey à la crécy, where the stuffing is a pork forcemeat mixed with a dry mushroom duxelle, chopped parsley and bound with eggs. Claiborne, C. The New New York Times Cookbook, page 259–260, harper & Row,1979 Montagné, P. New Concise Larousse Gatronomique, page 849
16.
Blanquette de veau
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Blanquette de veau is a French veal ragout in which neither the veal nor the butter is browned in the cooking process. To refrain from browning meat and fat in this way, is to cook them en blanquette, from Larousse Gastronomique BLANQUETTE, the French term for a ragout of white meat cooked in a white stock or water with aromatic flavorings. Theoretically, the sauce is obtained by making a roux and adding cream, however, the roux is more often than not omitted. Blanquette had an important place in historical cuisine and became a classic of bourgeois cookery. Blanquettes are also made fish and vegetables To prepare blanquette de veau, one stews pieces of veal and mirepoix, Strain, reserving meat. Boil to thicken, then return meat to stew, international Culinary Center recipe includes adding pearl onions and quartered mushrooms to the mix. Finish with a liaison of heavy cream and yolk,1,1, do not further cook once egg is added, to avoid curdling. Even modern chefs follow tradition in this classic dish, from The Country Cooking of France, Mushrooms, carrots and rice are the most common accompaniments to this dish, although the carrots should not be there. Pasta or potatoes can occasionally be served instead of rice, however, Georges Auguste Escoffiers Le Guide culinaire written in 1903 lists both the Blanquette de Veau a lAncienne as being served with noodles instead of rice. He also lists a second recipe, Blanquette of Veal Breast with Celery Knobs and endives, because this is a classic white stew there is a prejudice to serving it with any items that would add color. Cuisine of France List of stews List of veal dishes Food portal 2001 2nd edition, ISBN 2-03-560227-0, with assistance from a gastronomic committee chaired by Joël Robuchon
17.
Parmigiana
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Parmigiana is an Italian dish made with a shallow or deep-fried sliced aubergine filling, layered with cheese and tomato sauce, then baked. Parmigiana made with a filling of eggplant is the earliest and still unique Italian version, other variations may include chicken, veal, or another type of meat cutlet or vegetable filling. The origin of the dish is claimed by both the Southern regions of Campania and Sicily, the dish consists of a sliced filling pan fried in oil, layered with tomato sauce and cheese, and baked in an oven. In some versions, the filling is first dipped in beaten eggs. Some recipes use hard grated cheeses such as Parmigiano, while others use softer melting cheeses like mozzarella, variations made with breaded meat cutlets, such as veal and chicken, have been popularized in other countries, usually in areas of Italian immigration. In the United States and Canada, veal parmigiana or chicken parmigiana is often served as an entree and it is also popular with a side of or on top of pasta. Diced onions or green peppers, sauteed or raw, are sometimes added. A similar veal dish is known in Italian as Cotolette alla Bolognese, however, traditional Italian recipes exclude tomato sauce from the dish. Costelette Parmigiana is another related veal dish, however, in Italy it is served without sauce or cheese. Veal or chicken parmigiana is a dish in Australia and Argentina. In Australia, it may contain a variety of toppings. In Argentina and in other neighboring South American countries, veal or chicken parmigiana is topped with ham and it is known as milanesa a la napolitana. If the dish is topped with an egg, then it is known as a súper milanesa or suprema napolitana. The origin of the dish was the Napoli restaurant in Buenos Aires during the 1940s, a similar dish, the parmo, which uses either pork or chicken, has developed in England. In Brazil, Parmigiana is a restaurant dish, which was brought over by Italian immigrants. There are three kinds of Parmigiana in Brazil, filé de frango a parmigiana, berinjela a parmigiana, in Brazil, Parmigiana dishes are usually served with either white rice and fried potatoes or with pasta in a tomato sauce. List of eggplant dishes List of veal dishes Melanzane Parmigiana at Wikibook Cookbooks Media related to Parmigiana at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Demi-glace
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Demi-glace is a rich brown sauce in French cuisine used by itself or as a base for other sauces. The term comes from the French word glace, which, used in reference to a sauce, common variants of demi-glace use a 1,1 mixture of beef or chicken stock to sauce espagnole, these are referred to as beef demi-glace or chicken demi-glace. The term demi-glace by itself implies that it is made with the traditional veal stock, although many recipes for demi-glace give the preparation for the espagnole first, and then the recipe for the brown stock, preparation should actually proceed in the reverse. A basic brown stock should be prepared, and when completed left on the heat to remain very warm, at this point the espagnole is prepared, and when it is finished the brown stock is added in equal portions to the espagnole. Demi-glace keeps very well, about six months refrigerated or almost indefinitely frozen, however, even today, many chefs who prepare French haute cuisine use a demi-glace prepared in their own kitchen. Concentrates and mixes, mostly available to professional kitchens, are way of avoiding the labor involved in preparing the sauce. Demi-glace was humorously featured in popular TV show Northern Exposure, season 4, the recipe for the sauce was exaggerated to the point of boiling down the bones of forty cows to produce the super luxurious glace. Gypsy sauce Meat glaze List of sauces Escoffier, Auguste, for Auguste Escoffiers half glaze recipe. Emeril Lagasses recipe for demi-glace on foodnetwork. com—largely follows Escoffiers original recipe
19.
Offal
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Offal /ˈɒfəl/, also called variety meats, pluck or organ meats, refers to the internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal. The word does not refer to a particular list of organs, which varies by culture and region. As an English mass noun, the term offal has no plural form, some cultures shy away from offal as food, while others use it as everyday food, or in delicacies. Certain offal dishes—including foie gras, pâté and sweetbread—are considered gourmet food in international cuisine, others remain part of traditional regional cuisine and may be consumed especially in connection with holidays. This includes Scottish haggis, Jewish chopped liver, U. S. chitterlings, intestines are traditionally used as casing for sausages. Depending on the context, offal may refer to parts of an animal carcass discarded after butchering or skinning, it may also refer to the by-products of milled grains. In earlier times, mobs sometimes threw offal and other rubbish at condemned criminals as a show of public disapproval. The word shares its etymology with several Germanic words, Frisian ôffal, German Abfall, afval in Dutch and Afrikaans, avfall in Norwegian and Swedish and these Germanic words all mean garbage or waste, or —literally— off-fall, referring to that which has fallen off during butchering. However, these words are not often used to refer to food with the exception of Afrikaans in the agglutination afvalvleis which does indeed mean offal, for instance, the German word for offal is Innereien meaning innards and the Swedish word is innanmat literally meaning inside-food. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word entered Middle English from Middle Dutch in the form afval, derived from af, the traditional Scottish haggis consists of sheep stomach stuffed with a boiled mix of liver, heart, lungs, rolled oats and other ingredients. In the English Midlands and South Wales, faggots are made from ground or minced pig offal, bread, herbs and onion wrapped in pigs caul fat. Brawn is a British English term for cheese, or the collection of meat and tissue found on an animals skull that is cooked, chilled. Luncheon tongue refers to reformed pork tongue pieces, ox tongue made from pressed complete tongue, is more expensive. Both kinds of tongue are found in tinned form and in slices in supermarkets, home cooking and pressing of tongue has become less common over the last fifty years. Bleached tripe was a dish in Northern England with many specialist tripe shops in industrial areas. Today, in South Lancashire certain markets may still sell tripe, Elder is the name given to cooked cows udder - another Lancashire offal dish rarely seen today. Offal connoiseurs such as Ben Greenwood OBE have frequently campaigned to bring Elder back on the menu of restaurants across Yorkshire and Lancashire, in Norway the smalahove is a traditional dish, usually eaten around and before Christmas time, made from a sheeps head. The skin and fleece of the head is torched, the brain removed, and the head is salted, sometimes smoked, the head is boiled for about 3 hours and served with mashed rutabaga/swede and potatoes
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Sweetbread
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Sweetbreads or ris are culinary names for the thymus or the pancreas, especially of calf and lamb, and, less commonly, of beef and pork. The heart sweetbreads are more spherical in shape, and surrounded symmetrically by the throat sweetbreads, various other glands used as food may also sometimes be called sweetbreads, including the parotid gland, the sublingual glands as well as ovary and testicles. One common preparation of sweetbreads involves soaking in water, then poaching in milk. Once dried and chilled, they are breaded and fried. They are also used for stuffing or in pâtés and they are grilled in many Latin American cuisines, such as in the Argentine asado, and served in bread in Turkish cuisine. The word sweetbread is first attested in the 16th century, sweet is perhaps used since the thymus is sweet and rich-tasting, as opposed to savory-tasting muscle flesh. Bread may come from brede, roasted meat or from the Old English brǣd
21.
Animal welfare
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Animal welfare is the well-being of animals. The standards of animal welfare vary considerably between different contexts. These standards are under constant review and are debated, created and revised by animal groups, legislators. These concerns can include how animals are slaughtered for food, how they are used in research, how they are kept. Animal welfare was a concern of some ancient civilizations but began to take a place in Western public policy in 19th-century Great Britain. In the 21st century, it is a significant focus of interest in science, ethics, there are two forms of criticism of the concept of animal welfare, coming from diametrically opposite positions. One view, dating back centuries, asserts that animals are not consciously aware, however, some still maintain that consciousness is a philosophical question that may never be scientifically resolved. The other view is based on the animal rights position that animals should not be regarded as property, accordingly, some animal rights proponents argue that the perception of better animal welfare facilitates continued and increased exploitation of animals. Some authorities therefore treat animal welfare and animal rights as two opposing positions, others see the increasing concern for animal welfare as incremental steps towards animal rights. There are many different approaches to describing and defining animal welfare, providing good animal welfare is sometimes defined by a list of positive conditions which should be provided to the animal. This approach is taken by the Five Freedoms and the three principles of Professor John Webster, in the past, many have seen farm animal welfare chiefly in terms of whether the animal is producing well. g. Others in the field, such as Professor Ian Duncan and Professor Marian Dawkins and this approach indicates the belief that animals should be considered as sentient beings. In any assessment of welfare, it is these feelings that should be assessed, Dawkins wrote, Let us not mince words, Animal welfare involves the subjective feelings of animals. Yew-Kwang Ng defines animal welfare in terms of economics, Welfare biology is the study of living things. Despite difficulties of ascertaining and measuring welfare and relevancy to normative issues and they have offered the following eight principles for developing and evaluating animal welfare policies. Decisions regarding animal care, use, and welfare shall be made by balancing scientific knowledge, Animals must be provided water, food, proper handling, health care, and an environment appropriate to their care and use, with thoughtful consideration for their species-typical biology and behavior. Animals should be cared for in ways that minimize fear, pain, stress, procedures related to animal housing, management, care, and use should be continuously evaluated, and when indicated, refined or replaced. Conservation and management of animal populations should be humane, socially responsible, Animals shall be treated with respect and dignity throughout their lives and, when necessary, provided a humane death
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Cruelty to animals
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Cruelty to animals sometimes encompasses inflicting harm or suffering for personal amusement, as in zoosadism. Laws concerning animal cruelty are designed to prevent the needless cruelty, divergent approaches to such laws occur in different jurisdictions throughout the world. For example, some laws govern methods of killing animals for food, clothing, or other products, Cruelty to animals is not necessarily the same thing as disrespect towards animals. In broad terms, there are three approaches to the issue of cruelty to animals. Utilitarian advocates argue from the position of costs and benefits and vary in their conclusions as to the treatment of animals. Some utilitarians argue for an approach which is closer to the animal welfare position. Animal rights theorists criticize these positions, arguing that the unnecessary and humane are subject to widely differing interpretations. They say that the way to ensure protection for animals is to end their status as property. Certain thinkers, however, still viewed cruelty against animals as an injustice, renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vincis regard for animal welfare, for example, is well-documented. He was particularly troubled by the sight of birds in captivity, da Vinci also expressed anger within his notebooks with the fact that humans use their strength and power to raise animals for slaughter. René Descartes contrarily believed that non-humans are automata, complex machines with no soul, mind, in Cartesian dualism, consciousness was unique to human among all other animals and linked to physical matter by divine grace. However, close analysis shows that many features such as complex sign usage, tool use. Charles Darwin, by presenting the theory of evolution, revolutionized the way that humans viewed their relationship with other species, Darwin believed that not only did human beings have a direct kinship with other animals, but the latter had social, mental and moral lives too. Later, in The Descent of Man, he wrote, There is no difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Some philosophers and intellectuals, such as Peter Singer and Tom Regan, have argued that animals ability to feel pain as humans does make their well-being worthy of equal consideration, There are many precursors of this train of thought. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, famously wrote in his An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, The question is not, can they reason nor can they talk. These arguments have prompted some to suggest that animals well-being should enter a social welfare function directly, in one survey of United States homeowners, 68% of respondents said they actually consider the price of meat a more important issue. Animal cruelty can be broken down into two categories, active and passive
23.
Rumen
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The rumen, also known as a paunch, forms the larger part of the reticulorumen, which is the first chamber in the alimentary canal of ruminant animals. It serves as the site for microbial fermentation of ingested feed. The smaller part of the reticulorumen is the reticulum, which is continuous with the rumen. The rumen is composed of several muscular sacs, the sac, ventral sac, ventral blindsac. The lining of the wall is covered in small fingerlike projections called papillae. The reticulum is lined with ridges that form a honeycomb pattern. The ridges are approximately 0.1 -0.2 mm wide and are raised 5 mm above the reticulum wall, the hexagons in the reticulum are approximately 2–5 cm wide in cattle. These features increase the area of the reticulorumen wall, facilitating the absorption of volatile fatty acids. Despite the differences in the texture of the lining of the two parts of the reticulorumen, it represents one functional space. Digested food in the rumen is not uniform, but rather stratified into gas, liquid, and particles of different sizes, densities, and other physical characteristics. Additionally, digesta does not merely enter and exit the rumen without event, but it is subject to extensive mixing, after being swallowed, food travels down the oesophagus and is deposited in the dorsal part of the reticulum. Contractions of the reticulorumen propel and mix the recently ingested feed into the ruminal mat, the mat is a thick mass of digesta, consisting of partially degraded, long, fibrous material. Most material in the mat has been ingested, and as such, has considerable fermentable substrate remaining. Microbial fermentation proceeds rapidly in the mat, releasing many gases, some of these gases are trapped in the mat, causing the mat to be buoyant. As fermentation proceeds, fermentable substrate is exhausted, gas production decreases, digesta in the mat hence goes through a phase of increasing buoyancy followed by decreasing buoyancy. Simultaneously, the size of digesta particles–relatively large when ingested–is reduced by microbial fermentation and, later, incomplete digestion of plant material here will result in the formation of a type of bezoar called Phythobezoars. Once in the sac, digesta continues to ferment at decreased rates, further losing buoyancy. It is soon swept into the ventral reticulum by ruminal contractions, in the ventral reticulum, less dense, larger digesta particles may be propelled up into the oesophagus and mouth during contractions of the reticulum
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Calves
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Calves is a hamlet in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal. It is divided between the parishes of Argivai and Beiriz and in the 2001 census it had 138 inhabitants, the factory of Tapetes de Beiriz is also located there. They invented the nó de Beiriz, Calves is noted as a beauty spot for its countryside estates, namely Quinta de Calves and Quinta de Beiriz. Santa Clara Aqueduct is located in Calves, Quinta de Beiriz is the more notable of the estates. It is a beauty spot realised by Alfredo de Almeida Brandão, a diplomat, the estate includes gardens with two lakes and a park covered by trees, water fountains and mythical statues in the style of André Le Nôtre. The small manor house on the estate was built at the beginning of the 20th century, in 1956, the chapel was practically destroyed due to vandalism and the woodcarvings were sold, as the owners feared robbery. From 1972, the rooms and D. Hilda Chapel underwent improvement with Portuguese-Baroque woodcarving, to imitate the 16th-. Azulejos include hunting and countryside motifs, the chapel was reconsecrated in 1993
25.
United States Department of Agriculture
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Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
26.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
27.
Proposition 204
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Proposition 204 of 2006 was a law enacted by the voters of Arizona by means of the initiative process. It requires that pigs and calves used for veal on factory farms be given room to turn around. The Act was approved in a vote held as part of the 2006 Arizona state elections and it passed with over 62% support. The Act amended the Arizona Revised Statutes by adding a new provision, Section 13-2910.07 of the Criminal Code, lying down and fully extending his or her limbs, or 2. Turning around freely. This section shall not apply to,1, pigs or calves in rodeo exhibitions, state or county fair exhibitions, or other similar exhibitions. The killing of pigs or calves according to the provisions of chapter 13, title 3 and other applicable law, pigs or calves involved in lawful scientific or agricultural research. Pigs or calves while undergoing an examination, test, treatment or operation for veterinary purposes, a pig during the seven-day period prior to the pigs expected date of giving birth. A person who violates this section is guilty of a class 1 misdemeanor, the chairperson of the Yes on Proposition 204 campaign was Cheryl Naumann, president and CEO of the Arizona Humane Society. Another spokesperson was Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio, and the campaign was endorsed by the radio celebrity Paul Harvey. More than 200,000 Arizonans signed petitions to place the measure on the ballot, more than 100 Arizona veterinarians endorsed Proposition 204. It was also endorsed by the Arizona Republic the Arizona Daily Star, the East Valley Tribune the Scottsdale Tribune, the Northwest Explorer, and the Tucson Weekly. However, the Florida Farm Bureau explicitly denied the claim that any farms went out of business as a result of the 2002 ballot measure in that state. In an article published the week after the 2002 election, a spokesman for the Bureau stated that Its because of low prices, Full text of Proposition 204 Full text of Title 13, Section 13-2910.07 of the ARS Voters Pass Proposition 204 on Nov
28.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
29.
California Proposition 2 (2008)
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For other articles concerning Proposition 2, see Proposition 2 Proposition 2 was a California ballot proposition in that states general election on November 4,2008. It passed with 63% of the votes in favor and 37% against, submitted to the Secretary of State as the Prevention of Farm Animal Cruelty Act, the initiatives name was amended to officially be known as the Standards for Confining Farm Animals initiative. The official title of the statute enacted by the proposition is the Prevention of Farm Animal Cruelty Act, the measure deals with three types of confinement, veal crates, battery cages, and sow gestation crates. Having been passed by the voters on November 4,2008, farming operations had until that date to implement the new space requirements for their animals, and the statute now prohibits animals in California from being confined in a proscribed manner. Few veal and pig factory farm operations exist in California, so Proposition 2 mostly affects farmers who raise Californias 15 million egg-laying hens, exceptions made for transportation, rodeos, fairs, 4-H programs, lawful slaughter, research and veterinary purposes. Provides misdemeanor penalties, including a not to exceed $1,000 and/or imprisonment in jail for up to 180 days. Potential minor local and state enforcement and prosecution costs, partly offset by increased fine revenue, on November 5,2002, Florida voters passed Amendment 10, an amendment to the Florida Constitution banning the confinement of pregnant pigs in gestation crates. The Amendment passed by a margin of 55% for and 45% against, on November 7,2006, Arizona voters passed Proposition 204 with 62% support. The measure prohibits the confinement of calves in veal crates and breeding sows in gestation crates, on June 28,2007, Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski signed a measure into law prohibiting the confinement of pigs in gestation crates. On May 14,2008, Colorado Governor Bill Ritter signed into law a bill, SB201, germany, Switzerland, Sweden, and Austria have all banned battery cages for egg-laying hens. The entire European Union has phased out battery cages as of 2012 and they say that the bills for animal protection that they supported have been repeatedly killed in committees where agribusiness has great power. On January 14,2004, the bill AB-732 died in the California Assemblys Agriculture Committee, the primary author of AB-732 was Loni Hancock of the 14th District. The bill would have banned gestation and veal crates, eventually being amended to include only veal crates, on May 9,2007, the bill AB-594 was withdrawn from the California State Assembly. The primary author of AB-594 was Mervyn Dymally of the 52nd District, AB-594 was very similar to the current language of Proposition 2. In January 2008, Nebraska State Senator DiAnna Schimek submitted bill LB1148 to ban the use of gestation crates for pig farmers and it was withdrawn within 5 days amidst controversy, and a kill motion was filed by State Senator Phil Erdman. Animals under stress, including the stress of intensive confinement, have compromised immune systems, however, unlike eggborne salmonellosis of past decades, the current epidemic is due to intact and disinfected grade A eggs. The reason for this is that Salmonella enteritidis silently infects the ovaries of healthy appearing hens, supporters of Proposition 2 claim that giving egg-hens more space can prevent this type of outbreak. In addition to being vulnerable to exposure from rodents, free-range hens did not have the same level of manure management as those hens kept in modern housing systems
30.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
31.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
32.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
33.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
34.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
35.
Rhode Island
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Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
36.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
37.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
38.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
39.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
40.
CNN
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The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky
41.
The Washington Post
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The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C
42.
USA Today
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USA Today is an internationally distributed American daily middle-market newspaper that serves as the flagship publication of its owner, the Gannett Company. Founded by Al Neuharth on September 15,1982, it operates from Gannetts corporate headquarters on Jones Branch Drive in McLean, Virginia and it is printed at 37 sites across the United States and at five additional sites internationally. USA Today is distributed in all 50 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, with an international edition distributed in Canada, Asia and the Pacific Islands, Gannett formally announced the launch of the paper on April 20,1982. USA Today began publishing on September 15,1982, initially launching in the Baltimore and Washington, on July 2,1984, the newspaper switched from a largely black-and-white to a color publication, featuring full color photography and graphics in all four sections. On April 8,1985, the paper published its first special bonus section, a 12-page section called Baseball 85, on May 6,1986, USA Today began printing production of its international edition in Switzerland. On April 15, USA Today launched an international printing site. On August 28,1995, an international publishing site was launched in Frankfurt, Germany, to print. On October 4,1999, USA Today began running advertisements on its front page for the first time. The paper launched a sixth printing site for its international edition on May 15,2000, in Milan, Italy, followed on July 10 by the launch of a printing facility in Charleroi. That November, USA Today migrated its operations from Gannetts previous corporate headquarters in Arlington, in 2010, USA Today launched the USA Today API for sharing data with partners of all types. On August 27,2010, USA Today announced that it would undergo a reorganization of its newsroom and it also announced that the paper would shift its focus away from print and place more emphasis on its digital platforms and launch of a new publication called USA Today Sports. On September 14,2012, USA Today underwent the first major redesign in its history, to accomplish this goal, Gannett migrated its newspaper and television station websites to the Presto platform and the USA Today site design throughout 2013 and 2014. On January 4,2014, USA Today acquired the book and film review website, on September 3,2014, USA Today announced that it would lay off roughly 70 employees in a restructuring of its newsroom and business operations. In October 2014, USA Today and OpenWager Inc. entered into a partnership to release a Bingo app called USA TODAY Bingo Cruise, USA Today is known for synthesizing news down to easy-to-read-and-comprehend stories. In the main edition circulated in the United States and some Canadian cities, each consists of four sections, News, Money, Sports. The international edition of the paper features two sections, News and Money in one, with Sports and Life in the other, atypical of most daily newspapers, the paper does not print on Saturdays and Sundays, the Friday edition serves as the weekend edition. USA Today prints each complete story on the front page of the section with the exception of the cover story. The cover story is a story that requires a jump
43.
American Veterinary Medical Association
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The AVMA provides information resources, continuing education opportunities, publications, and discounts on personal and professional products, programs, and services. The AVMA indicates that it lobbies for animal friendly legislation within a framework that supports the use of animals for human purposes, the United States Department of Education has designated the AVMA as the accrediting body for the 30 schools of veterinary medicine in the United States. In this capacity, the AVMA develops and maintains educational standards for these institutions to ensure the qualifications, the AVMA publishes the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association and the American Journal of Veterinary Research. The AVMAs veterinary student organization is the Student American Veterinary Medical Association, the American Veterinary Medical Association was founded in 1863, when 40 delegates representing seven states met for a convention in New York. Originally named the United States Veterinary Medical Association, the USVMA was renamed the AVMA in 1889, by 1913, the AVMA consisted of 1,650 members, with membership open only to graduates of accredited veterinary schools. Today, the AVMA has more than 89,000 members engaged in a variety of work. In addition to treating pets, veterinarians work in a number of fields, such as health, agriculture, food safety, academics. The AVMA produces policies in response to requests and stakeholder interest. These statements are general and aim to encourage improvement based on the best available scientific evidence, the AVMAs policy was adopted after a comprehensive review by a multi-disciplinary, multi-perspective task force of experts that produced an accompanying review of housing for pregnant sows. The AVMA has voted on several proposals to take a stand against the forced feeding of birds to make foie gras. Although foie gras has been banned in countries in Europe. The AVMA has published a welfare implications of foie gras production backgrounder, AVMA argued that the CSA must be amended so that our nations animals do not suffer unnecessarily. Due to an interpretation of the law by the Drug Enforcement Administration, two bodies within AVMA are responsible for veterinary education accreditation, the AVMA Council on Education and the Committee on Veterinary Technician Education and Activities. The former is responsible for accreditation of veterinary colleges and the latter veterinary technology programs, the following colleges are accredited by the AVMA, The AVMA accredits veterinary technician programs in all U. S. states except for Arkansas, Montana, and Washington D. C. It also accredits one program in Canada and a number of distance learning programs, to become board certified, a veterinarian must have extensive post-graduate training and experience and pass a credential review and examinations set by the given specialty organization
44.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
