1.
Vine training
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For instance, while having a large spread out canopy can promote a favorable leaf to fruit ratio for photosynthesis, it offers very little wind protection. While closely related, the terms trellising, pruning and vine training are used interchangeably even though they refer to different things. Technically speaking, the trellis refers to the stakes, posts. Some vines are allowed to free standing without any attachment to a trellising structure. Part of the confusion between trellising and vine training systems stems from the fact that vine training systems will take on the name of the particular type of trellising involved. Pruning refers to the cutting and shaping of the cordon or arms of the grapevine in winter which will determine the number of buds that are allowed to become grape clusters. In some wine regions, such as France, the number of buds is outlined by Appellation dorigine contrôlée regulations. During the summer growing season, pruning can involve removing young plant shoots or excess bunches of grapes with green harvesting, as one of the worlds oldest cultivated crops, grapevines have been trained for several millennia. Cultures such as the ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians discovered that different training techniques could promote more abundant, when the Greeks began to colonize southern Italy in the 8th century BC, they called the land Oenotria which could be interpreted as staked or land of staked vines. In the 1st century AD, Roman writers such as Columella, for most of history, regional tradition largely dictated what type of vine training would be found in a given area. In the early 20th century, many of these traditions were codified into specific wine laws, the widespread study and utilization of various training systems began in the 1960s when many New World wine regions were developing their wine industry. While the most pertinent purpose of establishing a training system is canopy management, especially dealing with shading. As members of the Vitis family, grapevines are climbing plants that do not have their own natural support like trees. While grapevines have woody trunks, the weight of a leafy canopy. Ever since the epidemic of the 19th century, many vines are grafted on phylloxera resistant rootstock. Additionally this daughter vine will leech resources of water and nutrients from the vine which can diminish the quality of both vines grape production. Other reasons for vine training involve setting up the vineyard and each individual vine canopy for more efficient labor usage or mechanization, similarly, keeping the fruiting zone in a consistent spot on each vine makes it easier to set up machinery for pruning, spraying and harvesting. Many vine training systems are designed to avoid excessive shading of the fruit by the leafy growth, while some shading is beneficial, especially in very hot and sunny climates, to prevent heat stress, excessive amounts of shading can have negative impact on grape development
2.
Harlaxton House
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Harlaxton House is a heritage-listed villa at 6 Munro Street, Harlaxton, Queensland, Australia. It was built from 1869 to 1870 to 1910s circa and it was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992. Harlaxton House is a low-set, single-storey stone residence built for Francis Thomas Gregory, a letter to the editor of the Toowoomba Chronicle dated 19 June 1979, suggests that Harlaxton House was named after Harlaxton Manor, the home of the Gregorys near Farnsfield, in Nottinghamshire. The architect of Harlaxton House is unknown, on 28 January 1871, Mrs Gregory had a son at Harlaxton House near Toowoomba. Mrs Gregory was the sister of Walter Hume who later became the Commissioner of Crown Lands on the Darling Downs, on 7 August 1862, Martin Meldon took up 53 hectares of land extending back to where Downlands College now stands. On 18 December 1869, it was purchased by Frances Thomas Gregory, Gregory, M. L. C, gold medallist of the Royal Geographical Society, explorer, geologist and botanist. He was the son of Captain Joshua Gregory of the 78th Highlanders and brother of Sir Augustus Charles Gregory, Gregory was born on 19 October 1821, in Farnsfield, Nottingham, England, and came to Australia in 1829 in the ship Loftus. Gregory married Marion Scott Hume in 1864, William Beit was the father of William Beit Jnr, the builder of Ascot House in Toowoomba. In 1874 Gregory entered the Queensland Legislative Council and the family moved back to Harlaxton, in 1874 Francis Thomas Gregory was listed in the Post Office Directory as a Justice of the Peace, Darling Downs. Information in files of the National Trust of Queensland claim that, in 1877, Gregory was the agent for trustees of Beit. He may still have been financial agent for trustees even though he may have moved back to Harlaxton, the exact dates of these occurrences remains unclear. Harlaxton was originally known as Irishtown, as a number of Irish settlers stayed in the completing the new line between Ipswich and Toowoomba. Railway line opened in Toowoomba on 1 May 1867, while the Brisbane link was not established until 14 June 1875, Harlaxton House was rented by Lord Lamington, the eighth governor of Queensland. A special railway at Harlaxton was installed for the benefit of Governor Lamington, his guests, from 1906-1909, Gabbinbar was the summer residence of the Governor of Queensland, Lord Chelmsford and his family. The use of the residence as a retreat for the governor continued the trend of using several Toowoomba residences in this manner. Fernside was used as a place of residence by Sir Arthur Kennedy. Sir Arthur Kennedy, 5th Governor of Queensland, often visited Harlaxton and it is purported that Sir Arthur and Lady Kennedy were good friends with the Gregorys. After the death of Gregory in Toowoomba on 23 October 1888, Harlaxton was sold to Anne, the Perrys used the house as a summer residence
3.
Bengali language
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Bengali, also known by its endonym Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asia. With over 210 million speakers, Bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms, more recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style. Today, Bengali is the language spoken in Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. Both the national anthems of Bangladesh and India were composed in Bengali, in 1952, the Bengali Language Movement successfully pushed for the languages official status in the Dominion of Pakistan. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the movement in East Pakistan. Language is an important element of Bengali identity and binds together a diverse region. Sanskrit was spoken in Bengal since the first millennium BCE, during the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature. The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were spoken in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm and these dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit. They eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages at the end of the first millennium. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000–1200 AD from Sanskrit, for example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. Proto-Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty, during the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word-final অ ô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was a court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the development of Bengali as part of efforts to Islamize. Bengali became the most spoken language in the Sultanate. This period saw borrowing of Perso-Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary, major texts of Middle Bengali include Chandidas Shreekrishna Kirtana. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a case of diglossia, with the literary
4.
Roof
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A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, the word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering. In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain, a verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, a roof may also provide additional living space, for example a roof garden. Old English hrof roof, ceiling, top, summit, heaven, sky, also figuratively, highest point of something, there are no apparent connections outside the Germanic family. English alone has retained the word in a sense, for which the other languages use forms corresponding to OE. In many parts of the ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries. Other roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber, Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate, Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the space is bridged. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point, most US domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has roofs that are sloped, or pitched. Although modern construction such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition. So the pitch is dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities. Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be waterproof, other types of roofing, for example pantiles, are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather protection at a relatively low angle. In regions where there is rain, an almost flat roof with a slight run-off provides adequate protection against an occasional downpour. Drainpipes also remove the need for a sloping roof, a person that specializes in roof construction is called a roofer. The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region, the main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering. The basic shapes of roofs are flat, mono-pitched, gabled, hipped, butterfly, there are many variations on these types. Roofs constructed of sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs
5.
Porch
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There are various styles of porches, all of which depend on the architectural tradition of its location. All porches will allow for sufficient space for a person to comfortably pause before entering or after exiting the building, verandahs, for example, are usually quite large and may encompass the entire facade as well as the sides of a structure. An extreme example is the Grand Hotel on Mackinac Island, Michigan, in the Southwestern United States, ranch-style homes often use a porch to provide shade for the entrance and southern wall of the residence. Adobe-style homes in Santa Fe, New Mexico, often include large porches for entertainment called portals, which are not usually seen in the more traditional adobe homes. Older American homes, particularly those built during the era of Victorian architecture, or built in the Queen Anne style, the back porch is used as another sitting space. However, many American homes built with a porch since the 1940s have only a one, usually too small for comfortable social use. The New Urbanism movement in architecture urges a reversal in this trend, recommending a large front porch, some porches are screened in to exclude flying insects. Normally, the porch is architecturally unified with the rest of the house and it may be integrated into the roof line or upper storey. In Great Britain the projecting porch had come into use in churches by early medieval times. They were usually built of stone but occasionally were of timber, normally they were placed on the south side of the church, but also on the west and north sides, sometimes in multiple. The porches served to cover to worshipers, but they also had a liturgical use. At a baptism, the priest would receive the sponsors, with the infant, in the porch and the service began there. In later medieval times, the porch sometimes had two storeys, with a room above the entrance which was used as a school, meeting room, storeroom. If the village or town possessed a collection of books, it would be housed there, sometimes the church custodian lived in the upper storey and a window into the church would allow supervision of the main church interior. Some British churches have highly ornamented porches, both externally and internally, the south porch at Northleach, Gloucestershire, in the Cotswolds, built in 1480, is a well-known example, and there are several others in East Anglia and elsewhere in the UK. In India porches and verandahs are popular elements of secular as well as religious architecture, in the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure through the gopuram and leading to the temple. It is used for dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound
6.
Handrail
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A handrail is a rail that is designed to be grasped by the hand so as to provide stability or support. Handrails are commonly used while ascending or descending stairways and escalators in order to prevent injurious falls, handrails are typically supported by posts or mounted directly to walls. Guard rails and balustrades line drop-offs and other areas, keeping people. The oldest known handrail was uncovered by French archaeologist Pierre St. Jamaine in an Assyrian ruin in southern Iraq in the city-state Nippur, British Standard and British Standard Code of Practice are harmonized to European Normal series. Handrail height is set between 0.9 -1 metre, further details may be found on the UK government website and the downloadable leaflet Technical Booklet H2006. In addition, the International Residential Code includes a definition of a Type II handrail that allows for handrail with a perimeter greater than 6¼. The IRC and residential portion of the 2009 IBC define Type II handrail as follows, handrails with a perimeter greater than 6¼ inches shall provide a graspable finger recess area on both sides of the profile. This required depth shall continue for at least 3/8 inch to a level that is not less than 1¾ inches below the tallest portion of the profile, the minimum width of the handrail above the recess shall be 1¼ inches to a maximum of 2¾ inches. Edges shall have a radius of 0.01 inch. Handrails are located at a height between 34 and 38, the distance between the wall and handrail gripping surface is also governed by local code with the most common requirement being 1½ minimum. The National Fire Protection Agency requires that the distance between the wall and handrail be a minimum of 2¼, the 1992 Americans With Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines stated that there was to be an absolute dimension of 1½ between a handrail and a wall. This was actually a grab bar dimension which was part of the 1986 ANSI A117.1, ANSI changed the notation to 1½ minimum in 1990. This was not corrected in ADAAG until 2004 which now calls for a 1½ clearance, codes also generally require that there be a 1½ clearance between the underside of the handrail and any obstruction -- including the horizontal bracket arm. There is an allowance however for variations in the handrail size -- for every 1/2 of additional perimeter dimension over 4, handrails and railings are to support a continuous load of 50 plf or a concentrated load of 200 pounds. While most steel and aluminum members are adequate to accommodate those loads, top of gripping surfaces of handrails shall be 34 inches minimum and 38 inches maximum vertically above walking surfaces, stair nosings, and ramp surfaces. Handrails shall be at a consistent height above walking surfaces, stair nosings, when children are the principal users in a building or facility, a second set of handrails at an appropriate height can assist them and aid in preventing accidents. A maximum height of 28 inches measured to the top of the surface from the ramp surface or stair nosing is recommended for handrails designed for children. Sufficient vertical clearance between upper and lower handrails,9 inches minimum, should be provided to prevent entrapment
7.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
8.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
9.
Terraced houses in Australia
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Terraced housing was introduced to Australia in the 19th century. Their architectural work was based on those in London and Paris, large numbers of terraced houses were built in the inner suburbs of large Australian cities, particularly Sydney and Melbourne, mainly between the 1850s and the 1890s. The beginning of this period coincided with a boom caused by the Victorian and New South Wales Gold Rushes of the 1850s. Detached housing became the style of housing in Australia following Federation in 1901. The modern suburban versions of this style of housing are referred to as town houses, terraced houses in Australian cities are highly sought after, and due to their proximity to the CBD of the major cities they are often expensive, much like terraces in New York City. Terraced housing in Australia ranged from expensive middle-class houses of three, four and five-storeys down to single-storey cottages in working-class suburbs, the most common building material used was brick, often covered with stucco. Many terraces were built in the Filigree style, distinguished through heavy use of cast iron ornament, on balconies and verandahs, as many terraces were built speculatively, there are examples of freestanding and semi-detached terraces which were either intended to have adjoining terraces added. In the first half of the twentieth-century, terraced houses in Australia fell into disfavour, in the 1950s, urban renewal programs were often aimed at eradicating them entirely, not infrequently in favour of high-rise development. In recent decades, there has been a strong revival of interest in terraced houses in inner-city areas. Melbournes flat terrain has produced regular terraced house patterns, the generic Melbourne style of terrace is distinguishable from other regional variations. Chimneys were often tall, visible above the parapet and elaborately Italianate in style, individual terraces were designed to be appreciated on their own as much as part of a row. Symmetry was achieved through a central classical inspired pediment or similar architectural feature, the party walls were almost always decorated with corbels, and the large wooden entry doors were decorated with stained or etched glass surrounds. Many Melbourne terraces also featured a style of polychrome brickwork, influenced heavily by the early work of local architect Joseph Reed. The Melbourne style incorporated decorative cast iron balconies, the demand for imported cast iron eventually led to the establishment of local foundries. As a result, Melbourne has more decorative cast iron than any city in the world. Melbourne style terraces were often set back from the rather than built to the property line. The earliest surviving terraced house in Melbourne is Glass Terrace, 72–74 Gertrude Street, Royal Terrace at 50–68 Nicholson Street Fitzroy, completed three years later is only slightly younger and is the oldest surviving complete row. Free-standing terraces and single-storey terraces can be found elsewhere within 10 kilometres of the Melbourne city centre, terraced housing fell out of favour with Melbourne councils and after the First World War some actually sought to ban them completely
10.
Hotel
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A hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. Small, lower-priced hotels may offer only the most basic guest services and facilities, Hotel rooms are usually numbered to allow guests to identify their room. Some boutique, high-end hotels have custom decorated rooms, some hotels offer meals as part of a room and board arrangement. In the United Kingdom, a hotel is required by law to serve food, in Japan, capsule hotels provide a tiny room suitable only for sleeping and shared bathroom facilities. The precursor to the hotel was the inn of medieval Europe. For a period of about 200 years from the mid-17th century, inns began to cater to richer clients in the mid-18th century. One of the first hotels in a sense was opened in Exeter in 1768. Hotels proliferated throughout Western Europe and North America in the early 19th century, Hotel operations vary in size, function, and cost. Most hotels and major hospitality companies have set standards to classify hotel types. Full service hotels often contain upscale full-service facilities with a number of full service accommodations, an on-site full service restaurant. Boutique hotels are independent, non-branded hotels that often contain upscale facilities. Small to medium-sized hotel establishments offer a limited amount of on-site amenities, economy hotels are small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer basic accommodations with little to no services. Extended stay hotels are small to medium-sized hotels that offer full service accommodations compared to a traditional hotel. Timeshare and destination clubs are a form of property ownership involving ownership of a unit of accommodation for seasonal usage. A motel is a small-sized low-rise lodging with direct access to rooms from the car park. Boutique hotels are typically hotels with an environment or intimate setting. A number of hotels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture, some hotels are built specifically as a destination in itself, for example at casinos and holiday resorts. The organizational chart and volume of job positions and hierarchy varies by size, function and class
11.
Queenslander (architecture)
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Queenslander architecture is a modern term for the vernacular type of architecture of Queensland, Australia. It is also found in the parts of the adjacent state of New South Wales and shares many traits with architecture in other states of Australia but is distinct. The form of the typical Queenslander style residence distinguishes Brisbanes suburbs from other capital cities, the type developed in the 1840s and is still constructed today, displaying an evolution of local style. The term is applied to residential construction, although some commercial. Queenslander buildings are primarily of timber construction and can be low or high-set and they are typically tripartite in sectional composition, underfloor, primary rooms, and roof. All have one or more spaces, a sheltered edge of the building that is typically only part-enclosed and used as another living zone. This consideration for climate is the characteristic of the Queenslander type. The raising of the living spaces off the ground can be seen as both a stylistic and practical device. The vertical stumps, initially of timber, allow the building to float above the terrain, Queenslanders all have this underfloor area that is used to cool the building through ventilation and also for protection of the main structure from termite attack and other pests. The underfloor space is high enough for additional uses such as storage, carport or even as extra living area in the cool. The underfloor area was sometimes decoratively screened at the perimeter with timber battens, another advantage of being constructed on stumps is that the buildings are highly adaptive. It is relatively easy to raise, lower, reorient or completely relocate Queenslanders, the main living areas of the house, being raised from the terrain, are a series of rooms on a platform floor. The verandah is the most typical inclusion in the plan and can be used day, in Brisbane, many people have tables and chairs for dining and a daybed or sleepout on their verandah. Revolving tin cylinders placed on roofs allow for hot air to be out of ceiling spaces. The roof is a large and visible presence externally and was traditionally steeply pitched and they are of varied materials including slate and tiles but are most characteristically sheeted with corrugated iron. The iron roofs could withstand torrential rains and be re-used if damaged by cyclonic winds, typically, the Queenslander is suited to the sub-tropical climate of Queensland of high rainfall and mild to hot, humid climate with average summer temperatures in the range of 23–36 degrees Celsius. However, the type is found across the state in colder and hotter locations usually with adaptations to suit, owing to their simplicity of construction, standardised designs were produced through the 1920s and 1930s. Despite these advantages, tastes changed and the style fell out of favour after the Second World War, the need for cheaper homes first saw large verandahs reduced to small landings
12.
Queensland
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Queensland is the second-largest and third-most-populous state in the Commonwealth of Australia. Situated in the north-east of the country, it is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west, to the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean. Queensland has a population of 4,750,500, concentrated along the coast, the state is the worlds sixth largest sub-national entity, with an area of 1,852,642 km2. The capital and largest city in the state is Brisbane, Australias third largest city, often referred to as the Sunshine State, Queensland is home to 10 of Australias 30 largest cities and is the nations third largest economy. Tourism in the state, fuelled largely by its tropical climate, is a major industry. Queensland was first inhabited by Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, the first European to land in Queensland was Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606, who explored the west coast of the Cape York Peninsula near present-day Weipa. In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for the Kingdom of Great Britain. The colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 by Governor Arthur Phillip at Sydney, New South Wales at that time included all of what is now Queensland, Queensland was explored in subsequent decades until the establishment of a penal colony at Brisbane in 1824 by John Oxley. Penal transportation ceased in 1839 and free settlement was allowed from 1842, the state was named in honour of Queen Victoria, who on 6 June 1859 signed Letters Patent separating the colony from New South Wales. The 6th of June is now celebrated statewide as Queensland Day. Queensland achieved statehood with the Federation of Australia on 1 January 1901, the history of Queensland spans thousands of years, encompassing both a lengthy indigenous presence, as well as the eventful times of post-European settlement. The north-eastern Australian region was explored by Dutch, Spanish and French navigators before being encountered by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770, the Australian Labor Party has its origin as a formal organisation in Queensland and the town of Barcaldine is the symbolic birthplace of the party. June 2009 marked the 150th anniversary of its creation as a colony from New South Wales. The Aboriginal occupation of Queensland is thought to predate 50,000 BC, likely via boat or land bridge across Torres Strait, during the last ice age Queenslands landscape became more arid and largely desolate, making food and other supplies scarce. This led to the worlds first seed-grinding technology, warming again made the land hospitable, which brought high rainfall along the eastern coast, stimulating the growth of the states tropical rainforests. In February 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon landed near the site of what is now Weipa and this was the first recorded landing of a European in Australia, and it also marked the first reported contact between European and Aboriginal Australian people. The region was explored by French and Spanish explorers prior to the arrival of Lieutenant James Cook in 1770. Cook claimed the east coast under instruction from King George III of the United Kingdom on 22 August 1770 at Possession Island, naming Eastern Australia, including Queensland, the Aboriginal population declined significantly after a smallpox epidemic during the late 18th century
13.
Bandeirantes
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The Bandeirantes were 17th-century Portuguese settlers in Brazil and fortune hunters. This group mostly hailed from the São Paulo region, which was known as the Captaincy of São Vicente until 1709, the São Paulo settlement served as the home base for the most famous bandeirantes. Most bandeirantes were descendants of first- and second-generation Portuguese who settled in São Paulo, though they originally aimed to capture and force Indigenous Americans into slavery, the bandeirantes later began to focus their expeditions on finding gold, silver, and diamond mines. As they ventured into unmapped regions in search of profit and adventure, the main focus of the bandeirantes earlier missions was to enslave native populations. They carried this out by disguising themselves as Jesuits, often singing mass to lure the natives out of their settlements, however, they usually relied on surprise attacks. If luring the natives with promises did not work, the bandeirantes would surround the settlements and set them alight, forcing inhabitants out into the open. At a time when imported African slaves sold from $100–$500 the bandeirantes were able to large numbers of native slaves at a huge profit due to their relatively inexpensive price. The first bandeira took place in 1628 and was organized by Antônio Raposo Tavares and this bandeira raided 21 Jesuit villages in the upper Paraná Valley, ultimately capturing about 2,500 natives. A bandeira tactic was to set native tribes against each other in order to weaken them, and then to enslave both sides. In 1628, Tavares led a bandeira, composed of 2,000 allied Indians,900 mamelucos and this expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit missions of Spanish Guayrá and the enslavement of over 60,000 indigenous people. The expedition travelled to Andean Quito, part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, of the 1,200 men who left São Paulo, only 60 reached their final destination in Belém. In addition to capturing natives as slaves, bandeiras also helped to extend the power of Portugal by expanding its control over the Brazilian interior. Along with the exploration and settlement of territory the bandeiras also discovered mineral wealth for the Portuguese. In the 1660s, the Portuguese government offered rewards to those who discovered gold, so the bandeirantes, driven by greed, ventured into the depths of Brazil not only to enslave natives, but also to find mines and receive government rewards. As the number of natives diminished, the bandeirantes began to more intensely on finding minerals. The bandeirantes were responsible for the discovery of mineral wealth, and along with the missionaries, for the enlargement of central. This mineral wealth made Portugal wealthy during the 18th century, Taunay, Afonso de E. Relatos Sertanistas, Ed. São Paulo University * Taunay, Afonso de E. História das Bandeiras Paulistas, melhoramentos Franco, Francisco de Assis Carvalho, Dicionário de Bandeirantes e Sertanistas do Brasil, Ed
14.
Buildings and architecture of New Orleans
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The buildings and architecture of New Orleans are reflective of its history and multicultural heritage. The city boasts fine examples of almost every style, from the baroque Cabildo to the modernist skyscrapers of the Central Business District. Creole cottages are scattered throughout the city of New Orleans, with most being built between 1790-1850, the majority of these cottages are found in the French Quarter, the surrounding areas of Faubourg Marigny, the Bywater, and Esplanade Ridge. Creole cottages are one-and-a-half story, set at ground level and they have a steeply-pitched roof, with a symmetrical four-opening façade wall and a wood or stucco exterior. They are usually set close to the property line, many buildings in the American townhouse style were built from 1820 to 1850 and can be found in the Central Business District and Lower Garden District. American townhouses are narrow, three-story structures made of stucco or brick, an asymmetrical arrangement of the facade with a balcony on the second floor sits close to the property line. Creole townhouses are perhaps the most iconic pieces of architecture in the city of New Orleans, comprising a portion of the French Quarter. Creole townhouses were built after the Great New Orleans Fire, until the mid-19th century, the prior wooden buildings were replaced with structures with courtyards, thick walls, arcades, and cast-iron balconies. The facade of the building sits on the property line, with an arrangement of arched openings. Creole townhouses have a roof with parapets, side-gabled, with several roof dormers and strongly show their French. The exterior is made of brick or stucco, the shotgun house is a narrow domestic residence, usually no more than 12 feet wide, with doors at each end. This style of architecture developed in New Orleans, and is the predominant house type. The earliest extant New Orleans shotgun house, at 937 St. Andrews St. was built in 1848, shotguns were built through the 1920s and can be found throughout the city. Typically, shotgun houses are one-story, narrow rectangular homes raised on brick piers, most have a narrow porch covered by a roof apron that is supported by columns and brackets, which are often ornamented with lacy Victorian motifs. Double-gallery houses were built in New Orleans between 1820 and 1850, double-gallery houses are two-story houses with a side-gabled or hipped roof. The house is set back from the property line, and it has a covered two-story gallery which is framed and supported by columns supporting the entablature, the façade has an asymmetrical arrangement of its openings. These homes were built as a variation on the American townhouses built in the Garden District, Uptown, california bungalow houses were built from the early-to-mid-20th century in neighborhoods such as Mid-City, Gentilly Terrace, Broadmoor, and scattered throughout older neighborhoods as in-fill. California bungalows are noted for their appearance, being more horizontal than vertical
15.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
16.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
17.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
18.
Air conditioning
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Air conditioning is the process of removing heat from a confined space, thus cooling the air, and removing humidity. Air conditioning can be used in domestic and commercial environments. Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the air to an occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort. The cooling is achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be based on desiccants and subterraneous pipes that can distribute the heated refrigerant to the ground for cooling. In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the condition of air, in common usage, though, air conditioning refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as heating, ventilation. Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling, the business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century. This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines, the basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window and this process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season. The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m in diameter. During the subsequent Song Dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used, in the 17th century, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated Turning Summer into Winter for James I of England by adding salt to water. The introduction of air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States. In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a professor at Cambridge University. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of volatile liquids could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C while the ambient temperature was 18 °C
19.
Spanish Colonial architecture
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These two visible aspects of the city are connected and complementary. The 16th century Laws of the Indies included provisions for the layout of new settlements in the Americas. The new churches and mission stations, for example, aimed for maximum effect in terms of their imposition and domination of the buildings or countryside. In order for that to be achievable, they had to be strategically located - at the center of a square or at a higher point in the landscape. The Spanish Colonial style of architecture dominated in the early Spanish colonies of North and South America and it is sometimes marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center of New Spain - and the richest province of Spains colonial empire - has some of the most renowned buildings built in this style. With twenty-nine sites, Mexico has more sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list than any country in the Americas. Some of the most famous cities in Mexico built in the Colonial style are Puebla, Zacatecas, Querétaro, Guanajuato, the historic center of Mexico City is a mixture of architectural styles from the 16th century to the present. The Metropolitan Cathedral – built from 1563 to 1813 in a variety of including the Renaissance, Baroque. The rich interior is mostly Baroque, during the late 17th century to 1750, one of Mexicos most popular architectural styles was Mexican Churrigueresque. These buildings were built in an ultra-Baroque, fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic style, Antigua Guatemala in Guatemala is also known for its well preserved Spanish colonial style architecture. The city of Antigua is famous for its well-preserved Spanish Mudéjar-influenced Baroque architecture as well as a number of ruins of colonial churches dating from the 16th century. It has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Ciudad Colonial of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, founded in 1498, is the oldest city in the New World and a prime example of this architectural style. San Juan was founded by the Spaniards in 1521, where Spanish colonial architecture can be found like the Historic Hotel El Convento, also, Old San Juan with its walled city and buildings are very good examples, and in excellent condition. According to UNESCO, Quito, Ecuador has the largest, best-preserved and it was the first city that was inscribed onto the UNESCO World Heritage List, along with Kraków, Poland in 1978. The historic district of city is the sole largest and best preserved area of Spanish Colonial architecture in the world. The idea of laying out a city in a pattern is not unique to the Spanish. In fact, it never started out with the Spanish colonizers and it has been traced back to some ancient civilizations especially the ancient cities of the Aztec and Maya, and also Ancient Greeks
20.
Awning
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An awning or overhang is a secondary covering attached to the exterior wall of a building. The configuration of this structure is something of a truss, space frame or planar frame, Awnings are also often constructed of aluminium understucture with aluminium sheeting. These aluminium awnings are often used when a fabric awning is not an application where snow load as well as wind loads may be a factor. The location of an awning on a building may be above a window, with the addition of columns an awning becomes a canopy, which is able to extend further from a building, as in the case of an entrance to a hotel. Restaurants often use awnings broad enough to cover substantial outdoor area for dining, parties. Awnings were first used by the ancient Egyptian and Syrian civilizations and they are described as woven mats that shaded market stalls and homes. A Roman poet Lucretius, in 50 BC, said Linen-awning, stretched, over mighty theatres, gives forth at times, a cracking roar, when much tis beaten about, betwixt the poles and cross-beams. Among the most significant awnings in the ancient world was the velarium and it is believed that sailors, with their background in sailmaking and rigging were employed to build, maintain and operate the velarium. Awnings became common during the first half of the 19th century, at that time they consisted of timber or cast iron posts set along the sidewalk edge and linked by a front cross bar. To lend support to installations, angled rafters linked the front cross bar to the building facade. The upper end of the canvas was connected to the facade with nails, with grommets and hooks, the other end of the canvas was draped over or laced to a front bar with the edge often hanging down to form a valance. On ornate examples, metal posts were adorned with filigree and the tops decorated with spear ends, photographs from the mid-19th century often show the bare framework, suggesting that the covering was extended only when necessary. Canvas duck was the predominant awning fabric, a strong, closely woven cotton cloth used for centuries to make tents, Awnings became a common feature in the years after the Civil War. Iron plumbing pipe, which was adapted for awning frames. It was a material for awning frames, easily bent. At the same time the advent of the steamship forced canvas mills, an awning industry developed offering an array of frame and fabric options adaptable to both storefronts and windows. In the second half of the 19th century, manufactured operable awnings grew in popularity, previously, most awnings had fixed frames-the primary way to retract the covering was to roll it up the rafters by hand. Operable systems for both storefront and window awnings had extension arms that were hinged where they joined the facade, the arms were lowered to project the awning or raised to retract the awning using simple rope and pulley arrangements
21.
Canopy (building)
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A canopy is an overhead roof or else a structure over which a fabric or metal covering is attached, able to provide shade or shelter from weather conditions such as sun, hail, snow and rain. A canopy can also be a tent, generally without a floor, the word comes from the Ancient Greek κωνώπειον, from κώνωψ, which is a bahuvrihi compound meaning mosquito. The first o changing into a may be due to influence from the place name Canopus, architectural canopies include projections giving protection from the weather, or merely decoration. Such canopies are supported by the building to which they are attached, canopies can also stand alone, such as a fabric covered gazebo or cabana. Fabric canopies can meet various design needs, many modern fabrics are long-lasting, bright, easily cleaned, strong and flame-retardant. This material can be vinyl, acrylic, polyester or canvas, modern frame materials offer high strength-to-weight ratios and corrosion resistance. The proper combination of properties can result in safe, strong, economical
22.
Deck (building)
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In architecture, a deck is a flat surface capable of supporting weight, similar to a floor, but typically constructed outdoors, often elevated from the ground, and usually connected to a building. The term is a generalization of decks as found on ships, wood or timber decking can be used in a number of ways, as part of garden landscaping, to extend living areas of houses, and as an alternative to stone based features such as patios. Decks are made from treated lumber, composite lumber, composite material, lumber may be Western red cedar, teak, mahogany, ipê and other hardwoods. Recycled planks may be high-density polyethylene, polystyrene and PET plastic as well as mixed plastics, artificial decking products are often called wood-plastic composites. These days, WPCs have more known by different brands like Trex, Azek. Historically, the used for decking were logged from old growth forests. These include Atlantic white cedar, redwood and Western red cedar, Atlantic City built the first coastal boardwalk in the United States, originally constructed of Atlantic white cedar. However, it was not long before the commercial logging of this tree, Atlantic City and New York City both switched to Western red cedar. By the 1960s, Western red cedar from the US was declining due to over-logging, more expensive Western red cedar was available from western Canada but by then, pressure treated pine had become available. But even with chemical treatments, pine decking is not as durable as cedars in an outdoor environment, thus, many municipalities and homeowners are turning to hardwoods. Decks are often built from pressure treated wood, pressure treated wood is long lasting and holds up to wet and icey weather conditions. Pressure treated wood however is treated with chemicals which have known to be toxic. Generally, hardwoods used for decking come from tropical forests, US tropical wood imports are rising, partly due to the demand for decking. Due to environmental and durability concerns, composite decking have appeared on the market, proponents of composite decking have touted this as a much needed development as this helps to curb logging of trees for new decks. However composite decking has been found to contain chemicals, cannot be refurbished. However newer more modern composites feature a cap or shell that prevents mold, residential decks may contain spaces for cooking, dining and seating. Cooking areas ideally should be situated near the door while out of the way from general foot traffic. Dining spaces will include patio tables, for a typical 6 person outdoor patio table building an area of 12 x 16 is ideal
23.
Lanai (architecture)
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A lanai or lānai is a type of roofed, open-sided veranda, patio or porch originating in Hawaii. Many homes, apartment buildings, hotels and restaurants in Hawaii are built one or more lānais. One example of Hawaiian architecture featuring a lānai is the Albert Spencer Wilcox Beach House on the Island of Kauai, the residence of Queen Liliʻuokalani, Washington Place in Honolulu, was constructed with open lānais on all sides. The use of the lānai is one of the Hawaiian modern features in the style of some of the buildings of Vladimir Ossipoff, a lanai may also be a covered exterior passageway. Disney animator Dorse Lanpher notes in his memoirs the large covered lanais on the side of his Honolulu hospital. Today, air-conditioned buildings such as hotels often offer enclosed rather than open lanais, sometimes meaning a large dining hall with a wall of sliding glass doors
24.
Loggia
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A loggia is an architectural feature which is a covered exterior gallery or corridor usually on an upper level, or sometimes ground level. The outer wall is open to the elements, usually supported by a series of columns or arches, Loggias can be located either on the front or side of a building and are not meant for entrance but as an out-of-door sitting room. From the early Middle Ages, nearly every Italian comune had an arched loggia in its main square which served as a symbol of communal justice and government. The main difference between a loggia and a portico is the role within the layout of the building. The portico allows entrance to the inside from the exterior and can be found on vernacular, the loggia is accessed only from inside and intended as a place for leisure. Thus, it is mainly on noble residences and public buildings. A classic use of both is that represented in the Mosaics of Basilica of Sant Apollinare Nuovo of the Royal Palace, a double loggia occurs when a loggia is located on an upper floor level above a loggia on the floor beneath. In Italian architecture, a loggia often takes the form of a small, often ornate, summer house built on the roof of a residence to enjoy cooling winds and they were especially popular in the 17th century and are prominent in Rome and Bologna, Italy. Grinnell College in Grinnell, Iowa, contains three sets of dorms connected by loggias. In the town center of Chester in the United Kingdom, a number of timber-framed buildings dating from the Tudor to Victorian periods have first-floor loggias called the Chester Rows, in Russia, a loggia can be a recessed balcony on a residential apartment building. A loggia was added to the Sydney Opera House in 2006, at the archeological site of Hagia Triada on the Greek island of Crete, several loggias constructed around 1400 BC have been located and whose column bases still remain. Peristyle Portico Veranda Curl, James Stevens, a Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. The dictionary definition of loggia at Wiktionary Media related to Loggias at Wikimedia Commons
25.
Overhang (architecture)
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An overhang in architecture is a protruding structure which may provide protection for lower levels. Overhangs on two sides of Pennsylvania Dutch barns protect doors, windows, and other lower level structure, overhangs on all four sides of barns is common in Swiss architecture. An overhanging eave is the edge of a roof, protruding outwards, later it was adapted into the Indo-Saracenic architecture which flourished during the British Raj. In late medieval and Renaissance Europe, the upper storeys of timber framed houses often overhung the storey below and this technique had been superseded by the start of the 18th century, as building in brick or stone became common. These are known as a garrison houses, then in early 20th century it was adapted into the Prairie School architecture, with architects like Frank Lloyd Wright, and thus made way into the modern architecture as well. An overhang may also refer to an awning or other protective elements
26.
Patio
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A patio is an outdoor space generally used for dining or recreation that adjoins a residence and is typically paved. Patios are most commonly paved with concrete or stone slabs, Patios can also be created using bricks, block paving, tiles or cobbles. Patio is also a term used for outdoor seating at restaurants. While common in Europe, eating outdoors at restaurants in North America was exotic until the late 20th century, the Hotel St. Moritz in New York in the 1950s advertised itself as having the first true continental cafe with outdoor seating. The Toronto Star welcomed that citys first patio in the 1960s, andalusian Patio Arizona room Deck Porch Terrace garden Veranda Media related to Patios at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of patio at Wiktionary
27.
Porch sitting
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Porch sitting, i. e. sitting on a front porch or stoop, usually of a private residence is a leisure activity which can be a direct or indirect form of social interaction. This activity is a staple of most urban areas in the United States and this activity is most common during good weather, especially on warm summer nights and weekends. Porch sitting was once considered to be a status symbol, as well as being a good way to connect with neighbors, it also is an important form of community security, helping to prevent crime. Front porches were originally mandated in the community of Seaside, Florida. Its planners then perceived an enhanced sense of community and front porches subsequently became an important element in the New Urbanism movement, during the summer of 2006, All Things Considered broadcast a series of stories dedicated to the role of the front porch in American life and literature. There are now thousands of Professional Porch Sitters Unions in all fifty states of the U. S. in certain Brazilian fishing households, families may use stools. Some see a downside of sitting on porches, the intrusiveness of porch-based surveillance. It was formerly cooler out on the porch than it was inside the house, air conditioning has thus replaced porch sitting, people able to socialize in the comfort of their homes, although porch sitting is still common in areas where the climate is nice. Other causes of a decline of porch sitting are television, which provides other entertaining sights, and the motor car, porch-sitters form a recognized group in marketing, in literature, and in linguistics. Henry Church, an aged ex-British soldier from the American Revolutionary War, was noted for his sitting in sight of the train station. The town of Hundred, West Virginia, was named after him. The Don Knotts Show had a feature, The Front Porch, in which the host and his guest would sit in rocking chairs in a porch. When Knotts played Barney Fife on The Andy Griffith Show, porch sitting was often incorporated into the sitcoms script, another television series which featured Southern porch sitting, albeit in a more rural setting, was the family drama The Waltons. The ethnic slur porch monkey is an insinuation that African Americans spend excessive amount of time porch sitting, in the film Friday, the main characters spend most of their day porch sitting. Marsee, The Art of Porch Sitting, A Societal Barometer Sue Bridwell Beckham, The American Front Porch, the Death and Life of Great American Cities. This edition includes a new foreword written by the author
28.
Terrace (building)
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A terrace is an external, raised, open, flat area in either a landscape near a building, or as a roof terrace on a flat roof. Terraces are used primarily for leisure activity such as sitting, strolling, the term often applies to a raised area in front of a monumental building or structure, which is usually reached by a grand staircase and surrounded by a balustrade. A terrace may be supported by an embankment or solid foundation, terraces may also be platforms, supported by columns but without the space below filled in, but terraces are always open to the sky and may or may not be paved. Agricultural terracing can be traced back to prehistoric times, but architectural terracing is equally ancient. Examples of early architectural terracing in the Middle East have been found at Nahal Oren, at Tel Yarmut, for example, architectural terracing also occurred on the island of Babeldaob in modern Palau in the Pacific Ocean. Terraces are found the world over, throughout history, terraces were used extensively throughout Greece in both public and private architecture, and rooftop terraces can be found at Knossos as early as 1700 BCE. Terraces were also extensively in the Roman Empire, with terraces in front of monumental structures common throughout imperial history. Temples were terraced on the island of Java by at least 800 CE, the first terrace stone temple in Cambodia was constructed at Bakong in 881 CE. Terraces are often used for private residences, in traditional Thai homes, the dwelling is built around a central terrace, or chaan. One or more house cabins are placed around the edge of the terrace, architectural theories for the use and design of terraces varies widely geographically and historically. In the early part of the 20th century, architects Henry, since the terrace was not the focal point of the structure, its design should be simple and it should command a view. More recently, architect Catherine Dee has noted that the terrace is most commonly used to link the structure to the landscape and as an extension of living space. According to architect Sophia Psarra, the terrace is one of the most commonly used forms of architecture in the 21st century, along with halls, stairs. Landscape architect Russell Sturgis has observed that terraces tend to be used only in larger, terraces need not always protrude from a building, a flat roof area used for social activity is also known as a terrace. In Venice, Italy, for example, the terrace is the most common form of terrace found. Developed around 1500 CE, it remains little-changed today and consists of a platform with small spaces between the floorboards. The altana was originally a place where laundry could be out to dry. Today, however, the altana is used primarily for social purposes, balcony Band stand Gazebo Patio Pavilion Pergola Porch Terrace garden Verandah
29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
30.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
31.
Room
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A room is any distinguishable space within a structure. Usually, a room is separated from other spaces or passageways by interior walls, moreover, it is separated from outdoor areas by an exterior wall, sometimes with a door. Historically the use of rooms dates at least to early Minoan cultures about 2200 BC, in early structures, the different room types could be identified to include bedrooms, kitchens, bathing rooms, reception rooms, and other specialized uses. Ancient Rome manifested very complex building forms with a variety of room types, in the United Kingdom, many houses are built to contain a box-room that is easily identifiable, being smaller than the others. The small size of these rooms limits their use, and they tend to be used as a single bedroom, small childs bedroom. Other box rooms may house a live-in domestic worker, entryway Great hall Room number The Room class room Media related to Rooms at Wikimedia Commons
32.
House
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Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands
33.
Billiard room
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A billiard room is a recreation room, such as in a house or recreation center, with a billiards, pool or snooker table. The term billiard room is also used as synonymous with billiard hall i. e. a business providing public access to hourly-rental or coin-operated billiard tables. The billiard room room may be in the center of the house or the private areas of the house. Billiard rooms require proper lighting and clearances for game playing, although there are adjustable cue sticks on the market,5 feet of clearance around the pool table is ideal. Interior designer Charlotte Moss believed that a room is synonymous with group dynamics. Its where you mix drinks and embark on a friendly competition. Billiards probably developed from one of the century or early-15th century lawn games in which players hit balls with sticks. The earliest mention of pool as a table game is in a 1470 inventory list of the accounts of King Louis XI of France. Following the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, billiard rooms were added to some famous 18th century cafes in Paris, although billiards had long been enjoyed by both men and women, a trend towards male suites developed in 19th century Great Britain. These male suites paired billiard rooms with smoking rooms and sometimes libraries, one example of these male suites is Castle Carr near Halifax. By the turn of the century, billiard rooms were considered a feature in great British houses with House Beautiful claiming Up-to-date owners of English estates have installed billiard rooms. Many mid- and late-19th century billiard rooms were designed in an Oriental or Moorish style, mark Twains billiard room in Hartford, CT was decorated with quasi-Moorish stencils. The late 19th and early 20th century represent the billiard rooms heyday
34.
Common room
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It is generally connected to several private rooms, and may incorporate a bathroom. However, they may also be found in day schools and sixth forms, regular features include couches, televisions, coffee tables, and other generic lounge furniture for socializing. Depending on its location and purpose of use, a room may be known by another name. For instance, in hospitals, where access is usually restricted to the daytime hours. In Singapore, the term refers to a bedroom without attached bathroom in an HDB apartment unit. Common Room Student lounge Media related to Common rooms at Wikimedia Commons
35.
Den (room)
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A den is a small room in a house where people can pursue activities in private. In the United States, the type of rooms described by the term den varies considerably by region and it is used to describe many different kinds of bonus rooms, including studies, family rooms, home offices, libraries, home cinemas, or even spare bedrooms. In some places, particularly in parts of the British Isles, while living rooms tend to be used for entertaining company on formal occasions, dens, like other family rooms, tend toward the more informal. In houses that do not have dedicated family rooms or recreation rooms, Dens can also be private areas primarily used by adult members of the household, possibly restricting access to the room by their children. Dens with home theater systems and large screen televisions may be referred to as media rooms instead, most den floors are made out of wood, carpet, or floor tiling. Dens can serve the purpose as cabinets in the past, becoming a modern man cave—a place for men to gather. In such cases, the design and decor may be distinctively masculine, media related to Dens at Wikimedia Commons
36.
Dining room
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A dining room is a room for consuming food. In modern times it is adjacent to the kitchen for convenience in serving. In the Middle Ages, upper class Britons and other European nobility in castles or large manor houses dined in the great hall and this was a large multi-function room capable of seating the bulk of the population of the house. The family would sit at the table on a raised dais. Tables in the hall would tend to be long trestle tables with benches. The sheer number of people in a Great Hall meant it would probably have had a busy, suggestions that it would also have been quite smelly and smoky are probably, by the standards of the time, unfounded. These rooms had large chimneys and high ceilings and there would have been a flow of air through the numerous door. In the first instance, the Black Death that ravaged Europe in the 14th Century caused a shortage of labour, also the religious persecutions following the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII made it unwise to talk freely in front of large numbers of people. Over time, the nobility took more of their meals in the parlour, and the parlour became, functionally and it also migrated farther from the Great Hall, often accessed via grand ceremonial staircases from the dais in the Great Hall. Eventually dining in the Great Hall became something that was primarily on special occasions. Toward the beginning of the 18th Century, a pattern emerged where the ladies of the house would withdraw after dinner from the room to the drawing room. The gentlemen would remain in the room having drinks. The dining room tended to take on a more masculine tenor as a result, a typical North American dining room will contain a table with chairs arranged along the sides and ends of the table, as well as other pieces of furniture, as space permits. Often tables in modern dining rooms will have a leaf to allow for the larger number of people present on those special occasions without taking up extra space when not in use. Although the typical family dining experience is at a table or some sort of kitchen area. In modern American and Canadian homes, the room is typically adjacent to the living room. Smaller houses and condos may have a breakfast bar instead, often of a different height than the kitchen counter. If a home lacks a dinette, breakfast nook, or breakfast bar and this was traditionally the case in Britain, where the dining room would for many families be used only on Sundays, other meals being eaten in the kitchen
37.
Family room
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A family room is an informal, all-purpose room in a house. The family room is designed to be a place where family and guests gather for group recreation like talking, reading, watching TV, often, the family room is located adjacent to the kitchen, and at times, flows into it with no visual breaks. A family room often has doors leading to the yard and specific outdoor living areas such as a deck, garden. The term family room as defined in the 1945 book Tomorrows House by George Nelson and this big room would have furnishings and materials that were tough, for hard use, and it should be easy to clean. Could be kept out of sight, the distinction between a family room, living room, and recreation room is fluid, but can be classified according to three characteristics, location, function and design. It is typically located in the part of the house towards the front. The recreation room is typically in the basement and used for games, in homes with only one, the terms are generally used interchangeably. In floorplans, a room is where the living room. Parlour Den Living room Recreation room
38.
Garret
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A garret is a habitable attic or small and often dismal or cramped living space at the top of a house or larger residential building. In the days before lifts this was the least prestigious position in a building, in this era, the garret often had sloping ceilings. The word entered Middle English via Old French with a connotation of a watchtower or something akin to a garrison. Like garrison it comes from an Old French word garir of ultimately Germanic origin meaning to provide or defend, garrets were very often internal elements of the mansard roof, often with skylights or dormer windows. A bow garret is an outhouse situated at the back of a typical terraced house often used in Lancashire for the hat industry in pre-mechanised days. Bowing was the given to the technique of cleaning up animal fur in the early stages of preparation for turning it into hats. What is now believed to be the last bow garret in existence has now been listed in order to preserve this historical relic, Garratt - a type of steam locomotive Garratt Garet - people Garrett Garrett - history of the name Jarrett Old maid in the garret
39.
Great room
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A great room is a room space within an abode which combines the specific functions of several of the more traditional room spaces into a singular unified space. Great rooms are typically at or near the center of the house, feature raised ceilings, the New York Times called the great room the McMansions signature space. Developers of mid-range suburban homes in America tried to solve the problem of the living room. The general concept is one central room, the crossroads of the house to be used for all of the family functions traditionally split between living and family rooms. Some great room designs incorporate the functions of the dining room as well. In the most general sense, great rooms are found on the lower level of American multi-story homes built in the second half of the 20th century. In many houses the great room will also adjoin the kitchen, often separated just by a counter instead of a full wall, the modern great room concept traces back to the multipurpose room in modernist homes built by Joseph Eichler in California in the 1950s and 1960s. Developers started building houses with great rooms in the 1970s and 1980s. An example of this is the house in the television series The Brady Bunch, great rooms became a nearly ubiquitous feature of suburban homes constructed in America in the 1990s and 2000s. However, by the mid-2000s, the Wall Street Journal reported that home buyers were not as enthusiastic about great rooms. Common complaints included the cost to heat and cool them, that they were difficult to clean and paint due to height and irregular angles, great rooms were initially popular with homeowners. According to builders asked by the Wall Street Journal, this was because homeowners wanted a way to show off wealth in a growing economy, in 2007, Money listed great rooms as a fad whose time had passed
40.
Hearth
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In historic and modern usage, a hearth /ˈhɑːrθ/ is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace, with or without an oven, used for heating and originally also used for cooking food. In a medieval hall, the hearth commonly stood in the middle of the hall, later, such hearths were moved to the side of the room and provided with a chimney. In fireplace design, the hearth is the part of the fireplace where the fire burns, usually consisting of masonry at floor level or higher, the word hearth derives from an Indo-European root, *ker-, referring to burning, heat, and fire. In archaeology, a hearth is a firepit or other feature of any period. Hearths are common features of many eras going back to prehistoric campsites and they were used for cooking, heating, and the processing of some stone, wood, faunal, and floral resources. Farming or excavation—deform or disperse hearth features, making difficult to identify without careful study. Lined hearths are easily identified by the presence of fire-cracked rock, often present are fragmented fish and animal bones, carbonized shell, charcoal, ash, and other waste products, all embedded in a sequence of soil that has been deposited atop the hearth. Unlined hearths, which are easily identified, may also include these materials. Because of the nature of most of these items, they can be used to pinpoint the date the hearth was last used via the process of radiocarbon dating. Although carbon dates can be affected if the users of the hearth burned old wood or coal. This was the most common way to cook, and to interior spaces in cool seasons. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor, in England, a tax on hearths was introduced on 19 May 1662. Householders were required to pay a charge of two shillings per annum for each hearth, with half the payment due at Michaelmas and half at Lady Day. Exemptions to the tax were granted, to those in receipt of relief, those whose houses were worth less than 20 shillings a year. Also exempt were charitable institutions such as schools and almshouses, and industrial hearths with the exception of smiths forges, the returns were lodged with the Clerk of the Peace between 1662 and 1688. A revision of the Act in 1664 made the tax payable by all who had more than two chimneys The tax was abolished by William III in 1689 and the last collection was for Lady Day of that year and it was abolished in Scotland in 1690. Hearth tax records are important to historians as they provide an indication of the size of each assessed house at the time. The numbers of hearths are generally proportional to the size of the house, the assessments can be used to indicate the numbers and local distribution of larger and smaller houses
41.
Home cinema
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In the 1980s, home cinemas typically consisted of a movie pre-recorded on a LaserDisc or VHS tape, a LaserDisc or VHS player, and a heavy, bulky large-screen cathode ray tube TV set. Whether home cinema enthusiasts have a stereo set-up or a 5, in the 1950s, playing home movies became popular in the United States with middle class and upper-class families as Kodak 8 mm film projector equipment became more affordable. The development of audio systems and later LaserDisc in the 1980s created a new paradigm for home video, as it enabled movie enthusiasts to add better sound. In the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, a home cinema in the United States would have a LaserDisc or VHS player playing a movie. Some people used expensive front projectors in a viewing room. During the 1990s, watching movies on VHS at home became a leisure activity. In the 2010s, affordable large HDTV flatscreen TVs, high resolution video projectors, 3D television technology, in the 2000s, the term home cinema encompasses a range of systems meant for movie playback at home. 3D-TV-enabled home theaters make use of 3D TV sets/projectors and Blu-ray 3D players in which the viewers wear 3D-glasses, enabling them to see 3D content. Home theater designs and layouts are a choice and the type of home cinema a user can set up depends on her/his budget. Finally a set of speakers, at least two, are needed but more common are anywhere from six to eight with a subwoofer for bass or low-frequency effects. In the 2010s, many home cinema enthusiasts aim to replicate, to the degree that is possible, to do so, many home cinema buffs purchase higher quality components than used for everyday television viewing on a relatively small TV with only built-in speakers. As of 2016, home cinema enthusiasts using Smart Blu-ray players may also watch DVDs of TV shows, as well, with a Smart player, a user may be able to stream movies, TV shows and other content over the Internet. Many 2016-era DVD players and Blu-ray players also have inputs which allow users to view digital photos, video and audio input devices, One or more video/audio sources. High resolution movie media formats such as Blu-ray discs are normally preferred, some home theaters include a HTPC with a media center software application to act as the main library for video and music content using a 10-foot user interface and remote control. In 2016, some of the more-expensive Blu-ray players can stream movies, the user selects the input at this point before it is forwarded to the output stage. Some AV receivers enable the viewer to use a control to select which input device or source to use. Audio output, Systems consist of preamplifiers, power amplifiers and two or more loudspeakers mounted in speaker enclosures, the audio system requires at least a stereo power amplifier and two speakers, for stereo sound, most systems have multi-channel surround sound power amplifier and six or more speakers. Some users have 7.1 Surround Sound and it is possible to have up to 11 speakers with additional subwoofers
42.
Small office/home office
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Small office/home office refers to the category of business or cottage industry that involves from 1 to 10 workers. Before the 19th century, and the spread of the industrial revolution around the globe, nearly all offices were small offices and/or home offices, most businesses were small, and the paperwork that accompanied them was limited. The industrial revolution aggregated workers in factories, to mass-produce goods, in most circumstances, the white collar counterpart—office work—was aggregated as well in large buildings, usually in cities or densely populated suburban areas. Beginning in the mid-1980s, the advent of the computer and fax machine, plus breakthroughs in telecommunications. Decentralization was also perceived as benefiting employers in terms of lower overheads, many consultants and the members of such professions as lawyers, real estate agents, and surveyors in small and medium-size towns operate from home offices. Several ranges of products, such as the desk and all-in-one printer, are designed specifically for the SOHO market. A number of books and magazines have published and marketed specifically at this type of office. These range from general advice texts to specific guidebooks on such challenges as setting up a small PBX for the office telephones, technology has also created a demand for larger businesses to employ individuals who work from home. Sometimes these people remain as independent businesspersons, and sometimes they become employees of a larger company, the small office home office has undergone a transformation since its advent as the internet has enabled anyone working from a home office to compete globally. Technology has made possible through email, the World-Wide Web, e-commerce, videoconferencing, remote desktop software, webinar systems. Bless This Home Office. With tax credits, An Adam Compilation, johnson, Karen K. ed. Orthos All About Home Offices. The Home Office, Setting Up, Furnishing and Decorating Your Own Work Space
43.
Kitchen
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A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. Many households have an oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances. The main function of a kitchen is serving as a location for storing, cooking and preparing food, commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, educational and workplace facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments. These kitchens are generally larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen, for example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. Commercial kitchens are generally subject to public health laws and they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the range or stove. Food was cooked over an open fire, technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from a source such as wells. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type, the rooms were arranged around a courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen, homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was often a small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own, some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens, the fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. Early medieval European longhouses had a fire under the highest point of the building. The kitchen area was between the entrance and the fireplace, in wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens, the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat
