1.
Henbane
–
Hyoscyamus niger, commonly known as henbane, black henbane or stinking nightshade, is a poisonous plant in the family Solanaceae. The name henbane dates at least to AD1265, the origins of the word are unclear, but hen probably originally meant death rather than referring to chickens. Henbane was historically used in combination with other plants, such as mandrake, deadly nightshade and these psychoactive properties include visual hallucinations and a sensation of flight. It was originally used in continental Europe, Asia, and the Arab world, the plant, recorded as Herba Apollinaris, was used to yield oracles by the priestesses of Apollo. Recently evidence for its use in the Scottish Neolithic has been debated. John Gerards Herball states, The leaves, the seeds and the juice, when taken internally cause a sleep, like unto the sleep of drunkenness. To wash the feet in a decoction of Henbane, as also the often smelling of the flowers causeth sleep, Henbane was one of the ingredients in gruit, traditionally used in beers as a flavouring. Several cities, most notably Pilsen, were named after its German name Bilsenkraut in the context of its production for beer flavouring. The recipe for henbane beer includes 40 g dried chopped henbane herbage,5 g bayberry,23 l water,1 l brewing malt,900 g honey,5 g dried yeast, and brown sugar. Henbane fell out of usage for beer when it was replaced by hops in the 11th to 16th centuries, as the Bavarian Purity Law of 1516 outlawed ingredients other than barley, hops, yeast, and water. Henbane is sometimes identified with the hebenon poured into the ear of Hamlets father, Henbane originated in Eurasia, and is now globally distributed as a plant grown mainly for pharmaceutical purposes. Henbane is rare in northern Europe, its cultivation for medicinal use is spread and legal in central and eastern Europe, Henbane is an endangered plant according to the World Conservation Union’s Red List. Henbane is used within the treatment of bones and rheumatism, toothache, asthma, cough, nervous diseases and it might also be used as analgesic, sedative, and narcotic in some cultures. Adhesive bondages with henbane extract behind the ear are reported to prevent discomfort in travel-sick people, Henbane oil is used for medicinal massage. Henbane material in most Western countries can be bought in pharmacies with a prescription only, sales of henbane oil are not legally regulated and are allowed in shops other than pharmacies. Henbane leaves and herbage without roots are chopped and dried and are used for medicinal purposes or in incense and smoking blends, in making beer and tea. Henbane leaves are boiled in oil to derive henbane oil, Henbane seeds are an ingredient in incense blends. In all preparations, the dosage has to be estimated due to the high toxicity of henbane
Henbane
–
Henbane
Henbane
–
Apothecary vessels for Hyoscyamus preparations, Germany, 19th century
Henbane
–
Hyoscyamus niger -
MHNT
Henbane
–
Henbane seeds
2.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
3.
Spring (season)
–
Spring is one of the four conventional temperate seasons, following winter and preceding summer. There are various definitions of spring, but local usage of the term varies according to local climate, cultures. When it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere, it will be autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, at the spring equinox, days are approximately 12 hours long with day length increasing as the season progresses. Spring and springtime refer to the season, and also to ideas of rebirth, rejuvenation, renewal, resurrection, subtropical and tropical areas have climates better described in terms of other seasons, e. g. dry or wet, monsoonal or cyclonic. Often, cultures have locally defined names for seasons which have little equivalence to the terms originating in Europe, Spring is the time when many plants begin to grow and flower. Meteorologists generally define four seasons in many areas, spring, summer, autumn. These are demarcated by the values of their average temperatures on a monthly basis, the three warmest months are by definition summer, the three coldest months are winter and the intervening gaps are spring and autumn. Spring, when defined in this manner, can start on different dates in different regions, in most Northern Hemisphere, temperate locations, spring months are March, April and May, although differences exist from country to country. Most Southern Hemisphere, temperate locations have opposing seasons with spring in September, October and November, in Australia and New Zealand, spring conventionally begins on 1 September and ends 30 November. In some cultures in the Northern Hemisphere, the astronomical Vernal equinox is taken to mark the first day of spring, in Persian culture the first day of spring is the first day of the first month which begins on 20 or 21 March. In other traditions, the equinox is taken as mid-spring, similarly, according to the Celtic tradition, which is based solely on daylight and the strength of the noon sun, spring begins in early February and continues until early May. In Ireland, spring traditionally starts on February 1, St Brigids Day, the beginning of spring is not always determined by fixed calendar dates. These indicators, along with the beginning of spring, vary according to the local climate, most ecologists divide the year into six seasons that have no fixed dates. In addition to spring, ecological reckoning identifies an earlier separate prevernal season between the hibernal and vernal seasons and this is a time when only the hardiest flowers like the crocus are in bloom, sometimes while there is still some snowcover on the ground. During early spring, the axis of the Earth is increasing its tilt relative to the Sun, the hemisphere begins to warm significantly, causing new plant growth to spring forth, giving the season its name. Any snow begins to melt, swelling streams with runoff and any frosts become less severe, in climates that have no snow, and rare frosts, air and ground temperatures increase more rapidly. Many flowering plants bloom at this time of year, in a succession, sometimes beginning when snow is still on the ground. In normally snowless areas, spring may begin as early as February, heralded by the blooming of deciduous magnolias, cherries, and quince, or August in the same way
Spring (season)
–
Colorful spring
garden flowers
Spring (season)
–
A
sour cherry blooming in spring
Spring (season)
–
A blooming field of
garland chrysanthemum, a typical spring flower in
Israel
Spring (season)
–
Celebration stage of 1st day of Falgun, beginning of spring season in Bangladesh, 2014
4.
Flower
–
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs, Flowers may facilitate outcrossing or allow selfing. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds, the essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts, the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk, each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls are as follows, Collectively the calyx, corolla, the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination. Androecium, the whorl, consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts, a called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis. Gynoecium, the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels, the carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes and these give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen, the supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma. The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous, perigynous, although the arrangement described above is considered typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part, in some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens
Flower
–
A poster with flowers or clusters of flowers produced by twelve species of flowering plants from different families
Flower
–
Main parts of a mature flower (
Ranunculus glaberrimus)
Flower
–
Reproductive parts of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum). 1. Stigma, 2. Style, 3. Stamens, 4. Filament, 5. Petal
Flower
–
Left: A normal zygomorphic Streptocarpus flower. Right: An aberrant peloric Streptocarpus flower. Both of these flowers appeared on the Streptocarpus hybrid 'Anderson's Crows' Wings'.
5.
Temperate
–
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
Temperate
–
The different geographical zones
6.
Perennial plants
–
A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. The term is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth from trees and shrubs. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because they dont survive the winter. There is also a class of evergreen, or non-herbaceous, perennials, an intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs, which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e. g. Penstemon. The local climate may dictate whether plants are treated as shrubs or perennials, for instance, many varieties of Fuchsia are shrubs in warm regions, but in colder temperate climates may be cut to the ground every year as a result of winter frosts. The symbol for a plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus, is. Perennial plants can be short-lived or they can be long-lived, as are some plants like trees. They include an assortment of plant groups from ferns and liverworts to the highly diverse flowering plants like orchids. Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous, however, most perennials are polycarpic, flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs, tubers, woody crowns, rhizomes plus others and they might have specialized stems or crowns that allow them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons during the year. Many perennials have developed specialized features that allow them to extreme climatic. Some have adapted to hot and dry conditions or cold temperatures. Those plants tend to invest a lot of resource into their adaptations and often do not flower, Many perennials produce relatively large seeds, which can have an advantage, with larger seedlings produced after germination that can better compete with other plants. Some annuals produce many seeds per plant in one season, while some perennials are not under the same pressure to produce large numbers of seeds. In warmer and more favorable climates, perennials grow continuously, in seasonal climates, their growth is limited to the growing season. In some species, perennials retain their foliage all year round, other plants are deciduous perennials, for example, in temperate regions a perennial plant may grow and bloom during the warm part of the year, with the foliage dying back in the winter
Perennial plants
–
Common chicory,
Cichorium intybus, is a herbaceous perennial plant
Perennial plants
–
Dahlia plants are perennial.
Perennial plants
–
Switchgrass is a deep-rooted perennial. These roots are more than 3 meters long.
Perennial plants
7.
Annual plant
–
An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seed, within one year, and then dies. Summer annuals germinate during spring or early summer and mature by autumn of the same year, winter annuals germinate during the autumn and mature during the spring or summer of the following calendar year. One seed-to-seed life cycle for an annual can occur in as little as a month in some species, oilseed rapa can go from seed-to-seed in about five weeks under a bank of fluorescent lamps. This style of growing is used in classrooms for education. Many desert annuals are therophytes, because their life cycle is only weeks. In cultivation, many plants are, or are grown as, annuals. Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, carrot, celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively. Tomato, sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals, ornamental perennials commonly grown as annuals are impatiens, wax begonia, snapdragon, Pelargonium, coleus and petunia. Examples of true annuals include corn, wheat, rice, lettuce, peas, watermelon, beans, zinnia, summer annuals sprout, flower, produce seed, and die, during the warmer months of the year. The lawn weed crabgrass is a summer annual, winter annuals germinate in autumn or winter, live through the winter, then bloom in winter or spring. The plants grow and bloom during the season when most other plants are dormant or other annuals are in seed form waiting for warmer weather to germinate. Winter annuals die after flowering and setting seed, the seeds germinate in the autumn or winter when the soil temperature is cool. Winter annuals typically grow low to the ground, where they are sheltered from the coldest nights by snow cover. Some common winter annuals include henbit, deadnettle, chickweed, ironically, the property that they prevent the soil from drying out can also be problematic for commercial agriculture. In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to the conversion into a perennial plant, researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, which control flowering time. This switch established phenotypes common in plants, such as wood formation
Annual plant
–
Peas are an annual plant.
8.
Biennial plant
–
A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle. In the first year, the plant grows leaves, stems, usually the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground, forming a rosette. Many biennials require a treatment, or vernalization, before they will flower. During the next spring or summer, the stem of the biennial plant elongates greatly and this typically makes biennial vegetables such as spinach, fennel and lettuce unusable as food. The plant then flowers, producing fruits and seeds before it finally dies, there are far fewer biennials than either perennial plants or annual plants. Under extreme climatic conditions, a plant may complete its life cycle rapidly. This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings that were vernalized before they were planted in the ground and this behavior leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as annuals in some areas. From a gardeners perspective, a status as annual, biennial. Biennials grown for flowers, fruits, or seeds need to be grown for two years, biennials that are grown for edible leaves or roots are grown for just one year. Plant breeders have produced annual cultivars of several biennials that will flower the first year from seed, for example, foxglove and stock
Biennial plant
–
Parsley is a common example of a biennial plant.
Biennial plant
–
The Sweet William Dwarf plant is a biennial plant
9.
Ecotype
–
An ecotype is a variant in which the phenotypic differences are too few or too subtle to warrant being classified as a subspecies. These can occur in the geographic region where distinct habitats such as meadow, forest, swamp. Where similar ecological conditions occur in widely separated places it is possible for a similar ecotype to occur and this is different to a subspecies, which may exist across a number of different habitats. In animals, ecotypes can be regarded as micro-subspecies that owe their differing characteristics to the effects of a local environment. Therefore, ecotypes have no taxonomic rank, ecotypes are closely related to morphs. The frequency of these forms is too high to be explained by mutation. In order to be classified as such, morphs must occupy the same habitat at the same time, in fact, Begon, Townsend and Harper assert that The notions form and ecotype may appear to correspond to a static phenomenon, however this is not always the case. Evolution occurs continuously both in time and space, so that two ecotypes or forms may qualify as species in only a few generations. Begon, Townsend and Harper use an illuminating analogy on this, Thus ecotypes, experiments indicate that sometimes ecotypes manifest only when separated by great spatial distances. This is due to hybridization whereby different but adjacent varieties of the same species interbreed, however other studies reveal that the opposite may happen, i. e. ecotypes revealing at very small scales, within populations, and despite hybridization. In ecotypes, it is common for continuous, gradual geographic variation to impose analogous phenotypic and/or genetic variation, a well-known example of cline is the skin color gradation in indigenous human populations worldwide, which is related to latitude and amounts of sunlight. But often the distribution of ecotypes is bimodal or multimodal and this means that ecotypes may display two or more distinct and discontinuous phenotypes even within the same population. Such phenomenon may lead to speciation and can occur if conditions in a local environment change dramatically through space or time, earthworms fall into four different ecotypes. Compost earthworms prefer warm and moist environments with a supply of fresh compost material. Epigeic earthworms live on the surface of the soil in leaf litter and tend not to make burrows but live in and feed on the leaf litter. Endogeic earthworms live in and feed on the soil, making horizontal burrows through the soil to move around and to feed, anecic earthworms make permanent vertical burrows in soil, feeding on leaves on the soil surface that they drag into their burrows. Tundra reindeer and woodland reindeer are two ecotypes of reindeer, the first migrate annually between the two environments in large numbers whereas the other remain in the forest for the summer. In North America, the species Rangifer tarandus —the migratory George River Caribou Herd, arabis fecunda, a herb endemic to some calcareous soils of Montana, United States, can be divided into two ecotypes
Ecotype
–
Four different
ecotypes of
Physcomitrella patens, stored at the
International Moss Stock Center
Ecotype
–
Rangifer tarandus caribou, a member of the woodland ecotype.
Ecotype
–
General
Ecotype
–
Population ecology
10.
Arabidopsis thaliana
–
Arabidopsis thaliana is a small flowering plant native to Eurasia. A. thaliana is considered a weed, it is found by roadsides, a winter annual with a relatively short life cycle, A. thaliana is a popular model organism in plant biology and genetics. For a complex multicellular eukaryote, A. thaliana has a small genome of approximately 135 megabase pairs. It was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, and is a tool for understanding the molecular biology of many plant traits, including flower development. Arabidopsis thaliana is a plant, usually growing to 20–25 cm tall. The leaves form a rosette at the base of the plant, leaves are covered with small, unicellular hairs. The flowers are 3 mm in diameter, arranged in a corymb, the fruit is a siliqua 5–20 mm long, containing 20–30 seeds. Roots are simple in structure, with a primary root that grows vertically downward. These roots form interactions with rhizosphere bacteria such as Bacillus megaterium, a. thaliana can complete its entire lifecycle in six weeks. The central stem produces flowers grows after about three weeks, and the flowers naturally self-pollinate. In the lab, A. thaliana may be grown in Petri plates, pots, or hydroponics, the plant was first described in 1577 in the Harz Mountains by Johannes Thal, a physician from Nordhausen, Thüringen, Germany, who called it Pilosella siliquosa. In 1753, Carl Linnaeus renamed the plant Arabis thaliana in honor of Thal, in 1842, the German botanist Gustav Heynhold erected the new genus Arabidopsis and placed the plant in that genus. The genus name, Arabidopsis, comes from Greek, meaning resembling Arabis, thousands of natural inbred accessions of A. thaliana have been collected from throughout its natural and introduced range. These accessions exhibit considerable genetic and phenotypic variation which can be used to study the adaptation of species to different environments. A. thaliana is native to Europe, Asia, and northwestern Africa and it also appears to be native in tropical afroalpine ecosystems. It has been introduced and naturalized worldwide, a. thaliana readily grows and often pioneers rocky, sandy and calcareous soils. It is generally considered a weed, due to its distribution in agricultural fields, roadside, railway lines, waste ground. Like most Brassicaceae species, A. thaliana is edible by humans as a salad or cooked, the first mutant in A. thaliana was documented in 1873 by Alexander Braun, describing a double flower phenotype
Arabidopsis thaliana
–
Arabidopsis thaliana
Arabidopsis thaliana
–
Scanning electron micrograph of a
trichome, a leaf hair of Arabidopsis thaliana, a unique structure that is made of a single cell
Arabidopsis thaliana
–
A double flower mutant of arabidopsis, first documented in 1873
Arabidopsis thaliana
–
Components of pathogen recognition in Arabidopsis thaliana A schematic of PAPM-triggered immunity, to be specific recognition of flagellin by FLS2 (top left), effector-triggered immunity depicted through the recognition of avrRpt2 by RPS2 through RIN4 (top-right), microscopic view of callose deposition in an A. thaliana leaf (bottom left), an example of no hypersensitive response (HR), top, and HR in A. thaliana leaves (bottom right)
11.
Cereals
–
A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
Cereals
–
Cereal
Cereals
–
A wheat field in
Dorset, England
Cereals
–
Cereal
grain seeds from left to right:
wheat,
spelt,
barley,
oat.
Cereals
–
Threshing; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century
12.
Wheat
–
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
Wheat
–
Wheat
Wheat
–
Spikelets of a hulled wheat,
einkorn
Wheat
–
Green wheat a month before harvest
Wheat
–
Wheat harvest on the
Palouse,
Idaho, United States
13.
History of agriculture
–
The history of agriculture records the domestication of plants and animals and the development and dissemination of techniques for raising them productively. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 20,000 BC. From around 9,500 BC, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans, pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 13,000 BC, followed by sheep between 11,000 and 9,000 BC. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. Sugarcane and some vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 7,000 BC. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 5,000 BC, in the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 8,000 and 5,000 BC, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Bananas were cultivated and hybridized in the period in Papua New Guinea. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was domesticated to maize by 4,000 BC, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC. Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3,000 BC, irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers were introduced soon after the Neolithic Revolution and developed much further in the past 200 years, starting with the British Agricultural Revolution. The Haber-Bosch process allowed the synthesis of nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale. Modern agriculture has raised social, political, and environmental issues including pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs. In response, organic farming developed in the century as a consciously pesticide-free alternative. Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the origins of agriculture. Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted, localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant. When major climate change took place after the last ice age and these conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time, early people began altering communities of flora and fauna for their own benefit through means such as fire-stick farming and forest gardening very early
History of agriculture
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Agriculture
History of agriculture
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Threshing of grain in ancient Egypt
History of agriculture
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Roman harvesting machine
History of agriculture
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Agricultural calendar from a manuscript of
Pietro de Crescenzi.
14.
Gustav Gassner
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His wide-ranging research interests in phytopathology and plant physiology included work on photosynthesis and plant nutrition as well as practical work on plant diseases such as rust and smut. His classic text from 1931 Mikroskopische Untersuchung pflanzlicher Lebensmittel und Futtermittel is still in use in German universities and is referred to by German students as Gassner. In 1910 he returned to Germany from Montevideo, Uruguay and married Lili Fassier-Farnell, with whom he had four sons, in 1907 he became professor of botany and plant pathology at the Agricultural University of Montevideo, Uruguay. During World War I, he directed a German Army laboratory, in 1918 he was appointed to the Chair of Botany at the Technical University of Braunschweig, where he also directed the Botanical Institute and the Botanical Gardens. In September 1933 he was dismissed as professor of botany. After spending five years working in Turkey, he returned to Germany in 1939 to become head of the Research Institute for Plant Conservation, in 1945, he was appointed rector and professor at the Technical University of Braunschweig, from which he retired in 1951. Gassners 1918 paper on the effect of lowered temperature on the development of winter rye inspired many followers and his wide-ranging research interests in phytopathology and plant physiology included work on photosynthesis and plant nutrition as well as practical work on plant diseases such as rust and smut. He also researched the use of pesticides to protect germinating plants. In his lifetime, he received honors including, in 1952. Gassner, Gustav, Beiträge zur physiologischen Charakteristik sommer und winteranueller Gewächse insbesondere der Getreidepflanzen, Mikroskopische Untersuchung pflanzlicher Lebensmittel und Futtermittel, der Gassner. Works by or about Gustav Gassner at Internet Archive
Gustav Gassner
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Corn infected with
smut, a plant fungus that Gassner studied.
15.
Trofim Lysenko
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Trofim Denisovich Lysenko was a Soviet agrobiologist. As a student Lysenko found himself interested in agriculture, where he worked on a few different projects and this later led him to consider how he might use this work to convert winter wheat into spring wheat. He named the process jarovization in Russian, and later translated it as vernalization, Lysenko was a strong proponent of soft inheritance and rejected Mendelian genetics in favor of pseudoscientific ideas termed Lysenkoism. Scientific dissent from Lysenkos theories of environmentally acquired inheritance was formally outlawed in the Soviet Union in 1948, though Lysenko remained at his post in the Institute of Genetics until 1965, his influence on Soviet agricultural practice had declined by the 1950s. The son of Denis and Oksana Lysenko, Trofim Lysenko was born into a peasant family in Karlivka, as a young man working at the Kiev Agricultural Institute, Lysenko worked on converting winter wheat into spring wheat. The conversion of winter wheat into spring wheat was not a new discovery, scientific experiments had been done by Nikolai Vavilov. It was Vavilov who initially supported Lysenko and encouraged him on his work, Lysenko had a difficult time trying to grow various crops, through the harsh winters. Lysenko argued that there is not only competition, but also mutual assistance among individuals within a species, according to Lysenko, The organism and the conditions required for its life are an inseparable unity. Different living bodies require different environmental conditions for their development, by studying these requirements we come to know the qualitative features of the nature of organisms, the qualitative features of heredity. Heredity is the property of a body to require definite conditions for its life and development. As noted above, Lysenko worked with different wheat crops in trying to convert them to grow in different seasons, other investigations Lysenko found himself curious with, was the effect of heat on plant growth. He believed that every plant needed an amount of heat throughout its lifetime. He attempted to correlate the time and the amount of heat needed by a particular plant requires to go through phases of development. To get his data he looked at the amount of growth, how many days went by, in trying to determine the effects, he made a small statistical reasoning error. This is a trend that can be seen throughout the majority of his works. He was confronted by Maksimov, who was an expert on thermal plant development, Lysenko did not take well to this or any criticism for that matter. After this encounter, Lysenko boldly claimed that mathematics had no place in biology, severe cold and lack of winter snow had destroyed many early winter-wheat seedlings. By treating wheat seeds with moisture as well as cold, Lysenko induced them to bear a crop planted in spring
Trofim Lysenko
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Lysenko in 1938
16.
Plant physiology
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Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants. Closely related fields include plant morphology, plant ecology, phytochemistry, cell biology, genetics, biophysics, the field of plant physiology includes the study of all the internal activities of plants—those chemical and physical processes associated with life as they occur in plants. This includes study at many levels of scale of size and time, at the smallest scale are molecular interactions of photosynthesis and internal diffusion of water, minerals, and nutrients. At the largest scale are the processes of plant development, seasonality, dormancy, major subdisciplines of plant physiology include phytochemistry and phytopathology. The scope of plant physiology as a discipline may be divided into major areas of research. First, the study of phytochemistry is included within the domain of plant physiology, to function and survive, plants produce a wide array of chemical compounds not found in other organisms. Photosynthesis requires a large array of pigments, enzymes, and other compounds to function, because they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically from herbivores, pathogens and competition from other plants. They do this by producing toxins and foul-tasting or smelling chemicals, secondly, plant physiology includes the study of biological and chemical processes of individual plant cells. Plant cells have a number of features distinguish them from cells of animals. For example, plant cells have a wall which restricts the shape of plant cells. Thirdly, plant physiology deals with interactions between cells, tissues, and organs within a plant, different cells and tissues are physically and chemically specialized to perform different functions. Roots and rhizoids function to anchor the plant and acquire minerals in the soil, leaves catch light in order to manufacture nutrients. For both of these organs to remain living, minerals that the roots acquire must be transported to the leaves, and the nutrients manufactured in the leaves must be transported to the roots. Plants have developed a number of ways to achieve this transport, such as vascular tissue, fourthly, plant physiologists study the ways that plants control or regulate internal functions. Like animals, plants produce chemicals called hormones which are produced in one part of the plant to signal cells in part of the plant to respond. Many flowering plants bloom at the time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night. The ripening of fruit and loss of leaves in the winter are controlled in part by the production of the gas ethylene by the plant, finally, plant physiology includes the study of plant response to environmental conditions and their variation, a field known as environmental physiology. Stress from water loss, changes in air chemistry, or crowding by other plants can lead to changes in the way a plant functions and these changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors
Plant physiology
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A germination rate experiment
Plant physiology
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Latex being collected from a
tapped rubber tree.
Plant physiology
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Anthocyanin gives these
pansies their dark purple pigmentation.
Plant physiology
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A
mutation that stops
Arabidopsis thaliana responding to
auxin causes abnormal growth (right)
17.
Metabolic pathway
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In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a linked series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. The reactants, products, and intermediates of a reaction are known as metabolites. In a metabolic pathway, the product of one acts as the substrate for the next. These enzymes often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors to function, different metabolic pathways function based on the position within a eukaryotic cell and the significance of the pathway in the given compartment of the cell. For instance, the citric cycle, electron transport chain. In contrast, glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, and fatty acid biosynthesis all occur in the cytosol of a cell, the two pathways complement each other in that the energy released from one is used up by the other. The degradative process of a catabolic pathway provides the required to conduct a biosynthesis of an anabolic pathway. In addition to the two distinct metabolic pathways is the pathway, which can be either catabolic or anabolic based on the need for or the availability of energy. The end product of a pathway may be used immediately, initiate another metabolic pathway or be stored for later use, metabolic pathways are often considered to flow in one direction. Although all chemical reactions are reversible, conditions in the cell are often such that it is thermodynamically more favorable for flux to flow in one direction of a reaction. For example, one pathway may be responsible for the synthesis of an amino acid. One example of an exception to rule is the metabolism of glucose. Glycolysis results in the breakdown of glucose, but several reactions in the pathway are reversible. Glycolysis was the first metabolic pathway discovered, As glucose enters a cell, metabolic pathways are often regulated by feedback inhibition. Some metabolic pathways flow in a cycle wherein each component of the cycle is a substrate for the subsequent reaction in the cycle, the net reaction is, therefore, thermodynamically favorable, for it results in a lower free energy for the final products. A catabolic pathway is a system that produces chemical energy in the form of ATP, GTP, NADH, NADPH, FADH2, etc. from energy containing sources such as carbohydrates, fats. The end products are carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia. Coupled with an reaction of anabolism, the cell can synthesize new macromolecules using the original precursors of the anabolic pathway
Metabolic pathway
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Glucuronate metabolism
18.
Meristem
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A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells, found in zones of the plant where growth can take place. Meristematic cells give rise to organs of the plant and keep the plant growing. The shoot apical meristem gives rise to organs like the leaves and flowers, SAM and RAM cells divide rapidly and are considered indeterminate, in that they do not possess any defined end status. In that sense, the cells are frequently compared to the stem cells in animals. The term meristem was first used in 1858 by Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli in his book Beiträge zur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik and it is derived from the Greek word merizein, meaning to divide, in recognition of its inherent function. In general, differentiated plant cells cannot divide or produce cells of a different type, therefore, cell division in the meristem is required to provide new cells for expansion and differentiation of tissues and initiation of new organs, providing the basic structure of the plant body. Meristematic cells are incompletely or not at all differentiated, and are capable of continued cellular division, furthermore, the cells are small and protoplasm fills the cell completely. The cytoplasm does not contain differentiated plastids, although they are present in rudimentary form, meristematic cells are packed closely together without intercellular cavities. The cell wall is a thin primary cell wall. Maintenance of the cells requires a balance between two processes, organ initiation and stem cell population renewal. Apical meristems are the completely undifferentiated meristems in a plant and these differentiate into three kinds of primary meristems. The primary meristems in turn produce the two secondary meristem types and these secondary meristems are also known as lateral meristems because they are involved in lateral growth. At the meristem summit, there is a group of slowly dividing cells. Cells of this zone have a stem cell function and are essential for meristem maintenance, the proliferation and growth rates at the meristem summit usually differ considerably from those at the periphery. Meristems also are induced in the roots of such as soybean, Lotus japonicus, pea. Cells of the inner or outer cortex in the window of nodulation just behind the developing root tip are induced to divide. The critical signal substance is the lipo-oligosaccharide Nod-factor, decorated with groups to allow specificity of interaction. The Nod factor receptor proteins NFR1 and NFR5 were cloned from several legumes including Lotus japonicus, Medicago truncatula, regulation of nodule meristems utilizes long distance regulation commonly called Autoregulation of Nodulation
Meristem
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Note the long spur of the above flower. Spurs attract pollinators and confer pollinator specificity. (Flower:Linaria dalmatica)
Meristem
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Tunica-Corpus model of the apical meristem (growing tip). The epidermal (L1) and subepidermal (L2) layers form the outer layers called the
tunica. The inner L3 layer is called the corpus. Cells in the L1 and L2 layers divide in a sideways fashion, which keeps these layers distinct, whereas the L3 layer divides in a more random fashion.
Meristem
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Complex leaves of
C. hirsuta are a result of KNOX gene expression
19.
Locus (genetics)
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A locus in genetics is the position on a chromosome. Each chromosome carries many genes, humans estimated haploid protein coding genes are 19, 000-20,000, a variant of the similar DNA sequence located at a given locus is called an allele. The ordered list of known for a particular genome is called a gene map. Gene mapping is the process of determining the locus for a biological trait. The chromosomal locus of a gene might be written 3p22.1, here 3 means chromosome 3, p means p-arm. And 22 refers to region 2, band 2 and this is read as two two, not as twenty-two. So the entire locus is read as three P two two point one, the cytogenetic bands are counting from the centromere out toward the telomeres. A range of loci is specified in a similar way. For example, the locus of gene OCA1 may be written 11q1. 4-q2.1, meaning it is on the arm of chromosome 11. The ends of a chromosome are labeled pter and qter, a centisome is defined as 1% of a chromosome length. Chromosomal translocation Cytogenetic notation Karyotype Null allele Michael, R. Cummings, belmont, California, Brooks/Cole Overview at ornl. gov Chromosome Banding and Nomenclature from NCBI
Locus (genetics)
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Chromosome components: (1)
Chromatid (2)
Centromere (3) Short (p) arm (4) Long (q) arm
Locus (genetics)
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Short and long arms
20.
Onion
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The onion, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable and is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. This genus also contains several other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, the onion. The name wild onion is applied to a number of Allium species and its ancestral wild original form is not known, although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions. The onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant, the onion plant has a fan of hollow, bluish-green leaves and its bulb at the base of the plant begins to swell when a certain day-length is reached. The bulbs are composed of shortened, compressed, underground stems surrounded by fleshy modified scale that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem, in the autumn, the foliage dies down and the outer layers of the bulb become dry and brittle. The crop is harvested and dried and the onions are ready for use or storage, the crop is prone to attack by a number of pests and diseases, particularly the onion fly, the onion eelworm, and various fungi cause rotting. Some varieties of A. cepa, such as shallots and potato onions, Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are served cooked, as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes, the onion plant, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum, a. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation, but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely related species include A. vavilovii and A. asarense from Iran, however, Zohary and Hopf state that there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop. The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the common onion group and are referred to simply as onions. The Aggregatum group of cultivars includes both shallots and potato onions, the genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, Egyptian onion, and Canada onion. The onion plant has grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years. It is a plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm, the leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side and they are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper towards a blunt tip. The base of leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc
Onion
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Onion
Onion
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Roots, leaves and developing bulb
Onion
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Umbel of onion flowers
Onion
21.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
JSTOR
–
The JSTOR front page
22.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
24.
Annals of Science
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Annals of Science is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of science and technology. It is published by Taylor & Francis and was established in 1936, the founding editor-in-chief was the Canadian historian of science Harcourt Brown. They decided that aside from the Belgian Isis, there were few outlets for work, and so founded the Annals of Science with Douglas McKie. The aim was to publish faster than Isis and with a focus on the modern period, the editors chose to have a bright orange cover to make it stand out against the usual blue or grey of periodicals at the time. Around the time of World War II, only three volumes were published over a period of 12 years, from 1956-1958, the Bulletin of the British Society for the History of Science was published as part of the Annals of Science. In 1974, then editor Ivor Grattan-Guinness moved the journal from 4 to 6 issues per year,100 issues were published from 1936–1969 and a further hundred by 1986. David M. Knight has said that The major event of the first phase of the development of British journals is the founding of Annals of Science in 1936, gordon L. Miller called it a respected scholarly journal. Robinson was an editor until 1960 and McKie until 1967. Subsequent editors were, Niels Hugh de Vaudrey Heathcote W. A. Smeaton F. W. Gibbs Trevor I. Williams R. E. W Maddison Harold J. Sharlin Hans Kangro Ivor Grattan-Guinness G. L. E. Turner, Trevor Levere Robert Iliffe and David Miller, Grattan-Guinness described his experience in taking on the editorship in an article in the journal in 2010. He had published an article on Georg Cantor in the journal in 1971 and met the-then editor, Heathcote. Heathcote was overloaded with work — the journal seemed never to reject anything — and he invited Grattan-Guinness to join the editorial board. He joined the board and met with the publishers in June 1974, when he told John Cheney, the editor, that the journal had acquired a poor reputation in recent years. Taylor & Francis would otherwise have closed the journal, Annals of Science is abstracted and indexed in, According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2010 impact factor of 0.222. List of history of science and technology journals and periodicals Official website
Annals of Science
–
Annals of Science
. PMID 12904584. doi:10.1073/pnas.1531467100.
