1.
Scooter (motorcycle)
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A scooter or motor scooter is a motorcycle with step-through frame and a platform for the riders feet. Elements of scooter design have been present in some of the earliest motorcycles, Scooter development continued in Europe and the United States between the World Wars. The global popularity of scooters dates from the post-World War II introductions of the Vespa and these scooters were intended to provide low-power personal transportation. The original layout is widely used in this application. Maxi-scooters, with engines from 250 to 850 cc have been developed for Western markets, scooters are popular for personal transport, partly due to being cheap to buy, easy to operate and convenient to park and store. Licensing requirements for scooters are easier and cheaper than for cars in most parts of the world, a motor scooter is a motorcycle similar to a kick scooter with a seat, a floorboard, and small or low wheels. The United States Department of Transportation defines a scooter as a motorcycle that has a platform for the feet or has integrated footrests. The classic scooter design features a frame and a flat floorboard for the riders feet. This design is possible because most scooter engines and drive systems are attached to the axle or under the seat. Scooters usually feature bodywork, including a front leg shield and body that conceals all or most of the mechanicals, there is often some integral storage space, either under the seat, built into the front leg shield, or both. Scooters have varying engine displacements and configurations ranging from 50 cc single-cylinder to 850 cc twin-cylinder models, some scooters carry a spare wheel. Many recent scooters use conventional front forks with the front axle fastened at both ends, most jurisdictions do not differentiate between scooters and motorcycles. For all legal purposes in the United States of America, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recommends using the motorcycle for all of these vehicles. However, while NHTSA excludes the term motor scooter from legal definition, it proceeds, in the same document, the emissions of mopeds and scooters have been the subject of multiple studies. In the same study, four-stroke mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, approximate parity with automobiles was achieved with NOx emissions in these studies. Emissions performance was tested on a basis and was unaffected by fuel economy. Scooter-like traits began to develop in motorcycle designs around the 1900s, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller produced the first motorcycle that was available for purchase. Their motorcycle had a frame, with its fuel tank mounted on the down tube, its parallel two-cylinder engine mounted low on the frame
2.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
3.
Pontedera
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Pontedera is an industrial town in the province of Pisa, Tuscany, central Italy. It houses the headquarters of the Piaggio company, of the wine company Castellani, Pontedera is in the Arno valley at the confluence of the Era River and the Arno River. Its territory is crossed by the Scolmatore dellArno canal. There is also a lake, in the frazione of Pietroconti. Pontedera was the seat of several historical battles, in 1369, the Milanese army of Barnabò Visconti, led by John Hawkwood, was defeated here by the Florentine troops. On 11 June 1554, Pontedera was the scene of a victory in the last effort by the Republic of Siena to retain its independence. Two months later he was defeated at the Battle of Marciano. The football team in the town is called U. S. Città di Pontedera, and they are currently placed in Lega Pro Seconda Divisione
4.
Piaggio
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SpA via its subsidiaries designs, engineers, manufactures and distributes two wheeled motor vehicles and compact commercial vehicles under seven brands. SpA corporate headquarters are located in Pontedera, Italy, Piaggios various subsidiaries employ a total of 7,053 employees who produced a total of 519,700 vehicles in 2014. Piaggio operates six research and development centers and operates in over 50 countries, in 1882, Enrico Piaggio completes the purchase of land in Sestri Ponente to set up a timber yard. Two years later, in 1884, the company was founded by Rinaldo Piaggio, Piaggio initially produced locomotives and railway carriages. During 1917, in the wake of the World War, Rinaldo converts the company to the aeronautical, Italys crippled economy and the disastrous state of the roads did not assist in the redevelopment of the automobile markets. Enrico Piaggio decided to leave the field in order to address Italys urgent need for a modern. The idea was to design a vehicle for the masses. The aeronautical designer didnt like motorcycles and he found them uncomfortable and bulky, with wheels that were difficult to change after a puncture. Corradino DAscanios drawings had nothing to do with the Paperino, his design was absolutely original, the vehicle had to be easy to drive for both men and women, be able to carry a passenger, and not get its drivers clothes dirty. Piaggio launched the Vespa scooter and within ten years over a million units had been produced, the Italian language gained a new word, vespare, meaning to go somewhere on a Vespa. In 1956 the millionth Vespa is produced, Italy sees its first mass motorised mobility, with strong cash flow from the success of the Vespa, Piaggio developed other products, including the 1957 Vespa 400, a tiny passenger car. In 1959, Piaggio came under the control of the Agnelli family, in 1960 Vespa reaches 4 million units produced and sold worldwide. In 1964 the two divisions, aeronautical and motorcycle, split to two independent companies as a result of the wide ownership by Fiat in Italian industry. The aeronautical division was named IAM Rinaldo Piaggio, the aircraft company Piaggio Aero is controlled by the family of Piero Ferrari, who still hold 10% of Ferrari. In 1971 Ape gets a steering wheel and becomes Ape Car, in 1988 Vespa reaches 10 million units produced. Vespa thrived, until 1992, when Gianni Agnelli became CEO, in 1999 Morgan Grenfell Private Equity acquired Piaggio, but hopes for a quick sale were dashed by a failed joint venture in China. In Italy, Piaggio invested 15 million euros in a new motorcycle, by the end of 2002, the company had run up 577 million Euros in debt on revenues of 945 million Euros, and booked a loss of 129 million Euros. Then came Roberto Colaninno, who said, A lot of people told me I was crazy and it just needed to be treated better
5.
Perth
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Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia. It is the fourth-most populous city in Australia, with a population of 2.06 million living in Greater Perth. The first areas settled were on the Swan River, with the central business district. Perth was founded by Captain James Stirling in 1829 as the centre of the Swan River Colony. It gained city status in 1856, and was promoted to the status of a Lord Mayorality in 1929. The city is named after Perth, Scotland, due to the influence of Sir George Murray, Member of Parliament for Perthshire and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. The citys population increased substantially as a result of the Western Australian gold rushes in the late 19th century, largely as a result of emigration from the eastern colonies of Australia. During Australias involvement in World War II, Fremantle served as a base for operating in the Pacific Theatre. An influx of immigrants after the war, predominantly from Britain, Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia, Aboriginal people have inhabited the Perth area for 38,000 years, as evidenced by archaeological remains at Upper Swan. The Noongar people occupied the southwest corner of Western Australia and lived as hunter-gatherers, the wetlands on the Swan Coastal Plain were particularly important to them, both spiritually and as a source of food. The Noongar people know the area where Perth now stands as Boorloo, Boorloo formed part of Mooro, the tribal lands of Yellagongas group, one of several based around the Swan River and known collectively as the Whadjuk. The Whadjuk were part of a group of fourteen tribes that formed the south-west socio-linguistic block known as the Noongar. The judgment was overturned on appeal, the first documented sighting of the region was made by the Dutch Captain Willem de Vlamingh and his crew on 10 January 1697. The British colony would be officially designated Western Australia in 1832, Captain James Stirling, aboard Parmelia, said that Perth was as beautiful as anything of this kind I had ever witnessed. On 12 August that year, Helen Dance, wife of the captain of the ship, Sulphur. The only contemporary information on the source of the name comes from Fremantles diary entry for 12 August, Murray was born in Perth, Scotland, and was in 1829 Secretary of State for the Colonies and Member for Perthshire in the British House of Commons. The town was named after the Scottish Perth, in Murrays honour, the racial relations between the Noongar people and the Europeans were strained due to these happenings. Because of the amount of building in and around Boorloo
6.
Western Australia
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Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Southern Ocean to the south, the state has about 2.6 million inhabitants, around 11% of the national total. 92% of the lives in the south-west corner of the state. The first European visitor to Western Australia was the Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog, the first European settlement of Western Australia occurred following the landing by Major Edmund Lockyer on 26 December 1826 of an expedition on behalf of the New South Wales colonial government. This was followed by the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829, including the site of the present-day capital, york was the first inland settlement in Western Australia. Situated 97 kilometres east of Perth, it was settled on 16 September 1831, Western Australia achieved responsible government in 1890, and federated with the other British colonies in Australia in 1901. Today its economy relies on mining, agriculture and tourism. The state produces 46% of Australias exports, Western Australia is the second-largest iron ore producer in the world. The International Hydrographic Organization designates the body of water south of the continent as part of the Indian Ocean, the total length of the states eastern border is 1,862 km. There are 20,781 km of coastline, including 7,892 km of island coastline, the total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km2. Most of the state is a low plateau with an elevation of about 400 metres, very low relief. This descends relatively sharply to the plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment. The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile, even soils derived from granitic bedrock contain an order of magnitude less available phosphorus and only half as much nitrogen as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or ironstone are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and also deficient in zinc, copper, molybdenum, the infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of chemical fertilisers, particularly superphosphate, insecticides and herbicides. These have resulted in damage to invertebrate and bacterial populations, the grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in compaction of soils and great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora, large areas of the states wheatbelt region have problems with dryland salinity and the loss of fresh water. The southwest coastal area has a Mediterranean climate and it was originally heavily forested, including large stands of karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current, the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly coral reefs in the world
7.
Wasp
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A wasp is any insect of the order Hymenoptera and suborder Apocrita that is neither a bee nor an ant. The Apocrita have an evolutionary ancestor and form a clade, wasps as a group do not form a clade. The most commonly known wasps, such as jackets and hornets, are in the family Vespidae and are eusocial, living together in a nest with an egg-laying queen. Eusociality is favoured by the unusual system of sex determination in Hymenoptera. However, the majority of species are solitary, with each adult female living and breeding independently. Many of the wasps are parasitoidal, meaning that they raise their young by laying eggs on or in other insects. Unlike true parasites, the larvae eventually kill their hosts. Solitary wasps parasitize almost every pest insect, making wasps valuable in horticulture for biological pest control of such as whitefly in tomatoes. Wasps first appeared in the record in the Jurassic. They are a successful and diverse group of insects with tens of thousands of described species, the largest social wasp is the Asian giant hornet, at up to 5 centimetres in length, among the largest solitary wasps is the giant scoliid of Indonesia, Megascolia procer. Some are predators, whether to feed themselves or to provision their nests, many, notably the cuckoo wasps, are kleptoparasites, laying eggs in the nests of other wasps. The name Wasp has been used for warships and other military equipment. The wasps are a paraphyletic grouping of hundreds of thousands of species, consisting of the narrow-waisted Apocrita without the ants. The Hymenoptera also contain the somewhat wasplike but unwaisted Symphyta, the sawflies, Hymenoptera in the form of Symphyta first appeared in the fossil record in the Lower Triassic. Apocrita, wasps in the sense, appeared in the Jurassic. Fig wasps with modern features first appeared in the Lower Cretaceous of the Crato Formation in Brazil. The Vespidae include the extinct genus Palaeovespa, seven species of which are known from the Eocene rocks of the Florissant fossil beds of Colorado, also found in Baltic amber are crown wasps of the genus Electrostephanus. Wasps are a group, estimated at over a hundred thousand described species around the world
8.
Vespa 150 TAP
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The Vespa 150 TAP is a Vespa scooter modified for use with paratroops. Introduced in 1956 and updated in 1959, it was produced by Ateliers de Construction de Motocycles et Automobiles, modifications from the civilian Vespa included a reinforced frame and a three inch recoilless rifle mounted to the scooter. The scooters would be parachute-dropped in pairs, accompanied by a two-man team, the gun was carried on one scooter, while the ammunition was loaded on the other. However, in an emergency it could be fired while in the frame, the Bazooka Vespa was relatively cheap, Vespas cost roughly US$500 at the time, and the M20s were plentiful. Five hundred Vespa TAP scooters were produced, encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation. Surely one of the oddest military vehicles, the Vespa Scooter, Motor, 2-Wheel, weighing 90 kg and powered by a single-cylinder 146 cc two-stroke engine, it was fitted to carry a recoilless rifle. Vespa, 1946-2006,60 Years of the Vespa, st. Paul, MN USA, Giorgio Nada Editore / MBI Publishing. Designated as the TAP56 and revised in 1959 as the TAP59, the military Vespa was finished in a typical dark olive green only and was produced exclusively in France
9.
Donald Duck
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Donald Duck is a cartoon character created in 1934 at Walt Disney Productions. Donald is a white duck with a yellow-orange bill, legs. He typically wears a shirt and cap with a bow tie. Donald is most famous for his speech and his mischievous. Along with his friend Mickey Mouse, Donald is one of the most popular Disney characters and was included in TV Guides list of the 50 greatest cartoon characters of all time in 2002. He has appeared in more films than any other Disney character, Donald Duck rose to fame with his comedic roles in animated cartoons. Donalds first appearance was in 1934 in The Wise Little Hen, throughout the next two decades, Donald appeared in over 150 theatrical films, several of which were recognized at the Academy Awards. In the 1930s, he appeared as part of a comic trio with Mickey. These films introduced Donalds love interest Daisy Duck and often included his three nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie, after the 1956 film Chips Ahoy, Donald appeared primarily in educational films before eventually returning to theatrical animation in Mickeys Christmas Carol. His most recent appearance in a film was 1999s Fantasia 2000. Donald has also appeared in features such as Mickey, Donald, Goofy, The Three Musketeers, television series such as Mickey Mouse Clubhouse. Beyond animation, Donald is primarily known for his appearances in comics, Donald was most famously drawn by Al Taliaferro, Carl Barks, and Don Rosa. Barks, in particular, is credited for expanding the Donald Duck universe, the world in which Donald lives. Donald has been a popular character in Europe, particularly in Nordic countries where his weekly magazine Donald Duck & Co was the most popular comics publication from the 1950s to 2009. Disney comics fandom is sometimes referred to as Donaldism, a term originated in Norway. The origins of Donald Ducks name may have inspired by Australian cricket legend Donald Bradman. In 1932 Bradman and the Australian team were touring North America, Walt Disney was in the process of creating a friend for Mickey Mouse when he possibly read about Bradmans dismissal in the papers and decided to name the new character Donald Duck. Voice performer Clarence Nash auditioned for Walt Disney Studios when he learned that Disney was looking for people to create animal sounds for his cartoons, Disney was particularly impressed with Nashs duck imitation and chose him to voice the new character
10.
Aerospace engineering
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Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft. It has two major and overlapping branches, aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering, avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electrical side of aerospace engineering. Aeronautical engineering was the term for the field. As flight technology advanced to include craft operating in outer space, Aerospace engineering, particularly the astronautics branch, is often colloquially referred to as rocket science. Flight vehicles are subjected to demanding conditions such as produced by changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature. The interaction between these technologies is known as aerospace engineering, because of the complexity and number of disciplines involved, aerospace engineering is carried out by teams of engineers, each having their own specialized area of expertise. Early knowledge of engineering was largely empirical with some concepts. Scientists understood some key elements of aerospace engineering, like fluid dynamics, many years later after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1910s saw the development of aeronautical engineering through the design of World War I military aircraft. The first definition of aerospace engineering appeared in February 1958, the definition considered the Earths atmosphere and the outer space as a single realm, thereby encompassing both aircraft and spacecraft under a newly coined word aerospace. In response to the USSR launching the first satellite, Sputnik into space on October 4,1957, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was founded in 1958 as a response to the Cold War. Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are, Radar cross-section – the study of vehicle signature apparent to Radar remote sensing, fluid mechanics – the study of fluid flow around objects. Specifically aerodynamics concerning the flow of air over bodies such as wings or through objects such as wind tunnels, astrodynamics – the study of orbital mechanics including prediction of orbital elements when given a select few variables. While few schools in the United States teach this at the undergraduate level, statics and Dynamics – the study of movement, forces, moments in mechanical systems. Mathematics – in particular, calculus, differential equations, and linear algebra, electrotechnology – the study of electronics within engineering. Propulsion – the energy to move a vehicle through the air is provided by internal combustion engines, jet engines and turbomachinery, a more recent addition to this module is electric propulsion and ion propulsion. Control engineering – the study of modeling of the dynamic behavior of systems and designing them, usually using feedback signals. This applies to the behavior of aircraft, spacecraft, propulsion systems. Aircraft structures – design of the configuration of the craft to withstand the forces encountered during flight
11.
Corradino D'Ascanio
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General Corradino DAscanio was an Italian aeronautical engineer. DAscanio designed the first production helicopter, for Agusta, and designed the first motor scooter for Ferdinando Innocenti, after the two fell out, DAscanio helped Enrico Piaggio produce the original Vespa. After a brief training course in Corsica on a Farman MF. In 1916 DAscanio was assigned to join Fabbrica Aeroplani Ing. O. Pomilio, engaged in the manufacture of equipment SP2, Type C, D Type and others. On his return to Italy after a year in 1919, DAscanio again settled in Popoli, focused on the mechanisms for helicopters. In 1925 he founded a company with Baron Pietro Trojani, which commissioned by the Ministry dellAeronautica produced in 1930 its third prototype, three small propellers mounted on the airframe were used for additional control of pitch, roll, and yaw. Like many Italians, DAscanio found himself unemployed - the Piaggio factory was destroyed through Allied bombing, worse still, Italy was under an agreement not to research or produce military or aerospace technology for a ten-year period, and so he was unemployable in Italy. The main stimulus for the style of the proposed Lambretta dated back to Pre-WWII Cushman scooters made in Nebraska. These olive green scooters were in Italy in large numbers, ordered originally by the US Government as field transport for the Paratroops and Marines. The US military had used them to get around Nazi defence tactics, destroying roads and bridges during the Battle of Monte Cassino and in the Dolomites, Ferdinando Innocenti gave DAscanio the job of designing a simple, robust and affordable vehicle. The vehicle had to be easy to ride for both men and women, be able to carry a passenger, and not get its drivers clothes dirty, DAscanio, who hated motorcycles, designed a revolutionary vehicle. It was built on a spar-frame with a gear change. The front protection shield kept the rider dry and clean in comparison to the front end on motorcycles. The pass-through leg area design was geared towards all user groups, including women, the front fork, like an aircrafts landing gear, allowed for easy wheel changing. The internal mesh transmission eliminated the standard chain, a source of oil, dirt. This basic design allowed a series of features to be deployed on the frame, however, DAscanio fell out with Innocenti, who wanted to produce his frame from rolled tubing, rather than a stamped spar frame, thereby allowing him to revive both parts of his pre-war company. General DAscanio dissociated himself from Innocenti, and took his design directly to Enrico Piaggio, Innocenti, faced by design problems and production issues surrounding his tube frame, produced the Lambretta from 1947. In the decades of its history, the Vespa scooter has become one of the most famous brand designs worldwide, in 1948 DAscanio attended an international congress for the helicopter in Philadelphia, where he was hailed as a true pioneer
12.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
13.
Antenna (biology)
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Antennae, sometimes referred to as feelers, are paired appendages used for sensing in arthropods. Antennae are connected to the first one or two segments of the arthropod head and they vary widely in form, but are always made of one or more jointed segments. While they are sensory organs, the exact nature of what they sense. Functions may variously include sensing touch, air motion, heat, vibration, antennae are sometimes modified for other purposes, such as mating, brooding, swimming, and even anchoring the arthropod to a substrate. Larval arthropods have antennae that differ from those of the adult, many crustaceans, for example, have free-swimming larval forms that use their antennae for swimming. Except the chelicerates and proturans, which have none, all non-crustacean arthropods have a pair of antennae. Crustaceans bear two pairs of antennae, the pair attached to the first segment of the head are called primary antennae or antennules. This pair is generally uniramous, but is biramous in crabs and lobsters, the pair attached to the second segment are called secondary antennae or simply antennae. The second antennae are biramous, but many species later evolved uniramous pairs. The second antennae may be reduced, apparently absent, or modified to such an extent that they no longer resemble antennae. The subdivisions of crustacean antennae have many names, including flagellomeres, annuli, articles, the terminal ends of crustacean antennae have two major categorizations, segmented and flagellate. An antenna is considered segmented if each of the annuli is separate from those around it and has individual muscle attachments. Flagellate antennae, on the hand, have muscle attachments only around the base. There are several notable uses of antennae in crustaceans. Many crustaceans have a larval stage called a nauplius, which is characterized by its use of antennae for swimming. Barnacles, a highly modified crustacean, use their antennae to attach to rocks, insects evolved from prehistoric crustaceans, and they have secondary antennae like crustaceans, but not primary antennae. Antennae are the primary olfactory sensors of insects and are accordingly well-equipped with a variety of sensilla. Paired, mobile, and segmented, they are located between the eyes on the forehead, embryologically, they represent the appendages of the second head segment
14.
Vespa PX
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The Vespa P/PX Series is a range of scooters manufactured by Piaggio under the Vespa brand. The Vespa PX was first presented in 1977 in Milan as the nuova linea model, the Vespa was built with two drum brakes, a single-cylinder engine and a steel chassis, but has been improved with a new front suspension and a revised rear axle for more stability. It was distributed as Vespa P125 X and as Vespa P200 E with an electronic ignition, the PX80 appeared in 1981. This electronic ignition was introduced to the models, which then were called Vespa PX125 and Vespa PX150 E. In 1983, the Arcobaleno series was introduced with technological innovations such as separate lubrication and these included increasing the size of the glovebox, increasing the size of the mudguard, and a new horn grille. In 1985 a sporty variant hit the market, The Vespa T5 Pole Position with almost 12 hp, in 1992, coinciding with the 50th anniversary of Vespa, a scooter was offered with the T5 engine and the PX style body. This was marketed as the Vespa PX125 T5 Classic, in 2007, the production of the Vespa PX was stopped and the last were sold as Ultima Serie, a limited edition with a windshield, a luggage carrier in chrome and chrome wheels with whitewall tires. In 2010, the Vespa PX returned with a catalytic converter added to the engine to meet the Euro 3 emission standards. As of February 2017 production of the PX Euro 3 continues in Pontedera at the rate of 40 units in a day
15.
Pillion
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A pillion is a mostly British English term for a secondary pad, cushion, or seat behind the main seat or saddle on a horse, motorcycle, bicycle or moped. A passenger in this seat is said to ride pillion or may be referred to as a pillion, the word is derived from the Scottish Gaelic for a little rug, pillean, which is itself from the Latin pellis for animal skin. One or more pelts would often have used as a secondary seat on horseback. These requirements came about as a result of the number of motor cars that were lost in action. The requirement for riding pillion was quietly dropped as large numbers of jeeps came into service in the middle of the war, riding two up is a commonly accepted North American phrase for riding with a passenger. Riding bitch is a used in the U. S. to denote sitting in between two other people in a car or truck, where there is often a hump in the front or back analogous to the pillion. Bitch seat or bitch pad is North American slang for the pillion on a motorcycle, as is riding bitch instead of riding pillion. To carry a passenger in the United States or United Kingdom, one must hold a full licence for the vehicle and there must also be a proper seat. In the UK, a motorcyclist is not allowed to more than one pillion passenger. This is due to not being designed to carry more than one pillion passenger. For example, in New South Wales, you must carry a Provisional 2 licence before being allowed to carry a pillion passenger, pillion-riding is associated with terrorist or criminal attacks in some South Asian countries. In Pakistan, for instance, pillion riding is often banned by local authorities around sensitive times, such as the Ashura commemoration, when there have been violent attacks on worshippers
16.
Two-stroke engine
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A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
17.
Twistgrip
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A twistgrip is a handle that can be twisted to operate a control. It is commonly found as a motorcycles right handlebar grip to control the throttle, but is found elsewhere, such as on a bicycle as a gearshift. The first use of the twist grip throttle control was on the Roper steam velocipede of 1867-69, rather than a sleeve that rotated around the handlebar, Sylvester H. Ropers steam motorcycles entire handlebar rotated, with a dual mode operation. When rotated forward it opened the throttle, and when rotated backwards it applied the spoon brake, the actual working model, however, did not have the twist grip, belt drive, or brakes. Glenn Curtiss, unlikely to have been aware of the uses of the twist grip, used it in his 1904 motorcycle land-speed record machine. Indian claimed in their advertisements, also for their 1904 models, whether Curtiss, Gottlieb Daimler, or Roper, were the true inventors, the 1904 Indian would be the earliest use of the device on a production motorcycle. Motorcycle throttles are spring-loaded to cut the power back to idling when the twistgrip is released. Formerly some motorcycle throttle twistgrips had a screw that could be screwed in to make the twistgrip stay still when released, but a ruling from Brussels forbad that on safety grounds
18.
Magneto
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A magneto is an electrical generator that uses permanent magnets to produce periodic pulses of alternating current. Unlike a dynamo, a magneto does not contain a commutator to produce direct current and it is categorized as a form of alternator, although it is usually regarded as distinct from most other alternators, which use field coils rather than permanent magnets. Hand-cranked magneto generators were used to provide ringing current in telephone systems, magnetos were also adapted to produce pulses of high voltage in the ignition systems of some gasoline-powered internal combustion engines to provide power to the spark plugs. Use of such ignition magnetos for ignition is now limited mainly to the kinds of engines, Engines without a low-voltage electrical system, such as lawnmowers. Aircraft engines, in keeping the ignition independent of the rest of the electrical system ensures that the engine continues running in the event of alternator or battery failure. For redundancy, virtually all piston engine aircraft are fitted with two systems, each supplying power to one of two spark plugs in each cylinder. Magnetos were used for specialized isolated power systems such as arc lamp systems or lighthouses, generators connected to an electrical grid for central station power generation do not use the magneto principle. Production of electric current from a magnetic field was demonstrated by Faraday in 1831. The first machines to produce electric current from magnetism used permanent magnets, the dynamo machine, the machine built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832 used a rotating permanent magnet to induce alternating voltage in two fixed coils. Magnetos have advantages of simplicity and reliability, but are limited in size owing to the flux available from their permanent magnets. The fixed excitation of a made it difficult to control its terminal voltage or reactive power production when operating on a synchronized grid. This restricted their use for high-power applications, power generation magnetos were limited to narrow fields, such as powering arc lamps or lighthouses, where their particular features of output stability or simple reliability were most valued. One popular and common use of magnetos of today is for powering lights on bicycles, most commonly a small magneto, termed a bottle dynamo, rubs against the tyre of the bicycle and generates power as the wheel turns. More expensive and less common but more efficient is the hub dynamo, although commonly referred to as dynamos, both devices are in fact magnetos, producing alternating current as opposed to the direct current produced by a true dynamo. The magneto also had an application for treatment of mental illness in the beginnings of electromedicine. Magnetos adapted to produce impulses of high voltage for spark plugs are used in the systems of spark-ignition piston engines. Magnetos are used in aircraft engines for their reliability and simplicity. Motor sport vehicles such as motorcycles and snowmobiles may use magnetos because they are lighter in weight than an ignition system relying on a battery, small internal combustion engines used for lawn mowers, chain saws, portable pumps and similar applications use magnetos for economy and weight reduction
19.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
20.
Audrey Hepburn
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Audrey Hepburn was a British actress, model, dancer and humanitarian. Recognized as a film and fashion icon, Hepburn was active during Hollywoods Golden Age and she was ranked by the American Film Institute as the third-greatest female screen legend in Golden Age Hollywood and was inducted into the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame. Born in Ixelles, a district of Brussels, Hepburn spent her childhood between Belgium, England and the Netherlands, following minor appearances in several films, Hepburn starred in the 1951 Broadway play Gigi after being spotted by French novelist Colette, on whose work the play was based. She shot to stardom for playing the role in Roman Holiday, for which she was the first actress to win an Academy Award, a Golden Globe. The same year Hepburn won a Tony Award for Best Lead Actress in a Play for her performance in Ondine, Hepburn won a record three BAFTA Awards for Best British Actress in a Leading Role. In recognition of her career, she was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award from BAFTA. DeMille Award, the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award and the Special Tony Award and she remains one of the few people who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy and Tony Awards. Hepburn appeared in films as her life went on, devoting much of her later life to UNICEF. She had contributed to the organisation since 1954, then worked in some of the poorest communities of Africa, South America and she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in December 1992. A month later, Hepburn died of cancer at her home in Switzerland at the age of 63. Hepburn was born Audrey Kathleen Ruston or Edda Kathleen Hepburn-Ruston on 4 May 1929 at number 48 Rue Keyenveld in Ixelles and her father, Joseph Victor Anthony Ruston, was a British subject born in Auschitz, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary. He was the son of Victor John George Ruston, of British and Austrian descent and Anna Wels, Hepburns mother, Ella van Heemstra, was a Dutch baroness. At age nineteen, Ella had married Jonkheer Hendrik Gustaaf Adolf Quarles van Ufford, an oil based in Batavia, Dutch East Indies. They had two sons, Jonkheer Arnoud Robert Alexander Quarles van Ufford and Jonkheer Ian Edgar Bruce Quarles van Ufford, Hepburns parents were married in Batavia in September 1926. At the time, Ruston worked for a company, but soon after the marriage, the couple relocated to Europe. After a year in London, they moved to Brussels, where he had assigned to open a branch office. After three years spent travelling between Brussels, Arnhem, The Hague and London, the family settled to the suburban Brussels municipality of Linkebeek in 1932, Hepburns early childhood was sheltered and privileged. In the mid-1930s, Hepburns parents recruited and collected donations for the British Union of Fascists, Joseph left the family abruptly in 1935, which Hepburn later professed was the most traumatic event of my life
21.
Gregory Peck
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Eldred Gregory Peck was an American actor who was one of the most popular film stars from the 1940s to the 1960s. Peck continued to major film roles until the late 1980s. His performance as Atticus Finch in the 1962 film To Kill a Mockingbird earned him the Academy Award for Best Actor and he had also been nominated for an Oscar for the same category for The Keys of the Kingdom, The Yearling, Gentlemans Agreement and Twelve OClock High. Other notable films he appeared in include Spellbound, Roman Holiday, Moby Dick, The Guns of Navarone, Cape Fear, How the West Was Won, The Omen, President Lyndon Johnson honored Peck with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 for his lifetime humanitarian efforts. In 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among Greatest Male Stars of Classic Hollywood cinema and he was named to the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1983. His father was of English and Irish heritage and his mother of English and she converted to her husbands religion, Roman Catholicism, when she married his father, and Peck was raised as a Catholic. Pecks parents divorced when he was five and he was brought up by his maternal grandmother, at the age of 10 he was sent to a Catholic military school, St. Johns Military Academy in Los Angeles. While he was a student there, his grandmother died, at 14, he moved back to San Diego to live with his father, attended San Diego High School, and after graduating enrolled for one year at San Diego State Teachers College. While there he joined the team, took his first theatre and public-speaking courses. Peck however had ambitions to be a doctor and the following year gained admission to the University of California, Berkeley, as an English major, standing 6 ft 3 in, he rowed on the university crew. Although his tuition fee was only $26 per year, Peck still struggled to pay, at Berkeley, encouraged by the acting coach, who saw in him perfect material for university theatre, Peck became more and more interested in acting. He was recruited by Edwin Duerr, director of the universitys Little Theater, Peck would later say about Berkeley that, it was a very special experience for me and three of the greatest years of my life. It woke me up and made me a human being, in 1997, Peck donated $25,000 to the Berkeley rowing crew in honor of his coach, the renowned Ky Ebright. He was often broke and sometimes slept in Central Park and he worked at the 1939 Worlds Fair and as a tour guide for NBCs television broadcasting. In 1940, Peck learned more of the craft, working in exchange for food, at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia, appearing in five plays including Family Portrait. His stage career began in 1941 when he played the secretary in a Katharine Cornell production of George Bernard Shaws play The Doctors Dilemma, unfortunately, the play opened in San Francisco just one week before the attack on Pearl Harbor. He made his Broadway debut as the lead in Emlyn Williams The Morning Star in 1942 and his second Broadway performance that year was in The Willow and I with Edward Pawley. Twentieth Century Fox claimed he had injured his back while rowing at university, ive been trying to straighten out that story for years
22.
Roman Holiday
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Roman Holiday is a 1953 American romantic comedy film directed and produced by William Wyler. It stars Gregory Peck as a reporter and Audrey Hepburn as a royal princess out to see Rome on her own, Hepburn won an Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance, the screenplay and costume design also won. It was written by John Dighton and Dalton Trumbo, though with Trumbo on the Hollywood blacklist, he did not receive a credit, instead, Trumbos credit was reinstated when the film was released on DVD in 2003. On December 19,2011, full credit for Trumbos work was restored, blacklisted director Bernard Vorhaus worked on the film as an assistant director under a pseudonym. It was shot at the Cinecittà studios and on location around Rome during the Hollywood on the Tiber era, the film was screened in the 14th Venice film festival within the official program. In 1999, Roman Holiday was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically and her doctor gives her a sedative to calm her and help her sleep, but she secretly leaves her countrys embassy. The sedative eventually makes her fall asleep on a bench, where Joe Bradley, not recognizing her, he offers her money so she can take a taxi home, but a woozy Anya Smith refuses to cooperate. Joe finally decides, for sake, to let her spend the night in his apartment. He is amused by her manner, but less so when she appropriates his bed. He transfers her to a couch, the next morning, Joe, having already slept through the interview Princess Ann was scheduled to give, hurries off to work, leaving her still asleep. When his editor, Mr. Hennessy, asks why Joe is late, Joe lies, Joe makes up details of the alleged interview until Hennessy informs him that the event had been canceled because the princess had suddenly fallen ill. Joe sees a picture of her and realizes who is in his apartment. Immediately seeing an opportunity, Joe proposes getting an exclusive interview, Hennessy, not knowing the circumstances, agrees to the deal and offers $5,000 if the interview is all Joe claims it will be, but bets Joe $500 that he will not succeed. Joe hurries home and, hiding the fact that he is a reporter and he also surreptitiously calls his photographer friend, Irving Radovich, to tag along to secretly take pictures. However, Ann declines Joes offer and leaves, Ann, enjoying her freedom, explores an outdoor market, buys a pair of shoes, and, on a whim, gets her long hair cut short. Joe follows and accidentally meets her on the Spanish Steps and this time he convinces her to spend the day with him. They see the sights, including the Mouth of Truth, a carved in marble which is said to bite off the hands of liars. When Joe shouts in pain and pulls his hand out of the mouth
23.
John Wayne
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Marion Mitchell Morrison, known professionally as John Wayne and nicknamed Duke, was an American actor and filmmaker. An Academy Award-winner for True Grit, Wayne was among the top box office draws for three decades, born in Winterset, Iowa, Wayne grew up in Southern California. He found work at film studios when he lost his football scholarship to the University of Southern California as a result of a bodysurfing accident. Initially working for the Fox Film Corporation, he appeared mostly in bit parts. His first leading role came in Raoul Walshs The Big Trail, Waynes career took off in 1939, with John Fords Stagecoach making him an instant star. He went on to star in 142 pictures, biographer Ronald Davis said, John Wayne personified for millions the nations frontier heritage. Eighty-three of his movies were Westerns, and in them he played cowboys, cavalrymen and he is also remembered for his roles in The Quiet Man, Rio Bravo, and The Longest Day. In his final performance, he starred as an aging gunfighter battling cancer in The Shootist. He appeared with many important Hollywood stars of his era, Wayne was born Marion Robert Morrison on May 26,1907 at 224 South Second Street in Winterset, Iowa. The local paper, Winterset Madisonian, reported on page 4 of the edition of May 30,1907 that Wayne weighed 13 pounds at birth and his middle name was soon changed from Robert to Mitchell when his parents decided to name their next son Robert. Waynes father, Clyde Leonard Morrison, was the son of American Civil War veteran Marion Mitchell Morrison, Waynes mother, the former Mary Molly Alberta Brown, was from Lancaster County, Nebraska. Waynes ancestry included English, Irish, Scots-Irish, and Scottish, Waynes family moved to Palmdale, California, and then in 1916 to Glendale, California, where his father worked as a pharmacist. A local fireman at the station on his route to school in Glendale started calling him Little Duke because he never went anywhere without his huge Airedale Terrier and he preferred Duke to Marion, and the nickname stuck. Wayne attended Wilson Middle School in Glendale, as a teen, he worked in an ice cream shop for a man who shod horses for Hollywood studios. He was also active as a member of the Order of DeMolay and he played football for the 1924 league champion Glendale High School team. Wayne applied to the U. S. Naval Academy, and he instead attended the University of Southern California, majoring in pre-law. He was a member of the Trojan Knights and Sigma Chi fraternities, Wayne also played on the USC football team under coach Howard Jones. A broken collarbone injury curtailed his career, Wayne later noted that he was too terrified of Jones reaction to reveal the actual cause of his injury
24.
Marlon Brando
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Marlon Brando, Jr. was an American actor, film director and activist. He is credited with bringing realism to film acting and he helped to popularize the Stanislavski system of acting, studying with Stella Adler in the 1940s. Julius Caesar, The Wild One, Reflections in a Golden Eye, Last Tango in Paris, Brando was also an activist for many causes, notably the Civil Rights Movement and various Native American movements. Brando received Academy Award nominations for playing Emiliano Zapata in Viva Zapata, Mark Antony in Joseph L. Mankiewiczs 1953 film adaptation of Shakespeares Julius Caesar, and Air Force Major Lloyd Gruver in Sayonara, an adaption of James Micheners 1954 novel. Brando was included in a list of Top Ten Money Making Stars three times in the 1950s, coming in at number 10 in 1954, number 6 in 1955, the 1960s proved to be a fallow decade for Brando. The Godfather was then one of the most commercially successful films of all time, Brando took a four-year hiatus before appearing in The Missouri Breaks. After this, he was content with being a highly paid actor in cameo roles, such as in Superman and The Formula. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Brando was paid a record $3.7 million and 11. 75% of the profits for 13 days work on Superman. Brando was ranked by the American Film Institute as the fourth-greatest movie star among male movie stars whose screen debuts occurred in or before 1950. He was one of three professional actors, along with Charlie Chaplin and Marilyn Monroe, named in 1999 by Time magazine as one of its 100 Most Important People of the Century. He died of respiratory failure on July 1,2004, at age 80, Brando was born on April 3,1924, in Omaha, Nebraska, to Marlon Brando, Sr. a pesticide and chemical feed manufacturer, and Dorothy Julia. Brando had two sisters, Jocelyn Brando and Frances. His ancestry included German, Dutch, English, and Irish and his patrilineal immigrant ancestor, Johann Wilhelm Brandau, arrived in New York in the early 1700s from the Palatinate in Germany. Brando was raised a Christian Scientist, however, she was an alcoholic and often had to be brought home from Chicago bars by her husband. In his autobiography, Songs My Mother Taught Me, Brando expressed sadness when writing about his mother, dodie and Brandos father eventually joined Alcoholics Anonymous. Brando harbored far more enmity for his father, stating, I was his namesake and he enjoyed telling me I couldnt do anything right. He had a habit of telling me I would never amount to anything, Brandos parents moved to Evanston, Illinois, when his fathers work took him to Chicago, but separated when Brando was 11 years old. His mother took the three children to Santa Ana, California, where they lived with her mother, in 1937, Brandos parents reconciled and moved together to Libertyville, Illinois, a small town north of Chicago
25.
Dean Martin
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Dean Martin was an Italian-American singer, actor, comedian, and film producer. One of the most popular and enduring American entertainers of the century, Martin was nicknamed the King of Cool for his seemingly effortless charisma. He and Jerry Lewis were partners in the popular comedy team Martin. He was a member of the Rat Pack and a star in concert stages, nightclubs, recordings, motion pictures and he was the host of the television variety program The Dean Martin Show and The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast. Martin was born on June 7,1917, in Steubenville, Ohio, to an Italian father, Gaetano Alfonso Crocetti, and an Italian-American mother, Angela Crocetti. His father, who was a barber, was originally from Montesilvano, in Abruzzo, Martin had an older brother named William Alfonso Crocetti. Martins first language was an Abruzzese dialect of Italian, and he did not speak English until he started school at the age of five and he attended Grant Elementary School in Steubenville where he was bullied for his broken English. He later took up the drums as a hobby as a teenager, Martin then dropped out of Steubenville High School in the 10th grade because he thought he was smarter than his teachers. He bootlegged liquor, served as a croupier, was a blackjack dealer, worked in a steel mill. At 15 he was a boxer who billed himself as Kid Crochet and his prizefighting earned him a broken nose, a scarred lip, many broken knuckles, and a bruised body. Of his 12 bouts, he said, I won all but 11, for a time, he roomed with Sonny King, who, like Martin, was starting in show business and had little money. It is said that Martin and King held bare-knuckle matches in their apartment, fighting until one was knocked out, Martin knocked out King in the first round of an amateur boxing match. Martin gave up boxing to work as a roulette stickman and croupier in an illegal casino behind a tobacco shop, at the same time he sang with local bands, calling himself Dino Martini. He got his break working for the Ernie McKay Orchestra and he sang in a crooning style influenced by Harry Mills, among others. In the early 1940s, he started singing for bandleader Sammy Watkins, in October 1941 Martin married Elizabeth Betty Anne McDonald. They had four children before the marriage ended in 1949, Martin worked for various bands throughout the early 1940s, mostly on looks and personality until he developed his own singing style. Martin flopped at the Riobamba, a nightclub in New York, when he followed Frank Sinatra in 1943, Martin was drafted into the United States Army in 1944 during World War II, serving a year in Akron, Ohio. He was reclassified as 4-F and discharged, possibly because of a double hernia, by 1946, Martin was doing well, but he was little more than an East Coast nightclub singer with a common style, similar to that of Bing Crosby
26.
Abbe Lane
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Abbe Lane is an American singer and actress. Born to a Jewish family in Brooklyn, New York, Lane began her career as an actress on radio. Cugats influence was seen in her music which favoured Latin and rumba styles, in 1958 she starred opposite Tony Randall in the Broadway musical Oh, Captain. But her recording contract prevented her from appearing on the original cast album of the show, on the recording her songs were performed by Eileen Rodgers, Lane later recorded her songs on a solo album. She made several recordings for RCA Victor and Mercury Records, the most successful of her albums was a collaboration with Tito Puente titled Be Mine Tonight released in 1958. Apart from working solo, Lane frequently appeared on shows with Cugat. She attracted attention for her suggestive comments such as Jayne Mansfield may turn boys into men, but I take them from there and her costume for an appearance on the Jackie Gleason Show was considered too revealing and she was instructed to wear something else. She appeared on the shows of Red Skelton, Dean Martin and Jack Benny without attracting controversy, in addition to her Italian films, Lane was a frequent performer on the television show Toast of the Town during the 1950s. She also played guest roles in series as Naked City. The Flying Nun, F Troop, The Brady Bunch, Hart to Hart and her last movie appearance was in Twilight Zone, The Movie in the minor role of an airline stewardess. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6381 Hollywood Boulevard for her contribution to television, Abbe Lane at AllMusic Abbe Lane discography, forum, and marketplace at Discogs Abbe Lane at the Internet Movie Database
27.
William Wyler
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William Wyler, born as Willy Wyler was an American film director, producer and screenwriter of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Wyler received his first Oscar nomination for directing Dodsworth in 1936, starring Walter Huston, Ruth Chatterton and Mary Astor, Film historian Ian Freer calls Wyler a bona fide perfectionist, whose penchant for retakes and an attempt to hone every last nuance, became the stuff of legend. Through his talent for staging, editing, and camera movement and he helped propel a number of actors to stardom, finding and directing Audrey Hepburn in her Hollywood debut film, Roman Holiday, and directing Barbra Streisand in her debut film, Funny Girl. He directed Olivia de Havilland to her second Oscar in The Heiress and Laurence Olivier in Wuthering Heights, Olivier credited Wyler with teaching him how to act for the screen. And Bette Davis, who received three Oscar nominations under his direction and won her second Oscar in Jezebel, said Wyler made her a far, far better actress than she had ever been. Other popular Wyler films include, Hells Heroes, Dodsworth, The Westerner, The Letter, Friendly Persuasion, The Big Country, The Childrens Hour, Wyler was born to a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace. His Swiss father, Leopold, started as a traveling salesman which he turned into a thriving haberdashery business in Mulhouse. His mother, Melanie, was German, and a cousin of Carl Laemmle, during Wylers childhood, he attended a number of schools and developed a reputation as something of a hellraiser, being expelled more than once for misbehavior. His mother often took him and his older brother Robert to concerts, opera, sometimes at home his family and their friends would stage amateur theatricals for personal enjoyment. Wyler was supposed to take over the family business in Mulhouse. After World War I, he spent a year working in Paris at 100.000 Chemises selling shirts. He was so poor that he spent his time wandering around the Pigalle district. After realizing that Willy was not interested in the business, his mother, Melanie, contacted her distant cousin, Carl Laemmle who owned Universal Studios. Laemmle was in the habit of coming to Europe each year, in 1921, Wyler, while traveling as a Swiss citizen, met Laemmle who hired him to work at Universal Studios in New York. As Wyler said, America seemed as far away as the moon, booked onto a ship to New York with Laemmle upon his return voyage, he met a young Czech man, Paul Kohner, aboard the same ship. Their enjoyment of the first class trip was short-lived, however, after working in New York for several years, and even serving in the New York Army National Guard for a year, Wyler moved to Hollywood to become a director. Around 1923, Wyler arrived in Los Angeles and began work on the Universal Studios lot in the gang, cleaning the stages. His break came when he was hired as an assistant editor
28.
Ben-Hur (1959 film)
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Ben-Hur is a 1959 American epic historical drama film, directed by William Wyler, produced by Sam Zimbalist for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and starring Charlton Heston as the title character. A remake of the 1925 silent film with the name, Ben-Hur was adapted from Lew Wallaces 1880 novel Ben-Hur. The screenplay is credited to Karl Tunberg but includes contributions from Maxwell Anderson, S. N. Behrman, Gore Vidal, Ben-Hur had the largest budget as well as the largest sets built of any film produced at the time. Filming commenced on May 18,1958, and wrapped on January 7,1959, with shooting lasting for 12 to 14 hours a day, pre-production began in Italy at Cinecittà around October 1957, and post-production took six months. Under cinematographer Robert L. Surtees, MGM executives made the decision to film the picture in a widescreen format, more than 200 camels and 2,500 horses were used in the shooting of the film, with some 10,000 extras. The sea battle was filmed using miniatures in a tank on the back lot at the MGM Studios in Culver City. Following a $14.7 million marketing effort, Ben-Hur premiered at Loews State Theatre in New York City on November 18,1959. It was the fastest-grossing as well as the film of 1959. Ben-Hur also won three Golden Globe Awards, including Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director and Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture for Stephen Boyd. In AD26, Judah Ben-Hur is a prince and merchant in Jerusalem. Esther loves Judah but is committed to another, Judahs childhood friend, the Roman citizen Messala, is now a tribune. After several years away from Jerusalem, Messala returns as the new commander of the Roman garrison, Messala believes in the glory of Rome and its imperial power, while Judah is devoted to his faith and the freedom of the Jewish people. This difference causes tension between the friends, and results in their split after Messala issues an ultimatum to Judah, during the parade for the new governor of Judea, Valerius Gratus, loose tiles fall from the roof of Judahs house. Gratus is thrown from his horse and nearly killed. Although Messala knows this was an accident, he condemns Judah to the galleys and imprisons Miriam, by punishing a known friend and prominent citizen, he hopes to intimidate the Jewish populace. After three years as a slave, Judah is assigned to the flagship of the Roman Consul Quintus Arrius. Arrius admires Judahs determination and self-discipline and offers to him as a gladiator or charioteer. Judah declines the offer, declaring that God will aid him in his quest for vengeance, when the Roman fleet encounters the Macedonians, Arrius orders all the rowers except Judah to be chained to their oars
29.
Charlton Heston
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Charlton Heston was an American actor and political activist. As a Hollywood star, he appeared in 100 films over the course of 60 years and he played Moses in the epic film, The Ten Commandments, for which he received his first Golden Globe Award nomination. He also starred in Touch of Evil with Orson Welles, Ben-Hur, for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor, El Cid and he also starred in the films The Greatest Show on Earth, Secret of the Incas, and The Big Country. A supporter of Democratic politicians and civil rights in the 1960s, Heston later became a Republican, founding a political action committee. Hestons most famous role in politics came as the president of the National Rifle Association. After being diagnosed with Alzheimers disease in 2003, he retired from acting and the NRA presidency. Heston died on April 5,2008, aged 84, from pneumonia, Charlton Heston was born on October 4,1923, to Russell Whitford Carter, a sawmill operator and Lilla. Many sources indicate he was born in Evanston, Illinois, Hestons autobiography, however, and some other sources, place his birth in No Mans Land, Illinois, which usually refers to a then-unincorporated area now part of Wilmette, a wealthy Chicago suburb. Heston said in a 1995 interview that he was not very good at remembering addresses or his early childhood, Heston was partially of Scottish descent, including from the Clan Fraser, but the majority of his ancestry was English. His earliest immigrant ancestors arrived in America from England in the 1600s and his maternal great-grandparents, William Charlton and Mary Drysdale Charlton, were English. They emigrated to Canada, where his grandmother, Marian Emily Charlton, was born in 1872, in his autobiography, Heston refers to his father participating in his familys construction business. When Heston was an infant, his fathers work moved the family to St. Helen and it was a rural, heavily forested part of the state, and Heston lived an isolated yet idyllic existence, spending much time hunting and fishing in the backwoods of the area. When Heston was 10 years old, his parents divorced, shortly thereafter, his mother remarried and the new family moved back to Wilmette. Heston attended New Trier High School and he recalled living there, All kids play pretend games, but I did it more than most. Even when we moved to Chicago, I was more or less a loner and we lived in a North Shore suburb, where I was a skinny hick from the woods, and all the other kids seemed to be rich and know about girls. Contradictions on paper and in an interview surround when Charlton became Hestons first name, the 1930 United States Census record for Richfield, Michigan, in Roscommon County, shows his name as being Charlton J. Carter at age six. Later accounts by sources and movie studio biographies say he was born John Charles Carter, interestingly, Charlton was his maternal grandmother Marians maiden name, not his mother Lillas. This is contrary to how 20th century references read and what Heston said, when Hestons maternal grandmother and his true maternal grandfather Charles Baines separated or divorced in the early 1900s, Marian Baines married William Henry Lawton in 1907
30.
Four-stroke engine
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A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning a crankshaft. A stroke refers to the travel of the piston along the cylinder. The four separate strokes are termed, Intake, also known as induction or suction This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center and ends at bottom dead center. In this stroke the valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion. Compression, This stroke begins at B. D. C, or just at the end of the suction stroke, in this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation for ignition during the power stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage, combustion, also known as power or ignition This is the start of the second revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree revolution, while the piston is at T. D. C. The compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a plug or by heat generated by high compression. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft, during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns from B. D. C. to T. D. C. While the exhaust valve is open and this action expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve. Nikolaus August Otto as a man was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, in 1860, Lenoir successfully created a double-acting engine that ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 litre Lenoir Engine produced only 2 horsepower, the Lenoir engine ran on illuminating gas made from coal, which had been developed in Paris by Philip Lebon. In testing a replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861 Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge, in 1862, Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and reliability of the Lenoir engine. He tried to create an engine that would compress the fuel prior to ignition. Many other engineers were trying to solve the problem, with no success, in 1864, Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company, NA Otto and Cie. Otto and Cie succeeded in creating an atmospheric engine that same year. The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz, in 1872, Gottlieb Daimler was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design
31.
Fiat S.p.A.
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The Fiat Group contained many brands such as Ferrari, Maserati, Fiat, Alfa Romeo, the Chrysler Group, and many more. On 29 January 2014, it was announced that Fiat S. p. A. was to be merged into a new Netherlands-based holding company Fiat Chrysler Automobiles NV, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles became the new owner of Fiat Group. On 1 August 2014, Fiat S. p. A. received necessary shareholder approval to proceed with the merger, the merger became effective 12 October 2014. Fiat was founded in 1899 by a group of investors, including Giovanni Agnelli, during its more than century-long history, Fiat has also manufactured railway engines and carriages, military vehicles, farm tractors, and aircraft. In 2013, Fiat was the second largest European automaker by volumes produced, and the seventh in the world ahead of Honda, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Suzuki, Renault, and Daimler AG. Fiat Group currently produces vehicles under twelve brands, Abarth, Alfa Romeo, Chrysler, Dodge, Ferrari, Fiat, Fiat Professional, Jeep, Lancia, Maserati, Ram Trucks, and SRT. In 1970, Fiat employed more than 100,000 in Italy when its production reached the highest number,1.4 million cars, in that country. As of 2002, Fiat built more than 1 million vehicles at six plants in Italy, fiat-brand cars are built in several locations around the world. Outside Italy, the largest country of production is Brazil, where the Fiat brand is the market leader, the group also has factories in Argentina, Poland and Mexico and a long history of licensing manufacture of its products in other countries. It also has alliances and joint ventures around the world. He was succeeded briefly by Paolo Fresco, who served as chairman, Umberto Agnelli then took over as chairman from 2003 to 2004. After Umberto Agnellis death on 28 May 2004, Luca Cordero di Montezemolo was named chairman, with Agnelli heir John Elkann becoming vice chairman, on 1 June 2004, Giuseppe Morchio was replaced by Sergio Marchionne as CEO. Giovanni Agnelli, with investors, founded the Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino società per azioni. Its acronymous name was changed to upper- and lower-case Fiat in 1906, Agnelli led the company until his death in 1945, while Vittorio Valletta administered the firms daily activities. Its first car the 3 ½ CV strongly resembled contemporary Benz, in 1903, Fiat produced its first truck. In 1908, the first Fiat was exported to the US and that same year, the first Fiat aircraft engine was produced. Also around the time, Fiat taxis became popular in Europe. By 1910, Fiat was the largest automotive company in Italy—a position it has retained since and that same year, a new plant was built in Poughkeepsie, NY, by the newly founded American F. I. A. T
32.
Morgan, Grenfell & Co.
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Morgan, Grenfell & Co. was a leading London-based investment bank regarded as one of the oldest and once most influential British merchant banks. The banking business was incorporated in 1851 as George Peabody & Co. In 1854 Peabody had taken on Junius Spencer Morgan as a partner with just under a 9% interest in the capital of the firm, the firm expanded rapidly especially in the business of extending credits for the transatlantic trade. In late 1857 Peabody & Co. were obliged to help in the form of a loan from the Bank of England. Peabody himself emerged from the tired and ill. While remaining senior partner for the time being, he withdrew from the business leaving Morgan as its effective head. Peabodys focus became the use of his considerable fortune. Peabody, who died in 1869, finally retired in 1864 when his 10-year partnership agreement with Morgan came to an end, as a consequence the firm was re-styled J. S. Morgan & Co. The firms New York agency was in due course to become J. P. Morgan & Co. named after Junius son, on the death of Junius in 1890 Pierpont became the senior partner of the London firm. For many years the business was focused on transatlantic business. After the war the Morgan houses played a key role in European post-war financial reconstruction in the 1920s and it was also during this period that the firm built a leading corporate finance business organising and advising on the issuance and underwriting of domestic securities. Consequent to the Glass–Steagall Legislation of 1933 J. P. Morgan & Co. had to choose between being a commercial or an investment bank. The partners chose the former and as a result were required to relinquish their controlling interest in Morgan Grenfell which was to continue to conduct both lending and investment banking business. This was achieved in 1934 by incorporating the London firm into Morgan Grenfell & Co. Ltd. with J. P. Morgan and Co. holding a one-third stake, although J. P. Morgans son, J. P. Although still possessing a blue-chip client list and first-rate reputation the period from 1934 is regarded as one of drift, Harcourt needed a younger man to effect needed organisational changes and saw him as a natural successor to the chairmanship of the firm. Sadly in 1973 as arrangements were being made for Stevens to succeed Harcourt as chairman he unexpectedly died at the age of fifty-nine. The Stevens years had nevertheless seen huge changes in the organisation and this was expanded and new areas of business opened notably in international project and capital goods export finance. In asset management the small private client team was transformed into an institutional investment division
33.
Aprilia
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Aprilia is an Italian motorcycle company, one of the marques owned by Piaggio. Having started as a manufacturer of bicycles it moved on to manufacture scooters, in more recent times Aprilia has produced large sportbikes such as the 1,000 cc V-twin RSV Mille and the V4 RSV4. Aprilia has enjoyed success in road-racing. Aprilia was founded after the Second World War by Cavaliere Alberto Beggio, as a production factory at Noale. Alberto’s son, Ivano Beggio, took over the helm of the company in 1968, the first production Aprilia mopeds were named Colibrì, Daniela and Packi. Aprilia later produced a motocross bike in 1970 called the Scarabeo, produced until the end of the 1970s, the Scarabeo came in 50 and 125 cc versions. In 1977 Ivan Alborghetti from Milan, Italy won the Italian 125 and 250 cc motorcross championships on Aprilias, in 1978 Alborghetti closed the season with two third places in individual races and sixth place in the World Championship. In the 1980s Aprilia added enduro, trials and road bikes of between 50 and 600 cc, in 1981 Aprilia introduced the TL320 trials machine. In 1983 Aprilia launched to St 125 road bike, in 1984 Aprilia launched an improved model called STX, and an enduro, called the ET50. In 1985, Aprilia started outsourcing engines for some models to the Austrian company Rotax, in 1985 Aprilia launched a 125 STX and 350 STX. In 1986 Aprilia launched the AF1, a sports model, and the Tuareg. Two seasons later, on August 30,1987, at San Marino Grand Prix in Misano Loris Reggianis AF1 won the first World Speed Championship, in 1990 Aprilia launched the Pegaso 600, a road bike derived from off-road mechanics. Later, in 1992 Aprilia rider Alessandro Gramigni won the World 125 Road Racing Championship title, also in 1992, Tommy Ahvala won the World Trials Championship on an Aprilia Climber. Since then, Aprilia has 124 times won 125 and 250 cc class Grand Prix,15 Road Racing World Championship titles, many world champions started on Aprilia such as Biaggi, Capirossi, Gramigni, Locatelli, Sakata and Rossi. Also in the 1990s, Aprilia entered the market starting in 1990 with Italy’s first all-plastic scooter. In 1992, Aprilia introduced the Amico LK and the two stroke Pegaso 125, both with catalytic converters, in 1993 Aprilia launched a large diameter wheel scooter reusing the name Scarabeo with a four-stroke, four-valve engine. Later Aprilia launched more scooters such as the Leonardo, the SR, in 1995, Aprilia commissioned Philippe Starck to design the Motò which was shown in New York’s Modern Art Museum. Also in 1995 Aprilia launched the two stroke RS125 and RS250 sports bikes, in 1998 Aprilia launched what is its current flagship model the RSV Mille, a 1000cc V-Twin Superbike, and the Falco, a 1000cc V-Twin sport tourer with emphasis on sport
34.
Borsa Italiana
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Borsa Italiana S. p. A. based in Milan, is Italys stock exchange. It manages and organises domestic market, regulating procedures for admission and listing of companies and intermediaries, following exchange privatisation in 1997, the Company was established and became effective since January 2,1998. It is now a subsidiary of the London Stock Exchange Group plc since June 23,2007, in 2015, overall capitalisation for listed company on Borsa Italiana was worth €465Bln, representing % of Italian GDP. Borsa Italiana is also known as Piazza Affari, after the city square of Milan where its headquarters is located. Borsa Italiana is chaired by Andrea Sironi while Raffaele Jerusalmi serves as CEO, the two, moreover, are also both members of the Board of Directors of London Stock Exchange Group. The Borsa di commercio di Milano was established by Eugène de Beauharnais, viceroy of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, in March 2016, the London Stock Exchange Group announced it had agree to merge in an all-stock deal with Deutsche Borse. Borsa Italiana acts as a management firm operating with autonomy. It organises and manages the domestic market along with Italian. Among its leading tasks, Borsa Italiana supervises listed companies, defining rules for admission and listings, major trading markets for Borsa Italiana are, MTA, the leading equity market, which is devoted to mid and large-size companies
35.
Mod (subculture)
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Mod is a subculture that began in the United Kingdom in the 1960s and spread, in varying degrees, to other countries and continues today on a smaller scale. Significant elements of the mod subculture include fashion, music, the original mod scene was associated with amphetamine-fuelled all-night dancing at clubs. In England during the early to mid 1960s, mods often engaged in brawls with rockers, in the mid-to-late 1960s, the conflicts between mods and rockers subsided, as several rock bands, including The Who and the Small Faces adopted a mod style. London became synonymous with fashion, music, and pop culture in these years, a period often referred to as Swinging London. There was a mod revival in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s, which was followed by a mod revival in North America in the early 1980s, particularly in southern California, Vancouver, and Toronto. The term mod derives from modernist, a used in the 1950s to describe modern jazz musicians and fans. This usage contrasted with the term trad, which described traditional jazz players, the 1959 novel Absolute Beginners describes modernists as young modern jazz fans who dress in sharp modern Italian clothes. The novel may be one of the earliest examples of the term being written to describe young British style-conscious modern jazz fans and this usage of the word modernist should not be confused with modernism in the context of literature, art, design and architecture. From the mid-to-late 1960s onwards, the media often used the term mod in a wider sense to describe anything that was believed to be popular. Paul Jobling and David Crowley argue that the definition of mod can be difficult to pin down, because throughout the original era. They claim that since the mod scene was so pluralist, the mod was an umbrella term that covered several distinct sub-scenes. Early mods watched French and Italian art films and read Italian magazines to look for style ideas, while clothes were still important at that time, they could be ready-made. Mary Anne Long argues that first hand accounts and contemporary theorists point to the Jewish upper-working or middle-class of London’s East End and suburbs. Simon Frith asserts that the mod subculture had its roots in the 1950s beatnik coffee bar culture, sparks argues that Mod has been much misunderstood. As this working-class, scooter-riding precursor of skinheads, coffee bars were attractive to British youths because, in contrast to typical pubs, which closed at about 11pm, they were open until the early hours of the morning. Coffee bars had jukeboxes, which in some cases reserved space in the machines for the customers own records, in the late 1950s, coffee bars were associated with jazz and blues, but in the early 1960s, they began playing more R&B music. Frith notes that although coffee bars were originally aimed at art school students, they began to facilitate an intermixing of youths from different backgrounds. Violent clashes would often ensue between the two groups and this period was later immortalized by songwriter Pete Townshend, in the Whos 1973 concept album, Quadrophenia
36.
Skinhead
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The movement reached a peak during an 1980s revival but has endured in multiple contexts worldwide since. The rise to prominence of skinheads came in two waves, with the first taking place in the late 1960s and the second in the early 1980s. Skinheads were instead drawn towards more working class cultures, incorporating elements of mod fashion and black music and fashion. The second wave were often ex-punks, both first and second generation skins were influenced by the heavy, repetitive rhythms of dub, as well as ska, rocksteady, reggae, and African-American soul music. 1980s skins were closely aligned with anarchists and anarcho-punks, first wave punk, Oi. and street punk, ska,2 Tone ska, ska punk, dub, contemporary skinhead fashions range from clean-cut 1960s mod-influenced styles to less-strict punk- and hardcore-influenced styles. During the early 1980s, political affiliations grew in significance and split the subculture, distancing the far right and far left strands, according to Shane Meadows, Its unfortunate that the racist elements have become such a by-word for skinhead culture. The media has played its part in this, but by the same token its clear the fascist element has always been vocal in skinhead culture. The sad bit is that the enlightened, anti-fascist aspects have not better promoted themselves. From the 1990s, the style has been adopted by disaffected, Neo-Nazi youths in the former East Germany, Italy, Spain, Finland, central European countries, and Russia. However, many skinheads have remained influenced by dissident left-wing and center-left type politics that have been in the movement since the beginning, particularly in the U. K. in the late 1950s the post-war economic boom led to an increase in disposable income among many young people. Some of those youths spent that income on new fashions popularised by American soul groups, British R&B bands, certain film actors and these youths became known as mods, a youth subculture noted for its consumerism and devotion to fashion, music and scooters. When possible, these working class mods spent their money on suits and other outfits to wear at dancehalls. Hardcore mods became commonly known as skinheads by about 1968 and their short hair may have come about for practical reasons, since long hair could be a liability in industrial jobs and streetfights. Skinheads may also have cut their hair short in defiance of the middle class hippie culture. In addition to retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were very interested in Jamaican rude boy styles and culture, especially the music, ska, rocksteady, Skinhead culture became so popular by 1969 that even the rock band Slade temporarily adopted the look as a marketing strategy. The subculture gained wider notice because of a series of violent and sexually explicit novels by Richard Allen, due to largescale British migration to Perth, Western Australia, many British youths in that city joined skinhead/sharpies gangs in the late 1960s and developed their own Australian style. By the early 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade from popular culture, and some of the original skins dropped into new categories, such as the suedeheads, smoothies, and bootboys. Some fashion trends returned to the mod roots, with brogues, loafers, suits, in the late 1970s, the skinhead subculture was revived to a notable extent after the introduction of punk rock
37.
North Miami, Florida
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North Miami is a suburban city located in northeast Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States, about 10 miles north of Miami. The city lies on Biscayne Bay and hosts the Biscayne Bay Campus of Florida International University, originally the town of Arch Creek, the area was incorporated as the Town of Miami Shores, which was renamed the Town of North Miami in 1931. It was reincorporated as a city in 1953, the city is also home to the Oleta River State Park, which is the states largest urban park. As of 2010, the population recorded by the U. S. Census Bureau is 58,786, with almost 60,000 residents, North Miami is the sixth largest city in Miami-Dade County. Even before 1890 a handful of adventuresome pioneers spent brief periods around the Arch Creek Natural Bridge, in 1891, Mr. Ilhe was the first to put down roots in the Arch Creek vicinity. He purchased 80 acres from the State of Florida at one dollar an acre in the area of today’s N. E. 116th Street, the place was so remote that his nearest northern neighbor was thought to live in Ft. Lauderdale. Mr. Ihle built a temporary palmetto frond shelter, during the next 27 years he grew shallots, coontie, squashes, bananas, sugar cane, Puerto Rican pineapples, lemons, guavas, limes, rose apples, Jamaican apples, and tomatoes. By 1905 the area surrounding the nine-year-old Arch Creek Railroad Depot had become the community’s hub and it was located at 125th Street and the F. E. C. That year a post office and a school were opened nearby, by 1912, eighteen homes, a church, a general store, a blacksmith shop, and two tomato packing houses were located around the railroad. The population was estimated at less than one hundred, farming was still the principal occupation. The Florida land boom that was underway in the 1920s spread to Arch Creek farming community, the Biscayne Canal was dug in 1924 to remove farmland from flooded conditions. But as a consequence, the soil began to lose its moisture, however, in step with the times, this drained land became available for partitioning, lot sales, and development. North Miami, between 1926 and 1931, was named Town of Miami Shores, partially because its eastern boundary was the Atlantic Ocean. Incorporation moved costs from developers to residents and lot purchasers, late in 1926 a bond issue of $287,000 was passed to build streets, sidewalks, a town hall, a water system, and fire protection. The devastating September 1926 hurricane burst the real estate land speculation, the local community recovered from the damage, but lot sales came to a stop, and the northern tourists names showed up in great numbers on the delinquent tax list. Some money from the issue was used to build a Spanish-Mediterranean style city hall building at N. E. 8th Avenue. The City Hall also housed the police and fire departments, in the 1930s a new water plant and gravity tank was installed behind City Hall. The first newspaper, The Miami Shores Bulletin, was published in 1927-28, the historic William Jennings Bryan school was constructed in 1928 on the same spot where the Arch Creek Elementary School had burned down the year before
38.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
39.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
40.
Rocker (subculture)
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Rockers, leather boys, Ton-up boys, and possibly café racers are members of a biker subculture that originated in the United Kingdom during the 1950s. It was mainly centred on British café racer motorcycles and rock n roll music, Rockers were also derisively known as Coffee Bar Cowboys. Their Japanese equivalent was called the Kaminari-zoku, until the post-war period motorcycling held a prestigious position and enjoyed a positive image in British society, being associated with wealth and glamour. Starting in the 1950s, the classes were able to buy inexpensive motorcars so that motorcycles became transport for the poor. During the 1950s, they were known as Ton-Up boys because doing a ton was English slang for driving at a speed of 100 mph or over, the Teddy boys were considered their spiritual ancestors. The rockers or ton-up boys took what was essentially a sport and turned it into a lifestyle, dropping out of mainstream society and this damaged the public image of motorcycling in the UK and led to the politicisation of the motorcycling community. The mass media started targeting these socially powerless youths and cast them as folk devils, from the 1960s on, due to the media fury surrounding the mods and rockers, motorcycling youths became more commonly known as rockers, a term previously little known outside small groups. The public came to consider rockers as hopelessly naive, loutish, scruffy, motorized cowboys, the term café racer originated in the 1950s, when bikers often frequented transport cafés, using them as starting and finishing points for road races. A café racer is a motorcycle that has been modified for speed, features include, a single racing seat, low handlebars, large racing petrol tanks, swept-back exhaust pipes, rear-set footpegs with or without half or full race fairings. These motorcycles were lean, light and handled various road surfaces well, the most defining machine of the rocker heyday was the Triton, which was a custom motorcycle made of a Norton Featherbed frame and a Triumph Bonneville engine. It used the most common and fastest racing engine combined with the best handling frame of its day, other popular motorcycle brands included BSA, Royal Enfield and Matchless. The term café racers is now used to describe motorcycle riders who prefer vintage British. These modern café racers have taken elements of the American greaser, British rocker, Rockers bought standard factory-made motorcycles and stripped them down, tuning them up and modifying them to appear like racing bikes. First seen in the United States and then England, the fashion style was born out of necessity and practicality. Rockers wore heavily-decorated leather motorcycle jackets, often adorned with metal studs, patches, when they rode their motorcycles, they usually wore no helmet, or wore a classic open-face helmet, aviator goggles and a white silk scarf. Other common items included, T-shirts, leather caps, Levis or Wrangler jeans, leather trousers, also popular was a patch declaring membership of the 59 Club of England, a church-based youth organization that later formed into a motorcycle club with members all over the world. The rocker hairstyle, kept in place with Brylcreem, was usually a tame or exaggerated pompadour hairstyle, as was popular with some 1950s rock, largely due to their clothing styles and dirtiness, the rockers were not widely welcomed by venues such as pubs and dance halls. Rockers also transformed rock and roll dancing into a more violent and they were generally reviled by the British motorcycle industry and general enthusiasts as being as an embarrassment and bad for the industry and the sport
41.
Triumph Bonneville
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The Triumph Bonneville is a standard motorcycle featuring a parallel-twin four-stroke engine and manufactured in three generations over three separate production runs. The first two generations, by the defunct Triumph Engineering in Meriden, West Midlands, England, were 1959-1983 and 1985-1988. The third series, by Triumph Motorcycles in Hinckley, Leicestershire, began in 2001, the name Bonneville derives from the famous Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah, USA where Triumph and others attempted to break the motorcycle speed records. The original Triumph Bonneville was a 650 cc parallel-twin motorcycle manufactured by Triumph Engineering and it was based on the companys Triumph Tiger T110 and was fitted with the Tigers optional twin 1 3/16 in Amal monobloc carburettors as standard, along with that models high-performance inlet camshaft. Later T120 Bonnevilles used a new frame which contained the oil instead of using a separate tank. The T120 engine, both in standard configuration and especially when tuned for increased performance, was popular in café racers such as Tribsas and particularly Tritons. The early 650 cc T120 Bonneville, often known as the duplex frame model, was replaced in the early 1970s by the T140 Bonneville, shortly after, the engine was further bored out to 744 cc and front disc brakes were fitted using single discs until 1982. In 1975, along with modifications, the gearchange lever was moved from right to left to comply with new regulations mandated for the American market. Several T140 models followed featuring various modifications and refinements including electric starting from 1980 until production ceased with the closure of the Meriden works in 1983, although this should have been the end of the Bonneville, as it turned out it was not. Triumph Motorcycles was acquired by businessman John Bloor, who licensed a company called Racing Spares in Devon and these continuation bikes are known as the Devon Bonnevilles, which did not reach the market until 1985, and were not sold in the U. S. Bloors Triumph Motorcycles Ltd launched a new model, the Bonneville 800. The new Bonneville strongly resembles the earlier models in style and basic configuration, at the debut the new version was given a 790 cc parallel-twin engine, with the up-spec T100 receiving an 865 cc engine. From 2007 on, all Bonnevilles received the 865 cc engine, dummy carburettors, which are actually redesigned throttle bodies made to resemble carburettors, have been added to the 2009 models to retain the original vintage styling of previous years. For 2016, Triumph introduced a all new T120 1200cc 270° liquid-cooled, SOHC, version of the Bonneville, from 2008, all Bonnevilles received a slightly larger and reshaped tank to accommodate the EFI pump, but the tank capacity was not altered. Even though US2008 models were not injected they still received the larger tank, all the bikes in Triumphs current Modern Classics line are derived from the new Bonneville, including the SE, T100, Thruxton, Scrambler, America, and Speedmaster. The adoption of the EFI engine in 2008 rendered many of these obsolete, since tank covers. The original T120 Bonneville was a motorcycle, but the new Bonnevilles are softer. In particular, the 865cc Bonneville competes directly with the Harley-Davidson 883, the handling is more than respectable, the brakes markedly better and, of course, it’s British
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Birmingham Small Arms Company
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This article is not about Gamo subsidiary BSA Guns Limited or BSA Company or its successors. At its peak, BSA was the largest motorcycle producer in the world, in the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market. The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, the original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987. BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England and it was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association. The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings, the newly formed company purchased 25 acres of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road. This machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts, BSAs resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles. F. Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman, the first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868. In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year, the military arms trade was precarious. The next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture, the gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts. What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices, bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it. The order was for 1,200 rifles per week, BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of bicycles and motorcycles. BSA sold the business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953. In 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936, BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub. BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence. This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a Duo hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear, all BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945. The Eadie coaster hub made a return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models. BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955, BSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI
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