1.
Les Invalides
–
Louis XIV initiated the project by an order dated 24 November 1670, as a home and hospital for aged and unwell soldiers, the name is a shortened form of hôpital des invalides. The architect of Les Invalides was Libéral Bruant, the selected site was in the then suburban plain of Grenelle. By the time the project was completed in 1676, the river front measured 196 metres and the complex had fifteen courtyards. It was then felt that the veterans required a chapel, Jules Hardouin-Mansart assisted the aged Bruant, and the chapel was finished in 1679 to Bruants designs after the elder architects death. This chapel was known as Église Saint-Louis des Invalides, and daily attendance of the veterans in the services was required. Shortly after the chapel was completed, Louis XIV commissioned Mansart to construct a separate private royal chapel referred to as the Église du Dôme from its most striking feature. The domed chapel was finished in 1708, because of its location and significance, the Invalides served as the scene for several key events in French history. On 14 July 1789 it was stormed by Parisian rioters who seized the cannons, Napoleon was entombed under the dome of the Invalides with great ceremony in 1840. In December 1894 the degradation of Captain Alfred Dreyfus was held before the main building, the building retained its primary function of a retirement home and hospital for military veterans until the early twentieth century. In 1872 the musée dartillerie was located within the building to be joined by the musée historique des armées in 1896, the two institutions were merged to form the present musée de larmée in 1905. At the same time the veterans in residence were dispersed to smaller centres outside Paris, the building accordingly became too large for its original purpose. The modern complex does however include the facilities detailed below for about a hundred elderly or incapacitated former soldiers. On the north front of Les Invalides Hardouin-Mansarts chapel dome is large enough to dominate the long façade, at its far end, the Pont Alexandre III links this grand urbanistic axis with the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais. The Pont des Invalides is next, downstream the Seine river, the Hôpital des Invalides spurred William III of England to emulation, in the military Greenwich Hospital of 1694. The buildings still comprise the Institution Nationale des Invalides, an institution for disabled war veterans. The institution comprises, a retirement home a medical and surgical centre a centre for medical consultations. In 1676 Jules Hardouin-Mansart was commissioned with the construction of a place of worship on the site and he designed a building which combined a royal chapel with a veterans chapel. In this way, the King and his soldiers could attend mass simultaneously, while entering the place of worship though different entrances, when the Army Museum at Les Invalides was founded in 1905, the veterans chapel was placed under its administrative control
Les Invalides
–
Hôtel des Invalides
Les Invalides
–
Louis XIV ordering the construction of Les Invalides
Les Invalides
–
Napoleon I visiting the infirmary of Les Invalides.
Les Invalides
–
The north front of the Invalides: Mansart's dome above Bruant's pedimented central block
2.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
3.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
4.
Military
–
The task of the military is usually defined as defense of the state, and its citizens, and the prosecution of war against another state. The profession of soldiering as part of a military is older than recorded history itself, some of the most enduring images of the classical antiquity portray the power and feats of its military leaders. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC was one of the points of Pharaoh Ramses IIs reign. A thousand years later, the first emperor of unified China, Qin Shi Huang, was so determined to impress the gods with his military might, he was buried with an army of terracotta soldiers. The Romans were dedicated to military matters, leaving to posterity many treatises and writings, as well as a number of lavishly carved triumphal arches. Issue, Possibly cognate with Thousand, cf. Latin and Romance language root word mil-) The first recorded use of the military in English. It comes from the Latin militaris through French, but is of uncertain etymology, the word is now identified as denoting someone that is skilled in use of weapons, or engaged in military service, or in warfare. As a noun, the military usually refers generally to an armed forces, or sometimes, more specifically. In general, it refers to the physicality of armed forces, their personnel, equipment, as an adjective, military originally referred only to soldiers and soldiering, but it soon broadened to apply to land forces in general, and anything to do with their profession. The names of both the Royal Military Academy and United States Military Academy reflect this, as such, it now connotes any activity performed by armed force personnel. Military history is considered to be the history of all conflicts. Military history has a number of facets, one main facet is to learn from past accomplishments and mistakes, so as to more effectively wage war in the future. Another is to create a sense of tradition, which is used to create cohesive military forces. Still another may be to learn to prevent wars more effectively, human knowledge about the military is largely based on both recorded and oral history of military conflicts, their participating armies and navies and, more recently, air forces. In the whole history of humanity, every nation had different needs for military forces, how these needs are determined forms the basis of their composition, equipment, and use of facilities. It also determines what military does in terms of peacetime, All military forces, whether large or small, are military organizations that have official state, and world recognition as such. Organisations with similar features are paramilitary, civil defense, militia and these commonalities of the states military define them. Another role of military personnel is to ensure a continuous replacement of departing servicemen and women through recruitment
Military
–
Soldiers from
the Canadian Grenadier Guards in the
Kandahar Province of Afghanistan
Military
–
CF-18 Hornet launches a laser-guided bomb
Military
–
The
Kawasaki C-1 is a tactical military transport of the
Japan Air Self-Defence Force.
Military
–
Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of the
I Canadian Corps in
Utrecht as the
Canadian Army liberates the Netherlands from Nazi occupation
5.
Armed forces
–
The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
Armed forces
–
Military spending in 2007, in
USD, according to the
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
6.
War
–
War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
War
–
The War by Tadeusz Cyprian (1949), a photograph in the collection of the
National Museum in
Warsaw showing ruins of Warsaw's Napoleon Square in the aftermath of
World War II.
War
–
Mural of War (1896), by
Gari Melchers
War
–
Ruins of
Guernica (1937). The
Spanish Civil War was one of Europe's bloodiest and most brutal civil wars.
War
–
Japanese
samurai attacking a
Mongol ship, 13th century
7.
Wheelchair
–
A wheelchair, often abbreviated to just chair, is a chair with wheels, used when walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. Wheelchairs come in a variety of formats to meet the specific needs of their users. They may include specialized seating adaptions, individualized controls, and may be specific to particular activities, as seen with sports wheelchairs and beach wheelchairs. The earliest records of wheeled furniture are an inscription found on a slate in China. The first records of wheeled seats being used for transporting disabled people date to three centuries later in China, the Chinese used early wheelbarrows to move people as well as heavy objects. A distinction between the two functions was not made for several hundred years, around 525 CE, when images of wheeled chairs made specifically to carry people begin to occur in Chinese art. Later records show the use of technology in Europe by the Renaissance. The invalid carriage or Bath chair brought the technology into more common use from around 1760, in 1887, wheelchairs were introduced to Atlantic City so invalid tourists could rent them to enjoy the Boardwalk. Soon, many healthy tourists also rented the decorated rolling chairs and servants to them as a show of decadence. In 1933 Harry Jennings and his disabled friend Herbert Everest, both engineers, invented the first lightweight, steel, collapsible wheelchair. Everest had previously broken his back in a mining accident, Everest and Jennings saw the business potential of the invention and went on to become the first mass-market manufacturers of wheelchairs. Their x-brace design is still in use, albeit with updated materials. There are a variety of types of wheelchair, differing by propulsion method, mechanisms of control. Some wheelchairs are designed for everyday use, others for single activities. The iBot is perhaps the best known example of this in recent years, a self-propelled manual wheelchair incorporates a frame, seat, one or two footplates and four wheels, usually two caster wheels at the front and two large wheels at the back. There will generally also be a seat cushion. As this causes friction and heat build-up, particularly on long downslopes, everyday manual wheelchairs come in two major varieties, folding or rigid. Folding chairs are generally low-end designs, whose predominant advantage is being able to fold, however this is largely an advantage for part-time users who may need to store the wheelchair more often than use it
Wheelchair
–
A modern lightweight rigid-frame manual chair
Wheelchair
–
A modern midwheel based battery powered chair
Wheelchair
–
Depiction of
Confucius in a wheelchair, dating to ca. 1680. The artist may have been thinking of methods of transport common in his own day.
Wheelchair
–
Wooden wheelchair dating to the early part of the 20th century
8.
Nishapur
–
It had an estimated population of 239,185 as of 2011 and its county 433,105. Nearby are the mines that have supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia. The city was founded in the 3rd century by Shapur I as a Sasanian satrapy capital, Nishapur later became the capital of Tahirid dynasty and was reformed by Abdullah Tahir in 830, and was later selected as the capital of Seljuq dynasty by Tughril in 1037. From the Abbasid era to the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran, the city evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center within the Islamic world. Nishapur reached the height of its prosperity under the Samanids in the 10th century, but was destroyed by Mongols in 1221 and they worked at Nishapur between 1935 and 1940, returning for a final season in the winter of 1947–48. What remains of old Nishapur region is a 3500-hectare Kohandejh area, little archaeology has been done on this vast and complicated site. George Curzon remarked that Nishapur had been destroyed and rebuilt more times than any city in history. The Metropolitan Museum of Art undertook excavations from 1935 that were interrupted in 1940, searching largely for museum-worthy trophies that they shared with the government of the Shah, the Metropolitans publications were limited to its own Nishapur ceramics. The site of Nishapur has been ransacked for half a century since World War II, shadiyakh was one of the main palaces of old Nishapur up to the 9th century AD, which became more important and populated after that. Some notable people like Attar lived there, attars tomb is nowadays in that area. This palace was completely ruined in the 13th century. Nishapur occupies an important strategic position astride the old Silk Road that linked Anatolia, on the Silk Road, Nishapur has often defined the flexible frontier between the Iranian plateau and Central Asia. The town derived its name from its founder, the Sassanian king Shapur I. Nearby are the mines that supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia. In the year 1000 CE, it was among the ten largest cities on earth, after the husband of Genghis Khans daughter was killed at Nishapur in 1221, she or Genghis ordered the death of the entire population of the city, which was reputedly 1.7 million. Their skulls were reputedly piled in pyramids by the Mongols and this massacre, combined with subsequent earthquakes destroyed the pottery industry. US band Santana released a track entitled Incident at Neshabur on their 1970 LP release. Carlos Santana says this was a reference to a place in Haiti, yo-Yo Ma released an instrumental track entitled Blue as the Turquoise Night of Neyshabur as part of the Silk Road Project
Nishapur
Nishapur
Nishapur
Nishapur
9.
Victory Day (9 May)
–
Victory Day is a holiday that commemorates the victory of the Soviet Union over Nazi Germany in the Great Patriotic War. It was first inaugurated in the 16 republics of the Soviet Union, the Soviet government announced the victory early on 9 May after the signing ceremony in Berlin. Though the official inauguration occurred in 1945 the holiday became a day only in 1965. In East Germany,8 May was observed as Liberation Day from 1950 to 1966, in 1975, a Soviet-style Victory Day was celebrated on 9 May. Since 2002, the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern has observed a day known as the Day of Liberation from National Socialism. After regaining their independence from the Soviet Union, the Baltic countries now commemorate the end of World War II on 8 May, two separate events of the capitulation of Nazi Germany took place at the time. First, the capitulation to the Allied nations in Reims was signed on 7 May 1945 and this date is commonly referred to as the V-E Day in most western European countries. Joseph Stalin was displeased by this, believing that the German surrender should have been accepted only by the envoy of the USSR Supreme command, field-Marshal Wilhelm Keitel submitted the German Instrument of Surrender to Marshal Georgy Zhukov in the Soviet Army headquarters in Berlin-Karlshorst. To commemorate the victory in the war, the ceremonial Moscow Victory Parade was held in the Soviet capital on 24 June 1945, the other World War II victory day, the V-J day is commemorated in August. During the Soviet Unions existence,9 May was celebrated throughout the USSR, though the holiday was introduced in many Soviet republics between 1946 and 1950, it only became a non-labour day in the Ukrainian SSR in 1963 and the Russian SSR in 1965. In the Russian SSR a weekday off was given if 9 May fell on a Saturday or Sunday, the celebration of Victory Day continued during subsequent years. The war became a topic of importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media. The ritual of the celebration gradually obtained a distinctive character with a number of elements, ceremonial meetings, speeches, lectures, receptions. In Russia during the 1990s, the 9 May holiday was not celebrated with large Soviet-style mass demonstrations due to the policies of successive Russian governments, Victory Day in Russia has increasingly become a celebration in which popular culture plays a central role. The 60th and 70th anniversaries of Victory Day in Russia became the largest popular holidays since the collapse of the Soviet Union. In 2015 around 30 leaders, including those of China and India, attended the 2015 celebration, armenia has officially recognised 9 May since its independence in 1990. The holiday was celebrated there while the country was part of the Soviet Union. Azerbaijan has officially recognised 9 May since its independence in 1991, the holiday was similarly celebrated there while the country was part of the Soviet Union
Victory Day (9 May)
–
Victory Day celebrations in Moscow, 9 May 2005
Victory Day (9 May)
–
Marshal Zhukov reading the German capitulation. Seated on his right is
Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder.
Victory Day (9 May)
–
Field-Marshal Keitel signing the ratified surrender terms for the German military
Victory Day (9 May)
–
Victory Day 2013 in
Donetsk,
Ukraine
10.
Gorky Park (Moscow)
–
Gorky Central Park of Culture and Leisure is a central park in Moscow, named after Maxim Gorky. Gorky Park, located at Krymsky Val and situated just across the Moskva River from Park Kultury Metro station, the history of the Neskuchny Garden can be traced back to 1753, when it emerged in the area between Kaluzhskaya Zastava and Trubetskoy Moskva river-side estate. The neighboring area to Neskuchny Garden, from Krymsky Val to Neskuchny Garden, initially it was covered with park gardens, meadows and vegetable gardens belonging to the owners of neighboring estates. It formed a wasteland by the end of the 19th century, the First All-Russian Agricultural and Handicraft Industries Exhibition opened in 1923 on the wasteland that had been cleared during the course of communist community work=days. A resolution for the exhibition was passed on 19 October 1922 and the exhibition opened one, the name of M. A. Gorky was attributed to the park in 1932. The idea of a need for a park of culture and leisure in Moscow arose in the late 1920s in relation to Moscows reconstruction with notions of a socialist city of the future. Gorky Park has always reflected the spirit of its times and social values, at the end of 20th century, concentration on sport - in the best tradition of the Soviet era - retreated in the face of the commercial post-perestroika mood. The time of amusement attractions, numerous small cafes, advertising banners. Nevertheless, the Park remained beloved by the people for its shadowed alleys, during the winter the footpaths flood over and freeze, which allows ice-skating around the park. Over the years the rides became decrepit, and the territory was swamped with cheap attractions. The new 21st century brought a new wind of change and the need to transform the Parks concept, in 2011 Gorky Park underwent a major reconstruction. New director of Central Park of Culture and Leisure Sergei Kapkov demolished approximately 100 attractions, more than two thousand square meters of new asphalt roadbed was laid on the site of demolished objects and 1.9 ha of new lawns and flowerbeds were laid out. All amusement rides but one, a two deck carousel, have been removed in order to transform the place into a recreational zone. Free entry, Wi-Fi coverage, new zones of contemporary design, in order to create something new, it was necessary to clean the park of abandoned buildings, carts, tents, advertising structures and attractions. Renovation of monuments, cleaning the ponds and delivering soil and grass turf started, Gorky Park was transformed in several months, becoming the first Russian park that could now compete with the leading parks of the world. A15,000 square meter ice rink, with zones for children, hockey, dancing. Shortly after he took over the park, Sergei Kapkov was appointed to the role Moscow Government Minister, olga Zakharova had replaced Sergei Kapkov and has been holding the position ever since. The park was described in the novel Gorky Park by Martin Cruz Smith and it was later made into a film with the same name
Gorky Park (Moscow)
–
Pond in Gorky Central Park of Culture and Leisure, 1982
Gorky Park (Moscow)
–
Gorky Park Roller Coaster
Gorky Park (Moscow)
–
Arctic motifs
11.
Dilma Rousseff
–
Dilma Vana Rousseff is a Brazilian economist and politician who was the 36th President of Brazil from 2011 until her impeachment and removal from office on 31 August 2016. She is the first woman to have held the Brazilian presidency, the daughter of a Bulgarian immigrant, Rousseff was raised in an upper middle class household in Belo Horizonte. She became a socialist in her youth and after the 1964 coup détat joined left-wing, Rousseff was captured, tortured, and jailed from 1970 to 1972. After her release, Rousseff rebuilt her life in Porto Alegre with Carlos Araújo, both helped found the Democratic Labour Party in Rio Grande do Sul, and participated in several of the partys electoral campaigns. She became the secretary of Porto Alegre under Alceu Collares. In 2000, after a dispute in the Dutra cabinet, she left the PDT. In 2002, Rousseff joined the committee of energy policy advisors to presidential candidate Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva who won the election, Chief of Staff José Dirceu resigned in 2005, in a political crisis triggered by the Mensalão corruption scandal. Rousseff became chief of staff and remained in that post until 31 March 2010 and she was elected in a run-off on 31 October 2010, beating Brazilian Social Democracy Party candidate José Serra. On 26 October 2014 she won a narrow victory over Aécio Neves. Impeachment proceedings against Rousseff were officially accepted by the Chamber of Deputies on 3 December 2015, vice President Michel Temer assumed her powers and duties as Acting President of Brazil during her suspension. On 31 August 2016, the Senate voted 61–20 in favor of impeachment, finding Rousseff guilty of breaking budgetary laws and removing her from office. Dilma Vana Rousseff was born in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil, on 14 December 1947, to Bulgarian lawyer and entrepreneur Pedro Rousseff and schoolteacher Dilma Jane da Silva. Her father was born in Gabrovo, in the Principality of Bulgaria, as an active member of the Bulgarian Communist Party, banned in 1924, Petar Rusev fled Bulgaria in 1929 to escape political persecution, he settled in France. He arrived in Brazil in the 1930s, already widowed, but soon moved to Buenos Aires and he returned to Brazil several years later, settling in São Paulo, where he succeeded in business. Pétar Rúsev adapted his first name to Portuguese and the last to French, during a trip to Uberaba, he met Dilma Jane da Silva, a young schoolteacher born in Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro, and raised in Minas Gerais, where her parents were ranchers. The two married and settled in Belo Horizonte, where they had three children, Igor, Dilma Vana, and Zana Lúcia, Igor Rousseff, Dilmas elder brother, is a lawyer. Pedro Rousseff was a contractor for Mannesmann steel in addition to building and selling real estate, the family lived in a large house, had three servants, and maintained European habits. The children had an education, and both piano and French lessons
Dilma Rousseff
–
Her Excellency Dilma Rousseff
Dilma Rousseff
–
Dilma studied in Nossa Senhora de Sion School (current Santa Doroteia School), in
Belo Horizonte.
Dilma Rousseff
–
President Dilma Rousseff and former U.S. president
Bill Clinton in Rio de Janeiro, 9 December 2013.
Dilma Rousseff
–
Dilma Rousseff during an interview in
São Paulo.
12.
Brazilian Expeditionary Force
–
The Brazilian Expeditionary Force or BEF consisted of about 25,700 men arranged by the army and air force to fight alongside the Allied forces in the Mediterranean Theatre of World War II. This air–land force consisted of, a complete Infantry Division, a Liaison flight, and a Fighter squadron. It fought in Italy from September 1944 to May 1945, while the Brazilian Navy as well as the Air Force also acted in the Battle of the Atlantic from the middle of 1942 until the end of the war. Brazil was the only independent South American country to send troops to fight overseas. Brazils participation alongside the Allied powers in World War II was by no means a foregone conclusion, then Brazilian participation was primarily naval, although it did send a military mission to the Western Front. The Brazilian Navy and Air Force played a role in the Battle of the Atlantic after mid-1942, Brazil also contributed an infantry division that entered combat on the Italian Front in 1944. As in 1914, Brazil in 1939 maintained a position of neutrality, as the war progressed, trade with the Axis countries became almost impossible and the US began forceful diplomatic and economic efforts to bring Brazil onto the Allied side. These efforts led to the creation of the Joint Brazil-US Defense Commission and it was designed to reduce the likelihood of Axis attacks on US shipping as soldiers traveled across the Atlantic to Africa and Europe, and minimized the influence of the Axis in South America. The US bases were located in the states of Bahia, Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte, in addition, US Task Force 3 established itself in Brazil. This included a squadron equipped to attack submarines and merchant vessels attempting to trade with Japan, as a result, from the end of January to July 1942, German U-boats sank 13 Brazilian merchant vessels. In August 1942, U-507 alone sank five Brazilian vessels in two days, causing more than 600 deaths, On August 15, the Baependy, traveling from Salvador to Recife, was torpedoed at 19,12 and its 215 passengers and 55 crew members were lost. At 21,03, U-507 torpedoed the Araraquara, also traveling from Salvador towards the north of the country, of the 142 people on board,131 died. Seven hours after the attack, U-507 attacked the Aníbal Benévolo. All 83 passengers died, of a crew of 71, four survived, on August 17, close to the city of Vitória, the Itagiba was hit at 10,45, with a death toll of 36. In all,21 German and 2 Italian submarines caused the sinking of 36 Brazilian merchant ships involving 1,691 drownings and 1,079 other casualties, the sinkings were the main reason that led the Brazilian government to declare war against the Axis. Berlin Radio pronouncements led to increasing nervousness among the Brazilian population, so unlike 1917, in some cities like Rio de Janeiro, the people started to protest against such a situation which included some harassment of German communities. The passive position of the Vargas government proved untenable in the face of public opinion, ultimately, the government found itself with no alternative but to declare war on Germany and Italy on August 22,1942. This Conference took place in 28 and 29 January 1943 right after President Roosevelt took part on the Casablanca Conference in Morocco
Brazilian Expeditionary Force
–
Brazilian soldiers greet Italian civilians in the city of
Massarosa, September 1944.
Brazilian Expeditionary Force
–
Brazilian Expeditionary Force shoulder sleeve insignia (Army component)
Brazilian Expeditionary Force
–
1 o GAVCA P-47s carried the "Senta a Pua!" emblem as nose art along with the Brazilian Air Force stars
Brazilian Expeditionary Force
–
A company of III Battalion of 11th Regiment of Brazilian Expeditionary Force in Italy
13.
Veterans Day
–
Veterans Day is an official United States public holiday, observed annually on November 11, that honors military veterans, that is, persons who served in the United States Armed Forces. The United States previously observed Armistice Day, the U. S. holiday was renamed Veterans Day in 1954. In 1945, World War II veteran Raymond Weeks from Birmingham, Alabama, had the idea to expand Armistice Day to celebrate all veterans, Weeks led a delegation to Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, who supported the idea of National Veterans Day. Weeks led the first national celebration in 1947 in Alabama and annually until his death in 1985, President Reagan honored Weeks at the White House with the Presidential Citizenship Medal in 1982 as the driving force for the national holiday. Elizabeth Dole, who prepared the briefing for President Reagan, determined Weeks as the Father of Veterans Day, representative Ed Rees from Emporia, Kansas, presented a bill establishing the holiday through Congress. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, also from Kansas, signed the bill into law on May 26,1954 and it had been eight and a half years since Weeks held his first Armistice Day celebration for all veterans. Congress amended the bill on June 1,1954, replacing Armistice with Veterans, the National Veterans Award was also created in 1954. Congressman Rees of Kansas received the first National Veterans Award in Birmingham, although originally scheduled for celebration on November 11 of every year, starting in 1971 in accordance with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, Veterans Day was moved to the fourth Monday of October. In 1978, it was moved back to its original celebration on November 11, because it is a federal holiday, some American workers and many students have Veterans Day off from work or school. When Veterans Day falls on a Saturday then either Saturday or the preceding Friday may be designated as the holiday, a Society for Human Resource Management poll in 2010 found that 21 percent of employers planned to observe the holiday in 2011. Non-essential federal government offices are closed, all federal workers are paid for the holiday, those who are required to work on the holiday sometimes receive holiday pay for that day in addition to their wages. In his Armistice Day address to Congress, Wilson was sensitive to the toll of the lean War years, Hunger does not breed reform, it breeds madness. As Veterans Day and the birthday of the United States Marine Corps are only one day apart, several commentators have noted the irony of Election Day being a regular working day, while Veterans Day, which typically falls the following week, is a federal holiday. Many people have called for the holidays to be merged, so citizens can have a day off to vote and this would be seen as a way to honor voting by exercising democratic rights. Official Website United States Department of Veterans Affairs 5 U. S. C. §6103
Veterans Day
–
Joseph Ambrose, an 86-year-old
World War I veteran, attends the dedication day parade for the
Vietnam Veterans Memorial in 1982, holding the flag that covered the casket of his son, who was killed in the
Korean War.
Veterans Day
–
Veterans Day 2007 Poster
14.
White poppy
–
The white poppy is a flower used as a symbol of pacifism, worn as an alternative to, or complement to, the red remembrance poppy for Remembrance Day or Anzac Day. In 1926, a few years after the introduction of the red poppy in the UK and their intention was to remember casualties of all wars, with the added meaning of a hope for the end of all wars, the red poppy signified only the British military dead. However, they did not pursue the idea, the first white poppies were sold by the Co-operative Womens Guild in 1933. The Peace Pledge Union took part in their distribution from 1934, anti-war organisations such as the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship now support the White Poppy Movement. A white poppy badge has been created in the hill at Fovant, Wiltshire, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the first badge. In New Zealand, a White Poppy Annual Appeal has been run in 2009 and 2010 by Peace Movement Aotearoa in the week preceding Anzac Day, with all proceeds going to White Poppy Peace Scholarships. The appeal was controversial, with Veterans Affairs Minister Judith Collins claiming the white poppy appeal was incredibly disrespectful to those who served their country, White poppies have also been worn in New Zealand to mark Remembrance Day. In previous years, the white poppy appeal was run as a fundraiser for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament around the time of Hiroshima Day in August. Responsibility for organising the annual appeal was transferred to Peace Movement Aotearoa, in the 1930s, when the white poppy was first established, some women lost their jobs for wearing them. Others are concerned that the money raised by the poppy appeal may affect the funds raised for the Royal British Legion by the red poppy appeal. In 1986, John Baker, Bishop of Salisbury, stated in his newsletter that he had been asked about the appropriateness of the White Poppy. Baker responded lets not be if we see a white poppy. there is plenty of space for red. Salisbury MP Robert Key disagreed, and later that year asked British prime minister Margaret Thatcher her opinion on the issue, Thatcher expressed her deep distaste for the symbol during prime ministers questions. In response, the White Poppy campaign received media coverage in Britain. The Daily Star ran several articles criticising the White Poppy campaign, in The Guardian, artist Steve Bell published a cartoon satirizing Thatchers opposition to White Poppies, which he allowed the PPU to republish. In November 2014, white poppy wreaths on the Aberystwyth War Memorial had to be replaced after they were removed from the Memorial and thrown in a bin
White poppy
–
Artificial poppies placed as
Anzac Day tributes on a
cenotaph in
New Zealand; mostly
papaver rhoeas marketed by the
Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association, with a lone White Poppy
White poppy
–
Arctomecon merriamii (White poppy)
15.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
16.
Military cemetery
–
A war grave is a burial place for members of the armed forces or civilians who died during military campaigns or operations. A common difference between cemeteries of war graves and those of civilian peacetime graves is the uniformity of those interred and they generally died during a relatively short period, in a small geographic area and consist of service members from the few military units involved. In Spain, war graves are protected by the Law 60/1962, despite the protection afforded to war graves, companies such as Odyssey Marine Exploration have not hesitated to raid sunken vessels to gain access to their cargo. Brooke is himself buried in a war grave on Skyros in the Aegean Sea, having died whilst en route to fight in the Gallipoli Campaign
Military cemetery
–
Normandy American Cemetery in 2003.
Military cemetery
–
American Civil War graves,
Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery
Military cemetery
–
A
CWGC cemetery from the
First World War:
Tyne Cot in the
Ypres Salient
Military cemetery
–
Moorseele Military Cemetery from the First world War in
Moorsele,
Belgium
17.
Public transit
–
Public transport modes include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail, high-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world. Most public transport runs to a timetable, with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer services in many parts of the world. Paratransit is sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service, there are distinct differences in urban public transit between Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, mass transit operations are run by profit-driven privately owned and publicly traded mass transit. In North America, mass transit operations are run by municipal transit authorities. In Europe, mass transit operations are run by both state-owned and private companies. Public transport services can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. Services can be profitable through high ridership numbers and high farebox recovery ratios, or can be regulated. Fully subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities, for geographical, historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. It has 3,400 members from 92 countries, conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the first ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, on land people walked or rode an animal. Ferries appear in Greek mythology—corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades, the omnibus was introduced to London in July 1829. The first passenger railway opened in 1806, it ran between Swansea and Mumbles in southwest Wales in the United Kingdom. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northeast England, the usability of different types of public transport, and its overall appeal, can be measured by seven criteria, although they overlap somewhat. These are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers have to walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey, timeliness is how long they have to wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from the shortest route, an airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports
Public transit
–
New York City Subway, the world's largest
rapid transit system by length of routes and by number of
stations
Public transit
–
The
Moscow Metro is one of the
busiest metro systems in the world and is the busiest in Europe.
Public transit
–
A hybrid-engine fully accessible
Toronto Transit Commission transit bus in Toronto
Public transit
–
Early trolley car in
Newton, Massachusetts
18.
War memorial
–
A war memorial is a building, monument, statue or other edifice to celebrate a war or victory, or to commemorate those who died or were injured in a war. The oldest war memorial in the United Kingdom is Oxford Universitys All Souls College itself and it was founded in 1438 with the provision that its fellows should pray for those killed in the long wars with France. War memorials for the Franco-Prussian War were the first in Europe to have rank-and-file soldiers commemorated by name, every soldier that was killed was granted a permanent resting-place as part of the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt. To commemorate the millions who died in World War I, war memorials became commonplace in communities large, in modern times the main intent of war memorials is not to glorify war, but to honor those who have died. Sometimes, as in the case of the Warsaw Genuflection of Willy Brandt, using modern technology an international project is currently archiving all post-1914 Commonwealth war graves and Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials to create a virtual memorial. During the First World War, many nations saw massive devastation, more people lost their lives in the east than in the west, but the outcome was different. Massive British monuments commemorating thousands of dead with no identified war grave, such as the Menin Gate at Ypres, the Liberty Memorial, located in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in the Great War. For various reasons connected with their character, the same may be said to apply to certain governmental memorials in the United Kingdom, after World War I, some towns in France set up pacifist war memorials. Instead of commemorating the dead, these memorials denounce war with figures of grieving widows. Such memorials provoked anger among veterans and the military in general, the most famous is at Gentioux-Pigerolles in the department of Creuse. Below the column which lists the name of the stands an orphan in bronze pointing to an inscription Maudite soit la guerre. Feelings ran so high that the memorial was not officially inaugurated until 1990, another such memorial is in the small town of Équeurdreville-Hainneville in the department of Manche. Here the statue is of a widow with two small children. There seems to be no exact equivalent form of a pacifist memorial within the United Kingdom, in many cases, World War I memorials were later extended to show the names of locals who died in the World War II in addition. Since that time memorials to the dead in other such as the Korean War and Vietnam War have also noted individual contributions. War memorials can differ significantly in type and composition, many war memorials often take the form of a traditional monument or statue, while others consist of entire buildings, often containing a museum, while yet others are simple plaques. War memorials can take a variety of forms, including, but not limited to, commemorative gardens, eternal flames, urban plazas, fountains and/or pools of water, military equipment. War memorials often serve as a place for commemorative services
War memorial
–
Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, Australia.
War memorial
–
Jatiyo Smriti Soudho in Bangladesh commemorates those who gave their lives in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971
War memorial
–
An
M4 Sherman tank in the centre of
Bastogne,
Belgium
War memorial
–
The
Monument to the dead of World War II commemorates Brazil's participation and losses in the Second World War
19.
Service Personnel and Veterans Agency
–
The Service Personnel and Veterans Agency was an executive agency of the UK Ministry of Defence. The SPVA provided personnel, pensions, welfare and support services to members of the UK Armed Forces and veterans and it was formed on 2 April 2007 by merging the former Armed Forces Personnel Administration Agency with the Veterans Agency. The responsibility for all pension provision, whether a War Pension or an Armed Forces pension fell under the control of the SPVA. On 1 April 2014, the SPVA merged with Defence Business Services as part of the Defence Reform. ’ DBS is now one of three ‘Shared Services Centres’ across government and one of the largest in Europe. The merger between the Service Personnel and Veterans Agency and DBS will not affect services to veterans, SPVA services for veterans – Armed Forces pensions, compensation schemes, helplines and welfare support – will continue under the ‘Veterans UK’ name. However, the SPVA logo will now be phased out and replaced with the Ministry of Defence Logo, phone contacts for veterans services remain unchanged, the Veterans UK Helpline number is 08081914218 and the JPAC number is 08000853600. Http, //www. veterans-uk. info/merger_announcement_april. html JPA The Joint Personnel Administration system rolled out to the RAF on 20 March 2006, the RN in Oct 2006, JPA involves new, modern personnel administrative processes, based on harmonised policy and regulations. It has been delivered using a software package and is accessible to all service personnel via Defence Information Infrastructure. Individuals have access and responsibility for the upkeep of their own information and can make expenses and allowance claims on-line, continued improvement and development of JPA functionality is an ongoing commitment. There have been 14 major JPA releases and Monthly releases delivering improved system functionality and security, AFCS The Armed Forces Compensation Scheme is a package for serving and former members of the Armed Forces. It is designed to provide compensation, irrespective of fault, across the range of circumstances in which illness. AFCS replaced the previous arrangements under the War Pensions Scheme and the elements of AFPS1975. The scheme covers all Regular and Reserve personnel whose injury, ill health or death is caused by service on or after 6 April 2005. Pensions The agency is responsible for the assessment, award, payment, the agency provides payments to around 584,000 ex-service personnel or dependants each month. JCCC The Joint Casualty and Compassionate Centre provides a 24/7 service to members of the Armed Forces, handling over 90,000 telephone calls a year, it co-ordinates all work relating to current military fatalities, injuries and compassionate cases, including family liaison and repatriation. JCCC also co-ordinates investigations following the discovery of remains of personnel from primarily the First. Medals The MOD Medal Office is responsible for the assessment, engraving and awarding of circa 44,000 current campaign and historic medals a year to past, medals relating to service dating back as far as World War II can still be claimed. Around 200 such applications per week are received from veterans and their families, Veterans badges In addition, the agency continues to administer the distribution of the extremely popular HM Armed Forces Veterans Badge, with over 811,000 issued as at October 2010
Service Personnel and Veterans Agency
–
Contents
20.
Belgian Congo
–
The Belgian Congo was a Belgian colony in Central Africa between 1908 and 1960 in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Colonial rule in the Congo began in the late 19th century, King Leopold II of the Belgians persuaded the government to support colonial expansion around the then-largely unexplored Congo Basin. Their ambivalence resulted in Leopolds creating a colony on his own account, with support from a number of Western countries, Leopold achieved international recognition for a personal colony, the Congo Free State, in 1885. Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the trinity of state, missionary. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo, the country was split into nesting, hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set native policy. This was in contrast to the British and the French, who favoured the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight. The Congo had a degree of racial segregation. The large numbers of immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo had extensive urbanisation, one of the results was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African évolués in the cities. By the 1950s the Congo had a labour force twice as large as that in any other African colony. This ended with the seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, until the later part of the 19th century, few Europeans had ventured into the Congo basin. The rainforest, swamps and accompanying malaria and other diseases, such as sleeping sickness. After Henry Morton Stanley had explored the region in a journey that ended in 1878, Leopold courted the explorer, Leopold II had been keen to acquire a colony for Belgium even before he ascended to the throne in 1865. The Belgian civil government showed little interest in its monarchs dreams of empire-building, ambitious and stubborn, Leopold decided to pursue the matter on his own account. European rivalry in Central Africa led to tensions, in particular with regard to the largely unclaimed Congo River basin. In November 1884 Otto von Bismarck convened a 14-nation conference to find a resolution to the Congo crisis. The rules recognised the Congo basin as a free-trade zone, but Leopold II emerged triumphant from the Berlin Conference and his single-shareholder philanthropic organization received a large share of territory to be organized as the Congo Free State. The Congo Free State operated as a corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II through a non-governmental organization, the state included the entire area of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo and existed from 1885 to 1908, when the government of Belgium annexed the area
Belgian Congo
–
Leopold II,
King of the Belgians and de facto owner of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908
Belgian Congo
–
Flag
Belgian Congo
–
Former residence of the
Governor-General of the Belgian Congo (1908–1926) located in
Boma
Belgian Congo
–
A steam boat arriving at Boma on the Congo River in 1912
21.
Mobutu Sese Seko
–
Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, born Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, was the military dictator and President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1997. He also served as Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity in 1967–1968, during the Congo Crisis, Belgian forces helped Mobutu in a coup détat against the nationalist government of Patrice Lumumba in 1960 to rule the government. Mobutu then assumed the role of chief of staff, before taking power directly in a second coup in 1965. As part of his program of national authenticity, Mobutu changed the Congos name to Zaire in 1971, Mobutu established a one-party state in which all power was concentrated in his hands. He also became the object of a cult of personality. During his reign, Mobutu built a highly centralised state and amassed a personal fortune through economic exploitation and corruption. The nation suffered from uncontrolled inflation, a debt. Already suffering from advanced cancer, he died three months later in Morocco. Mobutu presided over the country for three decades, a period of widespread human rights violations. He has been described as the archetypal African dictator, Mobutu, a member of the Ngbandi ethnic group, was born in Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutus mother, Marie Madeleine Yemo, was a maid who fled to Lisala to escape the harem of a local village chief. There she met and married Albéric Gbemani, a cook for a Belgian judge, shortly afterwards she gave birth to Mobutu. The name Mobutu was selected by an uncle, Gbemani died when Mobutu was eight. Thereafter he was raised by an uncle and a grandfather, the wife of the Belgian judge took a liking to Mobutu and taught him to speak, read, and write the French language fluently. Yemo relied on the help of relatives to support her four children, a physically imposing figure, he dominated school sports. He also excelled in subjects and ran the class newspaper. He was also known for his pranks and impish sense of humor, a classmate recalled that when the Belgian priests, whose first language was Dutch, made an error in French, Mobutu would leap to his feet in class and point out the mistake. In 1949 Mobutu stowed away aboard a boat to Léopoldville and met a girl, the priests found him several weeks later
Mobutu Sese Seko
–
Mobutu at the Pentagon on August 5, 1983
Mobutu Sese Seko
–
A Congolese cotton shirt embellished with a portrait of Mobutu from the collection of the
Tropenmuseum in
Amsterdam
Mobutu Sese Seko
–
Mobutu Sese Seko with the Dutch
Prince Bernhard in 1973
Mobutu Sese Seko
–
Bank note of Zaire depicting Mobutu Sese Seko
22.
USS Missouri (BB-63)
–
USS Missouri is a United States Navy Iowa-class battleship and was the third ship of the U. S. Navy to be named after of the U. S. state of Missouri. Missouri was the last battleship commissioned by the United States and was best remembered as the site of the surrender of the Empire of Japan which ended World War II, Missouri was ordered in 1940 and commissioned in June 1944. In the Pacific Theater of World War II she fought in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and shelled the Japanese home islands, in 1998, she was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association and became a museum ship at Pearl Harbor. Missouri was one of the Iowa-class fast battleship designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair. She was laid down at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 6 January 1941, launched on 29 January 1944, the ship was the third of the Iowa class, but the fourth and final Iowa-class ship commissioned by the U. S. Navy. The ship was christened at her launching by Mary Margaret Truman, daughter of Harry S. Truman, Missouris main battery consisted of nine 16 in /50 cal Mark 7 guns, which could fire 2,700 lb armor-piercing shells some 20 mi. Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in /38 cal guns in twin turrets, Missouri was the last U. S. battleship to be completed. Wisconsin, the highest-numbered U. S. battleship built, was completed before Missouri and she stood out of San Francisco Bay on 14 December and arrived at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 24 December 1944. She departed Hawaii on 2 January 1945 and arrived in Ulithi, there she was temporary headquarters ship for Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher. Missouri then steamed with the carriers to Iwo Jima where her main guns provided direct, after TF58 returned to Ulithi on 5 March, Missouri was assigned to the Yorktown carrier task group. On 14 March, Missouri departed Ulithi in the screen of the fast carriers, during strikes against targets along the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan beginning on 18 March, Missouri shot down four Japanese aircraft. Raids against airfields and naval bases near the Inland Sea and southwestern Honshū continued, Missouri rejoined the screen of the carriers as Marine and Army units stormed the shores of Okinawa on the morning of 1 April. An attack by Japanese forces was repulsed successfully, on 11 April, a low-flying kamikaze Zero, although fired upon, crashed on Missouris starboard side, just below her main deck level. The starboard wing of the plane was thrown far forward, starting a fire at 5 in Gun Mount No.3. The battleship suffered only superficial damage, and the fire was quickly under control. The remains of the pilot were recovered on board the ship just aft of one of the 40 mm gun tubs, the following day he was buried at sea with military honors. About 23,05 on 17 April, Missouri detected an enemy submarine 12 mi from her formation and her report set off a hunter-killer operation by the light carrier Bataan and four destroyers, which sank the Japanese submarine I-56. Missouri was detached from the task force off Okinawa on 5 May
USS Missouri (BB-63)
–
USS Missouri at sea in her 1980s configuration
USS Missouri (BB-63)
–
A Japanese Zero about to hit Missouri 11 April 1945
USS Missouri (BB-63)
–
Missouri (left) transfers personnel to
Iowa in advance of the surrender ceremony planned for 2 September.
USS Missouri (BB-63)
–
Allied sailors and officers watch General of the Army
Douglas MacArthur sign documents during the surrender ceremony aboard Missouri on 2 September 1945. The unconditional surrender of the Japanese to the
Allies officially ended the Second World War.
23.
United States Armed Forces
–
The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
United States Armed Forces
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The U.S. Joint Service Color Guard on parade at
Fort Myer, Virginia in October 2001.
United States Armed Forces
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U. S. Armed Forces Career Center in
Times Square.
United States Armed Forces
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Service members of the U.S. at an
American football event, L-R:
U.S. Marine Corps,
U.S. Air Force,
U.S. Navy and
U.S. Army personnel.
United States Armed Forces
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From 2005, the first all female
C-130 Hercules crew to serve a combat mission for the
U.S. Air Force.
24.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
Abraham Lincoln
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Lincoln in 1863, aged 54
Abraham Lincoln
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The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.
Abraham Lincoln
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1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son,
Tad
Abraham Lincoln
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Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the
Black Hawk War.
25.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
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New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
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Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
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Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
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Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
26.
Grand Army of the Republic
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The Grand Army of the Republic was a fraternal organization composed of veterans of the Union Army, Union Navy, Marines and the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service who served in the American Civil War for the Northern/Federal forces. Founded in 1866 in Decatur, Illinois, and growing to hundreds of posts across the nation, it was dissolved in 1956 when its last member, Albert Woolson of Duluth, Minnesota. Linking men through their experience of the war, the G. A. R and its peak membership, at more than 490,000, was in 1890, a high point of various Civil War commemorative and monument dedication ceremonies. It was succeeded by the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War, composed of descendants of Union Army. After the end of American Civil War, various state and local organizations were formed for veterans to network, many of the veterans used their shared experiences as a basis for fellowship. Groups of men began joining together, first for camaraderie and later for political power, the GAR initially grew and prospered as a de facto political arm of the Republican Party during the heated political contests of the Reconstruction era. The commemoration of Union Army and Navy veterans, black and white, Black veterans, who enthusiastically embraced the message of equality, shunned black veterans organizations in preference for racially inclusive/integrated groups. But when the Republican Partys commitment to reform in the South gradually decreased, the GARs mission became ill-defined, the GAR almost disappeared in the early 1870s, and many state-centered divisions - named departments and local posts ceased to exist. 11, dated May 5,1868, first GAR Commander-in-Chief, General John A. Logan declared May 30 to be Memorial Day, in the 1880s, the Union veterans organization revived under new leadership that provided a platform for renewed growth, by advocating Federal pensions for veterans. As the organization revived, black veterans joined in significant numbers, the national organization, however, failed to press the case for similar pensions for black soldiers. Most black troops never received any pension or remuneration for wounds incurred during their Civil War service, the GAR was organized into Departments at the state level and Posts at the community level, and military-style uniforms were worn by its members. There were posts in state in the U. S. The pattern of establishing departments and local posts was later used by other American military veterans organizations, such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars, five Civil War veterans and members were elected President of the United States, all were Republicans. For a time, candidates could not get Republican presidential or congressional nominations without the endorsement of the GAR veterans voting bloc, with membership strictly limited to veterans of the late unpleasantness, the GAR encouraged the formation of Allied Orders to aid them in various works. Numerous male organizations jousted for the backing of the GAR, although an overwhelmingly male organization, the GAR is known to have had at least two women who were members. Kady was admitted as a member in 1870 to Elias Howe Jr. Post #3, in Bridgeport, the GAR insignia is engraved on her gravestone in the North Burial Ground in Providence, Rhode Island. In 1897 the GAR admitted Sarah Emma Edmonds, who served in the 2nd Michigan Infantry as a man named Franklin Thompson from May 1861 until April 1863
Grand Army of the Republic
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The members of Charles W. Carroll Post 144 pose on the steps of the Norfolk County Courthouse in
Dedham, Massachusetts on Dedham's 250th anniversary in 1885.
Grand Army of the Republic
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GAR Parade during the 1914 Encampment in
Detroit,
Michigan
Grand Army of the Republic
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The
Stephenson GAR Memorial, located on
Pennsylvania Avenue in
Washington, D.C., is listed on the
National Register of Historic Places.
Grand Army of the Republic
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G.A.R. Commemorative issue of 1948
27.
United Confederate Veterans
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The United Confederate Veterans was an association formed in New Orleans, Louisiana on June 10,1889, by veterans of the Confederate States Army and Navy. There had been numerous local veterans associations in the South, the organization grew rapidly throughout the 1890s culminating with 1,555 camps represented at the 1898 reunion. The next few years marked the zenith of UCV membership, lasting until 1903 or 1904, when veterans were starting to die off, the UCV felt it had to outline its purposes and structure in a written constitution, based on military lines. Members holding appropriate UCV ranks officered and staffed echelons of command from General Headquarters at the top to local camps at the bottom and their declared purpose was emphatically nonmilitary - to foster social, literary, historical, and benevolent ends. The national organization assembled annually in a convention and social reunion. These annual reunions served the UCV as an aid in achieving its goals, convention cities made elaborate preparations and tried to put on bigger events than the previous hosts. The gatherings continued to be long after the membership peak had passed and despite fewer veterans surviving, they gradually grew in attendance, length. Numerous veterans brought family and friends along too, further swelling the crowds, many Southerners considered the occasions major social occasions. Perhaps thirty thousand veterans and another fifty thousand visitors attended each of the mid and late 1890 reunions, in 1911 an estimated crowd of 106,000 members and guests crammed into Little Rock, Arkansas—a city of less than one-half that size. Then the passing years began taking a toll and the reunions grew smaller. But still the meetings continued until in 1950 at the sixtieth reunion only one member could attend, the following year,1951, the United Confederate Veterans held its sixty-first and final reunion in Norfolk, Virginia, from May 30 to June 3. Three members attended, William Townsend, John B, post Office Department issued a 3-cent commemorative stamp in conjunction with that final reunion. The last verified Confederate veteran, Pleasant Crump died at age 104 on December 31,1951, founded as an independent publishing venture in January 1893, by Sumner Archibald Cunningham, the UCV adopted it the following year. Cunningham personally edited the magazine for years and bequeathed almost his entire estate to insure its continuance. The magazine was of a high quality and circulation was wide. Many veterans penned recollections or articles for publication in its pages, readership always greatly exceeded circulation because numerous camps and soldiers homes received one or two copies for their numerous occupants. An average of 6500 copies were printed per issue during the first year of publication, for example, Confederate monuments Grand Army of the Republic Memorial Day Memorial Hall Southern Cross of Honor Cimbala, Paul A. Veterans North and South, The Transition from Soldier to Civilian after the American Civil War, rhetoric of the United Confederate Veterans, A lost cause mythology in the making
United Confederate Veterans
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Confederate veterans reunion
United Confederate Veterans
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Commemorative postage stamp
28.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
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Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
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Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
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This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
29.
Bonus Army
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The Bonus Army was the popular name for an assemblage of some 43,000 marchers—17,000 U. S. World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups—who gathered in Washington, the contingent was led by Walter W. Waters, a former sergeant. Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression, the World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service certificate, issued to a veteran soldier, bore a face value equal to the soldiers promised payment plus compound interest. The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the cash payment of their certificates. On July 28, U. S. Attorney General William D. Mitchell ordered the veterans removed from all government property, Washington police met with resistance, shots were fired and two veterans were wounded and later died. President Herbert Hoover then ordered the Army to clear the veterans campsite, Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur commanded the infantry and cavalry supported by six tanks. The Bonus Army marchers with their wives and children were driven out and those who chose not to work for the CCC by the May 22 deadline were given transportation home. In 1936, Congress overrode President Franklin D. Roosevelts veto, in 1781, most of the Continental Army was demobilized. Two years later, hundreds of Pennsylvania war veterans marched on Philadelphia, then the capital, surrounded the State House. Congress fled to Princeton, New Jersey, and several weeks later, the practice of war-time military bonuses began in 1776, as payment for the difference between what a soldier earned and what he could have earned had he not enlisted. Breaking with tradition, the veterans of the Spanish–American War did not receive a bonus and after World War I, the American Legion, created in 1919, led a political movement for an additional bonus. On May 15,1924, President Calvin Coolidge vetoed a bill granting bonuses to veterans of World War I, saying, bought and paid for is not patriotism. Congress overrode his veto a few later, enacting the World War Adjusted Compensation Act. Each veteran was to receive a dollar for each day of service, up to a maximum of $500. Amounts of $50 or less were immediately paid, all other amounts were issued as Certificates of Service maturing in 20 years. There were 3,662,374 Adjusted Service Certificates issued, Congress established a trust fund to receive 20 annual payments of $112 million that, with interest, would finance the 1945 disbursement of the $3.638 billion for the veterans. The Veterans of Foreign Wars continued to press the government to allow the early redemption of military service certificates. C
Bonus Army
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Members of the Bonus Army camped out on the lawn of the U.S. Capitol building
Bonus Army
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Bonus Army marchers (left) confront the police.
Bonus Army
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Cinderella stamp (USA, 1932) supporting the Bonus Army
Bonus Army
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Shacks that members of the Bonus Army erected on the Anacostia Flats burning after the confrontation with the military.
. PMID 25595171. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxu004.
