1.
Doria Pamphilj Gallery
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The Doria Pamphilj Gallery is a large art collection housed in the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj in Rome, Italy. It is situated between the Via del Corso and Via della Gatta, the principal entrance is on the Via del Corso. The palace facade on the Via del Corso is adjacent to the church of Santa Maria in Via Lata, like the palace, it is still privately owned by the princely Roman family Doria Pamphilj. The collection includes paintings and furnishings from Innocent Xs Palazzo Pamphilj, the Palazzo has grown over the centuries, it is likely the largest in Rome still in private ownership. The main collection is displayed in state rooms, including the chapel, however, the bulk is displayed in a series of four gilded and painted galleries surrounding a courtyard. An extensive suite of rooms have now been converted to permanent well-lit galleries, containing the more medieval. Work was carried out under the supervision of Francesco Nicoletti, an architect from Trapani, velazquezs portrait of Innocent X, who rose to papacy as cardinal Giovan Battista Pamphilj in 1644, is considered the collections masterpiece. The portrait painted to commemorate the Holy Year was commissioned by his hedonistic sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini who was his confidante and adviser. Since 1927, Velázquezs portrait was placed in a specially designated small room along with a sculptured bust of the pope by Bernini. Olimpia Maidalchinis son Camillo Pamphilj, defying his mother, renounced the Cardinalship conferred on him by his uncle the Pope. Born an Aldobrandini it was she who brought the palazzo, then known as the Palazzo Aldobrandini, the architect in charge of this lengthy project was Antonio Del Grande. The façade facing the Via del Corso, however, is by Gabriele Valvassori, following Camillos death in 1666, building continued under the auspices of his two sons Giovanni Battista and Benedetto. In 1763 Principe Andrea IV combined his Genoese and Roman names to the present Doria-Pamphilj-Landi, in 1767 the ceilings of the state rooms were frescoed by late-baroque artists such as Crescenzio Onofri, Aureliano Milani, and Stefano Pozzi. The collection was first opened to the public by the three-quarters English Princess Orietta Pogson Doria Pamphilj and her own father, Prince Filippo Andrea VI, was half English. The ivory crucifix was carved by Ercole Ferrata, Saletta Gialla and Rossa contain Gobelins tapestries, including those on Zodiac signs by Claude Audran. Sala del Poussin, Landscapes by Claude Lorraine, birth of Adonis and the Rape of Adonis by Poussin and Giacomo Eremiti. In the main painting galleries are, 1st Gallery, Mary Magdalene by Carracci, Christ in the house of the Pharisee by Cigoli, St. Roch and angel by Saraceni, and Herminia and Tancred by Guercino. 2nd Gallery, Velazquez and Bernini portraits, antique Roman statues, Saletta del Seicento, Caravaggios Penitent Magdalene and The Rest on the Flight into Egypt Saletta del Cinquecento, Double portrait by Raphael, Salome with the head of St John the Baptist by Titian
2.
Palazzo Chigi
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The Palazzo Chigi is a palace or noble residence in Rome and the official residence of the Prime Minister of the Italian Republic. Since December 12,2016, the occupant of Palazzo Chigi is Paolo Gentiloni, the Palazzo, overlooking the Piazza Colonna and the Via del Corso, was begun in 1562 by Giacomo della Porta and completed by Carlo Maderno in 1580 for the Aldobrandini family. In 1659 it was purchased by the Chigi family and it was then remodelled by Felice della Greca and Giovan Battista Contini. It has five floors, a stairway that leads to the living rooms. The fountain has been copied in many sites in Rome and other Italian cities, in 1878 it became the residence of the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador to Italy. In 1916 it was bought by the Italian state and became the seat of the Minister for Colonial Affairs, later it was the official residence of the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs. In 1961 it became the meeting place of Council of Ministers whose President is the head of the Italian government. The Library Hall was commissioned by Agostino Chigi at the end of the 17th century in order to house the library of cardinal Flavio Chigi. The project was realized by Giovan Battista Contini, an architect of the period. The Chigi library or Chigiana contained thousands of manuscripts, to a large part based on the personal library of Pope Alexander VII. Since the time of Pope Benedict XV, the Vatican attempted to acquire this library, eventually, Pietro Tacchi Venturi was tasked by Pope Pius XI to negotiate the purchase with the newly formed fascist government of Benito Mussolini. Venturi managed to convince Mussolini to donate the library to the Vatican free of charge
3.
Piazza del Popolo
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Piazza del Popolo is a large urban square in Rome. The piazza lies inside the gate in the Aurelian Walls, once the Porta Flaminia of ancient Rome. This was the point of the Via Flaminia, the road to Ariminum. At the same time, before the age of railroads, it was the travellers first view of Rome upon arrival, for centuries, the Piazza del Popolo was a place for public executions, the last of which took place in 1826. Peters Square, replacing the original cramped trapezoidal square centred on the Via Flaminia, an Egyptian obelisk of Sety I from Heliopolis stands in the centre of the Piazza. Three sides of the obelisk were carved during the reign of Sety I, the obelisk, known as the Flaminio Obelisk or the Popolo Obelisk, is the second oldest and one of the tallest obelisks in Rome. The obelisk was brought to Rome in 10 BC by order of Augustus and it was re-erected here in the piazza by the architect-engineer Domenico Fontana in 1589 as part of the urban plan of Sixtus V. The piazza also formerly contained a fountain, which was moved to the Piazza Nicosia in 1818. The twin churches of Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto, begun by Carlo Rainaldi and completed by Bernini and Carlo Fontana, define the junctions of the roads. The Via del Babuino, linking to Piazza di Spagna, takes its name from a sculpture of Silenus that gained the popular name of the Baboon. To the north of the stands the Porta del Popolo, beyond which lies the Piazzale Flaminio. Opposite Santa Maria del Popolo stands a Carabinieri station, with a dome reflecting that of the church, in his urbanistic project, Valadier constructed the matching palazzi that provide a frame for the scenography of the twin churches and hold down two corners of his composition. Valadier outlined this newly defined oval forecourt to the city of Rome with identical sweeps of wall, behind the western one, a screen of trees masks the unassorted fronts of buildings beyond. Ever since the Renaissance such terminal fountains also provided an occasion for the terminal water show called in Rome a mostra or a show. What makes a fountain a mostra is not essentially its size or splendor, Valadier had planned fountains in the upper tier of the Pincio slope, but these were not carried out, in part for lack of water. The Fontana del Nettuno stands on the west side, Neptune with his trident is accompanied by two dolphins, Rome between the Tiber and the Aniene on the east side, against the steep slope of the Pincio, represents the terminal mostra of the aqueduct. Dea Roma armed with lance and helmet, and in front is the she-wolf feeding Romulus and Remus, at the center of the piazza is the Fontana dell Obelisco, a group of four mini fountains, each comprising a lion on a stepped plinth, surround the obelisk. Valadiers masterstroke was in linking the piazza with the heights of the Pincio, the Pincian Hill of ancient Rome and he swept away informally terraced gardens that belonged to the Augustinian monastery connected with Santa Maria del Popolo
4.
Via Flaminia
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It leaves Rome, goes up the Val Tevere, strikes into the mountains at Castello delle Formiche, ascends to Gualdo Tadino, goes over the divide at Scheggia Pass,575 m, to Cagli. From there it descends the eastern slope waterways between the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines and the Umbrian Apennines to Fano on the coast and goes north parallel to Highway A1 to Rimini. This route, convenient to ancients, is now far from it due to modern traffic between north Italy and the capital. It was constructed by Gaius Flaminius during his censorship, sources mention frequent improvements being made to it during the imperial period. Triumphal arches were erected in his honour on the bridge and at Ariminum. Vespasian constructed a new tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, in 77, in the Middle Ages it was known as the Ravenna road, as it led to the then more important city of Ravenna. As the SS3 it remains one of the highways from Rome to the Adriatic. A number of battles were therefore fought on or near the Via Flaminia, for example at Sentinum. In the early Middle Ages, the road, controlled by the Eastern Empire, was a civilizing influence, and accounted for much of what historians call the Byzantine corridor. The Via Flaminia starts at Porta del Popolo in the Aurelian Walls of Rome, Via del Corso, from there it descended to Cales, where it turned north-east following the gorges of the Burano. The narrowest pass was crossed by means of a tunnel chiseled out of solid rock and this is the modern Gola del Furlo, the ancient name of which, Intercisa, means cut through with reference to these tunnels. The modern 2‑lane road, the SS3 Flaminia, still uses Vespasians tunnel, the Flaminia emerged from the gorges of the Apennines at Forum Sempronii and reached the coast of the Adriatic at Fanum Fortunae. Thence, it ran north-west through Pisaurum to Ariminum, the total distance from Rome was 210 Roman miles by the older road and 222 by the newer. For an overview of the location of Roman bridges, see List of Roman bridges, giovanni de Butris Ponte del Diavolo at Cavallara near Bastardo Along the eastern branch, Ponte Sanguinaro in Spoleto scant remains of a bridge at Pontebari After the branches rejoin at S. A small stretch of the remains in the ruins of Carsulae where it passes through the impressive Arco di Traiano. The road was used as part of the road race cycling event for the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. In Rome it runs past and gives its name to the Stadio Flaminio sports stadium, Roman road Roman bridge Roman engineering Via del Corso Piazza del Popolo 1960 Summer Olympics official report. The Via Flaminia at LacusCurtius Omnes Viae, Via Flaminia on the Peutinger Map This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
5.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
6.
Alley
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An alley or alleyway is a narrow lane, path, or passageway, often reserved for pedestrians, which usually runs between, behind, or within buildings in the older parts of towns and cities. It is also an access or service road, or a path or walk in a park or garden. A covered alley or passageway, often with shops, may be called an arcade, the origin of the word alley is late Middle English, from Old French, alee walking or passage, from aler go, from Latin, ambulare to walk. The word alley is used in two ways, It can refer to a narrow, usually paved, pedestrian path. This type is usually short and straight, and on steep ground can consist partially or entirely of steps. It is also describes a narrow, urban street, or lane, usually paved. There are two versions of this kind of alley, A rear access or service road, which can sometimes act as part a secondary vehicular network. Many Americans and Canadians think of an alley in these terms first, a narrow street between the fronts of houses or businesses. This type of alley is found in the parts of many cities, including American cities like Philadelphia. In landscaping, an allée or avenue is traditionally a straight route with a line of trees or large shrubs running along each side. In most cases, the trees planted in an avenue will be all of the species or cultivar. The French term allée is used for avenues planted in parks and landscape gardens, as well as such as the Grand Allée in Quebec City, Canada. In older cities and towns in Europe, alleys are often what is left of a street network. Similar paths also exist in some older North American towns and cities, in some older urban development in North America lanes at the rear of houses, to allow for deliveries and garbage collection, are called alleys. Alleys may be paved, or unpaved, and an alley is a cul-de-sac. Modern urban developments may also provide a road to allow for waste collection, or rear access for fire engines. Because of geography, steps are the predominant form of alley in hilly cities and this includes Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Minneapolis, Seattle, and San Francisco in the United States, as well as Hong Kong, Genoa and Rome. Some alleys are roofed because they are buildings, such as the traboules of Lyon
7.
Piazza
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A town square is an open public space commonly found in the heart of a traditional town used for community gatherings. Other names for town square are civic center, city square, urban square, market square, public square, piazza, plaza, most town squares are hardscapes suitable for open markets, music concerts, political rallies, and other events that require firm ground. Being centrally located, town squares are surrounded by small shops such as bakeries, meat markets, cheese stores. At their center is often a fountain, well, monument, many of those with fountains are actually called fountain square. In urban planning, a city square or urban square is an open area in a city. Red Square in Moscow was originally used as a marketplace and later became the stage for Soviet military parades. Similarly, Beijings Tiananmen Square was the scene of both communist parades and anti-government protests, john-F. -Kennedy-Platz was the site of the West Berlin town hall and John F. Kennedys famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech. New York Citys Times Square as well as Bryant Park, Washington, D. C. s National Mall, trafalgar Square in London does the same for the United Kingdom. Saint Peters Square in Vatican City, the enclave within Rome. Yonge-Dundas Square in Toronto is a renowned and famous square in Canada, nathan Phillips Square is a popular square in front of Torontos landmark City Hall. Hviezdoslavovo námestie is one of the squares in Bratislava and a centre of a social life. Dam Square in Amsterdam for the Netherlands, Main Market Square in Kraków, Market Place in Warsaw and Wrocław Main Square for Poland. The City Hall Square, Copenhagen for Denmark, praça do Comércio, in Lisbon, Portugal, was formerly known as the Terreiro do Paço. It was destroyed after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake but was rebuilt, the symmetrical buildings around the square hold government bureaus and ministries. Wenceslas Square is one of the city squares in the New Town of Prague. In Mainland China, Peoples Square is a designation for the central town square of modern Chinese cities. These squares are the site of government buildings, museums and other public buildings, the probably best-known and largest such square in China is Tienanmen Square. The German word for square is Platz, which also means Place and these have been focal points of public life in towns and cities from the Middle Ages to today
8.
Pedestrian
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A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In some communities, those traveling using tiny wheels such as skates, skateboards. In modern times, the term refers to someone walking on a road or pavement. Walking has always been the means of human locomotion. The first humans to migrate from Africa, about 60,000 years ago and they walked along the coast of India to reach Australia. They walked across Asia to reach the Americas, and from Central Asia into Europe, during the 18th and 19th centuries, pedestrianism was a popular spectator sport just as equestrianism still is in places such as Great Britain and the United States. One of the most famous pedestrians of that period was Captain Robert Barclay Allardice, known as The Celebrated Pedestrian and his most impressive feat was to walk 1 mile every hour for 1000 hours, which he achieved between 1 June and 12 July 1809. This feat captured many peoples imagination, and around 10,000 people came to watch over the course of the event. During the rest of the 19th century, many tried to repeat this feat, including Ada Anderson who developed it further. Since the 20th century, interest in walking as a sport has dropped, racewalking is still an Olympic sport, but fails to catch public attention as it did. However major walking feats are still performed, such as the Lands End to John o Groats walk in the United Kingdom, and these feats are often tied to charitable fundraising and are undertaken by celebrities such as Sir Jimmy Savile and Ian Botham as well as by others. Regular walking is important both for health and for the natural environment. Frequent exercise such as walking tends to reduce the chance of obesity, general availability of public transportation encourages walking, as it will not, in most cases, take one directly to ones destination. Roads often have a designated footpath for pedestrian traffic, called the sidewalk in North American English, the pavement in British English, and the footpath in Australian and New Zealand English. There are also not associated with a road, these include urban short cuts and also rural paths used mainly by ramblers, hikers. Footpaths in mountainous or forested areas may also be called trails, pedestrians share some footpaths with horses and bicycles, these paths may be known as bridleways. Other byways used by walkers are also accessible to vehicles, there are also many roads with no footpath. Some modern towns are designed with the network of sidewalks and cycle paths almost entirely separate from the road network, the term trail is also used by the authorities in some countries to mean any footpath that is not attached to a road or street
9.
Porta del Popolo
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Porta del Popolo is a gate of the Aurelian Walls in Rome. The current Porta del Popolo was built by Pope Sixtus IV for the Jubilee Year 1475 on the site of an ancient Roman gate which, the previous name was Porta Flaminia, because the consular Via Flaminia passed, as it passes even now, through it. In the 10th century the gate was named Porta San Valentino, due to the basilica, considering the importance of the Via Flaminia, Porta del Popolo had, since the beginning of its existence, a prevalent role of sorting of the urban traffic rather than a defensive use. The gate rises still today about a metre and half above the ancient ground level and this need had already been felt during the restoration carried out in the 5th century by emperor Honorius, but the intervention was not carried out. The present aspect is the result of a rebuilding carried out in the 16th century, the four columns of the façade come from the former St. In 1638, two statues of St. Peter and St, on that occasion, some remains of the ancient structure of the age of Aurelian and of the cylindric towers were discovered, these proved to be very important for the historic recreation of the gate. Similar stones were discovered in different times nearby other important city gates, they marked a kind of administrative border, the first statements of this institution, that was in effect at least until the beginning of the 15th century, date back to the 5th century. In the 9th century, Pope Sergius II granted the proceeds of the toll of the Porta Flaminia to the cloister of San Silvestro in Capite, mauro Quercioli, ”Le mura e le porte di Roma”. Rome,1982 Laura G. Cozzi, ”Le porte di Roma”, Rome,1968 Cesare DOnofrio, Roma val bene unabiura, storie romane tra Cristina di Svezia, Piazza del Popolo e lAccademia dArcadia, Rome, Fratelli Palombi,1976 Piazza del Popolo and Porta del Popolo
10.
Piazza Venezia
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Piazza Venezia is the central hub of Rome, Italy, in which several thoroughfares intersect, including the Via dei Fori Imperiali and the Via del Corso. It takes its name from the Palazzo Venezia, built by the Venetian Cardinal, Pietro Barbo alongside the church of Saint Mark, the Palazzo Venezia served as the embassy of the Republic of Venice in Rome. One side of the Piazza is the site of Italys Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in the Altare della Patria, part of the imposing Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II, the piazza or square is at the foot of the Capitoline Hill and next to Trajans Forum. The main artery, the Viale di Fori Imperiali begins there, in 2009, during excavations in the middle of the square for the construction of the Rome C Metro Line, remains of the emperor Hadrians Athenaeum were unearthed
11.
Capitoline Hill
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The Capitoline Hill, between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The hill was known as Mons Saturnius, dedicated to the god Saturn. The word Capitolium first meant the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus later built here, Ancient sources refer the name to caput and the tale was that, when laying the foundations for the temple, the head of a man was found. Some sources even saying it was the head of some Tolus or Olus, the Capitolium was regarded by the Romans as indestructible, and was adopted as a symbol of eternity. By the 16th century, Capitolinus had become Capitolino in Italian, influenced by Roman architecture and Roman republican times, the word Capitolium still lives in the English word capitol. The Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. is widely assumed to be named after the Capitoline Hill, at this hill, the Sabines, creeping to the Citadel, were let in by the Roman maiden Tarpeia. For this treachery, Tarpeia was the first to be punished by being flung from a cliff overlooking the Roman Forum. This cliff was named the Tarpeian Rock after the Vestal Virgin. The Sabines, who immigrated to Rome following the Rape of the Sabine Women, the Vulcanal, an 8th-century BC sacred precinct, occupied much of the eastern lower slopes of the Capitoline, at the head of what would later become the Roman Forum. The summit was the site of a temple for the Capitoline Triad, started by Romes fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus and it was considered one of the largest and the most beautiful temples in the city. The city legend starts with the recovery of a human skull when foundation trenches were being dug for the Temple of Jupiter at Tarquins order, recent excavations on the Capitoline uncovered an early cemetery under the Temple of Jupiter. There are several important temples built on Capitoline hill, the temple of Juno Moneta, the temple of Virtus, the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus is the most important of the temples. It was built in 509 BC and was nearly as large as the Parthenon, the hill and the temple of Jupiter became the symbols of Rome, the capital of the world. The Temple of Saturn was built at the foot of Capitoline Hill in the end of the Forum Romanum. According to legend Marcus Manlius Capitolinus was alerted to the Gallic attack by the geese of Juno. Vespasians brother and nephew were also besieged in the temple during the Year of Four Emperors, the Tabularium, located underground beneath the piazza and hilltop, occupies a building of the same name built in the 1st century BC to hold Roman records of state. The Tabularium looks out from the rear onto the Roman Forum, the main attraction of the Tabularium, besides the structure itself, is the Temple of Veiovis. During the lengthy period of ancient Rome, the Capitoline Hill was the geographical and ceremonial center, however, by the Renaissance, the former center was an untidy conglomeration of dilapidated buildings and the site of executions of criminals
12.
Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
13.
San Carlo al Corso
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SantAmbrogio e Carlo al Corso is a basilica church in Rome, Italy, facing onto the central part of the Via del Corso. The apse of the church faces across the street, the Mausoleum of Augustus on Via di Ripetta and this church is dedicated to Saint Ambrose and Saint Charles Borromeo, both natives of Milan. It is one of at least three churches in Rome dedicated to Borromeo, others including San Carlo ai Catinari and San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane. Its construction was begun in honour of the canonization of St. Charles Borromeo in 1610, under the direction of Onorio Longhi and, after his death, the site was that of the former church of San Nicola de Tofo. The ground plan is based on the Latin cross, the dome, resembling that of Santi Luca e Martina, was designed by Pietro da Cortona, who was also responsible for the apse and rich internal decorations. The façade was designed by Cardinal Luigi Alessandro Omodei, who did not like the project prepared by Carlo Rainaldi, the central vault is frescoed with a Fall of the Rebel Angels by Giacinto Brandi. The altarpiece, depicting the Saints Ambrose and Charles Borromeo with the Virgin, the stucco decoration was by Giacomo and Cosimo Fancelli. The statue of the saints were by Francesco Cavallini, frescoes of Justice and Peace were painted by Girolamo Troppa. In the ambulatory behind the sanctuary is a niche where a reliquary containing the heart of St Charles is kept and it was donated to the church in 1614 by Cardinal Federico Borromeo, a cousin of the saint. The 16th-century oratory of St. Ambrose is beyond the left transept, the first chapel on the right is dedicated to the Crucifixion and has a fresco of Vigilance by Paolo Albertoni. The second chapel, on the right is dedicated to Mary, the third chapel on the right is dedicated to the Holy Family. On its left side is a depiction of The Redemptor and Sts Ambrose, on the exterior, to the sides of the apse and facing the ancient Mausoleum of Augustus, are two giant statues of the titular saints, among the largest in Rome. Other artists active in the church include Pasquale de Rossi, Luigi Garzi, Francesco Rosa, Giovanni Battista Buonocore, and Fabbrizio Chiari. The Chapel of St. Olav of Norway, to the left of the nave, is dedicated to the king who converted to Christianity and was slain in the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. The chapel was inaugurated by Cardinal Lucido Maria Parocchi on 9 April 1893, the painting, by the Polish artist Pius Weloński, depicts the Viking kings victory over his own pagan past, which is represented by a dragon. It was a gift, presented on 3 March 1893, to Pope Leo XIII for the 50th anniversary of his episcopal ordination. Bishop Johannes Olav Fallize, then the Vicar Apostolic of Norway, had asked that it be placed in this chapel and it was unveiled by the Papal chamberlain, the Pope supported the idea of a Norwegian chapel in Rome. A smaller picture on the altar shows St. Anne and her daughter, St Anne was a very popular saint in pre-Reformation Norway
14.
San Giacomo in Augusta
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San Giacomo in Augusta is a Baroque-style church built in central Rome, Italy. Standing on Via del Corso number 499, roughly three blocks south of the Piazza del Popolo in rione Campo Marzio, nearly opposite to the church of Gesù e Maria. A Church at the site was built in the 14th century adjacent to a hospital for the Incurabili. The suffix ‘’in Augusta’’ referred to the neighboring Mausoleum of Augustus, a church at the location was founded along with a hospital by Cardinal Giovanni Colonna in 1339. By 1515, the hospital was in a state of abandon, Pope Nicholas V placed it under the control of the Company of Santa Maria del Popolo. This order was under the patronage of the Florentine Cardinal Antonio Maria Salviati, the oval layout of the church at the site was rebuilt starting by Francesco da Volterra in 1592. Upon the former architects death, the facade and most of the interior decoration completed by Carlo Maderno in 1600, the interior contains a bas relief of St Anthony of Padua and the Virgin interceding for the Ill by Pierre Le Gros the Younger on the second chapel. On the side walls are paintings by Giuseppe Passeri. The altar in the first chapel on the right has a Resurrection painted by the mannerist painter Cristoforo Roncalli, in the second chapel on the right is a marble bas-relief by Le Gros representing St Francesco di Paola in Prayer. Le Gros also helped complete the nave stucco work, the third chapel has a St John the Baptist baptizes Christ by Domenico Passignano. The Last Supper was painted by Giovanni Battista Novara, the History of Melchisedec and the Story of Manna in the Desert was painted by Vespasiano Strada. On the left of the Nave is the chapel of the Sig, graziani with a Nativity painted by Antiveduto Grammatica. The statue of San Giacomo was completed by Ippolito Buzzi of Vigu, in the third chapel, commemorating its patron Virginia Tolsia, are a number of paintings by Francesco Zucchi. On 22 February 2014 Pope Francis established San Giacomo in Augusta as a new titular church and he appointed as its first Cardinal Priest title San Giacomo in Augusta the Haitian Cardinal Chibly Langlois. Chibly Langlois 22 February 2014 - present Rome, A tour of many days, descrizione delle Pitture, Sculture e Architetture esposte in Roma
15.
Piazza Colonna
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Piazza Colonna is a piazza at the center of the Rione of Colonna in the historic heart of Rome, Italy. It is named for the marble Column of Marcus Aurelius, which has stood there since AD193, the bronze statue of Saint Paul that crowns the column was placed in 1589, by order of Pope Sixtus V. The Roman Via Lata runs through the eastern end, from south to north. Its north side is taken up by Palazzo Chigi, formerly the Austria-Hungarys embassy, the west side is taken up by Palazzo Wedekind with a colonnade of Roman columns taken from Veii. The piazza has been an open space since Antiquity, the temple of Marcus Aurelius stood on the site of Palazzo Wedekind. The fountain in the piazza was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII from Giacomo Della Porta who was assisted by Rocco De Rossi. In 1830, it was restored and had two sets of side by side, with tails entwined, sculpted by Achille Stocchi. The central sculpture was then substituted with a sculpture and spray
16.
Column of Marcus Aurelius
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The Column of Marcus Aurelius is a Roman victory column in Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. It is a Doric column featuring a relief, it was built in honour of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. In terms of the topography of ancient Rome, the column stood on the part of the Campus Martius. This square was either between the temple of Hadrian and the temple of Marcus Aurelius, or within the sacred precinct. Nearby is the site where the emperor’s cremation occurred, the column’s shaft is 29.62 metres high, on a ca. Just as with Trajan’s Column, this stairway is illuminated through narrow slits into the relief, the spiral picture relief tells the story of Marcus Aurelius’ Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him from 166 to his death. The story begins with the crossing the river Danube, probably at Carnuntum. A Victory separates the accounts of two expeditions, the figures’ heads are disproportionately large so that the viewer can better interpret their facial expressions. The images are carved less finely than at Trajan’s Column, through drilling holes more deeply into the stone, so that they stand out better in a contrast of light, there, cool and sober balance – here, drama and empathy. The pictorial language is unambiguous - imperial dominance and authority is emphasized, overall, it is an anticipation of the development of artistic style into late antiquity, and a first artistic expression of the crisis of the Roman empire that would worsen in the 3rd century. In the Middle Ages, climbing the column was so popular that the right to charge the entrance fee was annually auctioned, now the Column serves a centerpiece to the piazza in front of the Palazzo Chigi. About 3 metres of the base have been below ground level since 1589 when, by order of pope Sixtus V, the Columnae Coclides of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Caprino, C. A. M. Colini, G. Gatti, M. Pallottino, la Colonna di Marco Aurelio - The Column of Marcus Aurelius. Hate and War, The Column of Marcus Aurelius, a photo of the column presently and how it might have appeared in Roman times A history of the Aurelian column Eugen Petersens photographs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius
17.
Galleria Alberto Sordi
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Galleria Alberto Sordi, until 2003 Galleria Colonna, is a shopping arcade in Rome named after the actor Alberto Sordi. It was designed in the early 1900s by the architect Dario Carbone and it was built on the site of Palazzo Piombino and inaugurated in 1922. The building is in the Art Nouveau style, the restored gallery was re-inaugurated with its new name on October 30,2003
18.
Santa Maria in Via Lata
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Santa Maria in Via Lata is a church on the Via del Corso, in Rome, Italy. It stands diagonal from the church of San Marcello al Corso and it is claimed that St. Paul spent two years here, in the crypt under the church, whilst under house arrest waiting for his trial. This conflicts with the tradition regarding San Paolo alla Regola, the same was also claimed for St Peter, Pauls secretary Luke, Peters disciple Martial, St John. The first Christian place of here was a 5th-century oratory in the Roman building beneath the present church. This was constructed within the remains of a large Roman warehouse, some 250 metres long, the churchs upper level was added in the 9th century, and murals added to the lower level between the 7th and 9th centuries. The cosmatesque pavement from this phase survives, the churchs 13th century icon of the Virgin Advocate, said to have performed many miracles, and relics of the 3rd century Deacon and martyr Agapitus lie beneath it. The Arcus Novus, which stood on site were destroyed during reconstruction of the church in the late 15th century. Antonio Tebaldeo, poet and friend of Raphael, was buried at the end of the aisle in 1537. The church was renovated in 1639 by Cosimo Fanzago, but the facade and he appears to evoke a triumphal arch in the facade. The high altar Madonna Advocata is one of the few paintings in churches attributed to Bernini, the ciborium in the apse is made of alabaster and lapis-lazuli. The first excavations of the site occurred at this date. The families of Joseph and Lucien Bonaparte were buried here in the 19th century. Along the right side of the nave, the first altarpiece is a Martydom of St Andrew by Giacinto Brandi, while the altarpiece is a Saints Giuseppe, Nicola. In the chapel to the left of the apse, is a Madonna with child and Saints Cyriac and Catherine by Giovanni Odazzi. The second altar on the left has a Saint Paul baptizes Sabine and children by Pier Leone Ghezzi while the first altarpiece is a Virgin and Saints Lawrence, six oval paintings on the right nave include canvases by P. de Pietri and Agostino Masucci. On the left nave are five ovals, painted by P. de Pietri, Masucci, an altar in the lower church has a marble bas relief by Cosimo Fancelli. Descrizione delle Pitture, Sculture e Architetture esposte in Roma, luigi Cavazzi, La diaconia di S. Maria in Via Lata e il monastero di S. Ciriaco, memorie storiche. Richard Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romae, The Early Christian Basilicas of Rome, tyrone Joseph Castellarin, The Facade of Santa Maria in Via Lata by Pietro Da Cortona
19.
Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso
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The Oratorio del Santissimo Crocifisso or the Oratory of the Most Holy Crucifix is a building in central Rome, Italy. Located next to the church of San Marcello al Corso, it served as a prayer hall and it is best known, like the Oratorio del Gonfalone, which shares the same artists, for its Mannerist decorations. The structure was built by Giacomo Della Porta in 1568, near the church of San Marcello, for the Confraternity of Crucifix, the confraternity was composed of some of the richest men in Rome, including the cardinals Ranuccio and Alessandro Farnese, nephews of the Pope. The theme of the decoration is the Triumph of the Cross. It employed Giovanni de Vecchi, Cesare Nebbia, Niccolò Circignani and it was also host of musical concerts, starting in 1639, when the first performances of fifteen musical oratorios by Giacomo Carissimi and Emilio de Cavalieri occurred here. Http, //www. italycyberguide. com/Geography/cities/rome2000/E105b. htm Page at Rome Art Lover website
20.
San Marcello al Corso
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San Marcello al Corso, a church in Rome, Italy, is a titular church whose cardinal-protector normally holds the rank of cardinal-priest. The church, dedicated to Pope Marcellus I, is located just inset from Via del Corso, in ancient times called via Lata, and it stands diagonal from the church of Santa Maria in Via Lata and two doors from the Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso. While the tradition holds that the church was built over the prison of Pope Marcellus I, it is known that the Titulus Marcelli was present no later than 418, the Septiformis litany, commanded by Pope Gregory I in 590, saw the men moving from San Marcello. Pope Adrian I, in the 8th century, built a church on the same place, the corpse of Cola di Rienzo was held in the church for three days after his execution in 1354. On 22 May 1519, a fire destroyed the church, the money collected for its rebuilding was used to bribe the landsknechts, who were pillaging the city during the Sack of Rome. The original plan to rebuild the church was designed by Jacopo Sansovino, the work was continued by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, who rebuilt the church, but a Tiber flood damaged it again in 1530. It was only in 1592–1597 that the church was completed with a facade by Carlo Fontana, the exterior travertine statues were sculpted by Francesco Cavallini, and the stucco bas-relief over the entrance, with depicts San Filippo Benizio, was created by Antonio Raggi. Benizio had been a member of the Servite order, under the main altar, decorated with 12th century opus sectile, are the relics of several saints, which include those of Pope Marcellus as well as Digna and Emerita. The last chapel on the left is dedicated to St Philip Benizi, the late-Baroque decoration contains sculptures by Francesco Cavallini and reliefs by Ercole Ferrata and Antonio Raggi. The first chapel on the left has the tomb of Cardinal Giovanni Michiel. Behind the facade is a Crucifixion by Giovanni Battista Ricci, the tomb of Cardinal Cennino was sculpted by Giovanni Francesco deRossi. Along the right, the first chapel of Marchese Maccarani holds an Annunciation by Lazzaro Baldi, inside of the chapel has busts of Muzio, Roberto, Lelio Frangipane by Alessandro Algardi. In the third chapel on the left is a Doloroso by Pietro Paolo Naldini, Sacrifice of Isaac and discovery of Moses by Domenico Corvi, in the first, Madonna, the church is administered and owned by the Servite Order since 1369. San Marcello al Corso, Chris Nyborg, descrizione delle Pitture, Sculture e Architetture esposte in Roma. GCatholic Media related to San Marcello al Corso at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Roman censor
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The censor was an officer in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the governments finances. The censors regulation of morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words censor. The census was first instituted by Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, after the abolition of the monarchy and the founding of the Republic, the consuls had responsibility for the census until 443 BC. It would not be uncommon for the patrician consulars of the republic to intersperse public office with agricultural labour. In Cicero’s words, in agris erant tum senatores, id est senes, ‘In those days senators—that is and this practice was obsolete by the 2nd century. The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until 351 BC, twelve years later, in 339 BC, one of the Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian. Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people until 280 BC, in 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians. The reason for having two censors was that the two consuls had previously taken the census together, if one of the censors died during his term of office, another was chosen to replace him, just as with consuls. This happened only once, in 393 BC, however, the Gauls captured Rome in that lustrum, and the Romans thereafter regarded such replacement as an offense against religion. From then on, if one of the died, his colleague resigned. The censors were elected in the Centuriate Assembly, which met under the presidency of a consul, as a general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions. At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, in that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice. In consequence of this, he received the cognomen of Censorinus, the censorship differed from all other Roman magistracies in the length of office. The censors were also unique with respect to rank and dignity and they had no imperium, and accordingly no lictors. Their rank was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly, and not by the curiae, and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship, it was a sacred magistracy, to which the deepest reverence was due. In the exercise of power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty. The censors possessed the official called a curule chair
22.
Adriatic Sea
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The Adriatic Sea /ˌeɪdriˈætᵻk/ is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula and the Apennine Mountains from the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto to the northwest, the countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro and Slovenia. The Adriatic contains over 1,300 islands, mostly located along its eastern, Croatian and it is divided into three basins, the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres. The Otranto Sill, a ridge, is located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto, along the eastern coast, tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, although larger amplitudes are known to occur occasionally. The Adriatics salinity is lower than the Mediterraneans because the Adriatic collects a third of the water flowing into the Mediterranean. The surface water temperatures range from 30 °C in summer to 12 °C in winter. The Adriatic Sea sits on the Apulian or Adriatic Microplate, which separated from the African Plate in the Mesozoic era, the plates movement contributed to the formation of the surrounding mountain chains and Apennine tectonic uplift after its collision with the Eurasian plate. In the Late Oligocene, the Apennine Peninsula first formed, separating the Adriatic Basin from the rest of the Mediterranean, all types of sediment are found in the Adriatic, with the bulk of the material transported by the Po and other rivers on the western coast. The western coast is alluvial or terraced, while the eastern coast is indented with pronounced karstification. There are dozens of protected areas in the Adriatic, designed to protect the seas karst habitats. The sea is abundant in flora and fauna—more than 7,000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic, many of them endemic, rare and threatened ones. The Adriatics shores are populated by more than 3.5 million people, the earliest settlements on the Adriatic shores were Etruscan, Illyrian, and Greek. By the 2nd century BC, the shores were under Romes control, following Italian unification, the Kingdom of Italy started an eastward expansion that lasted until the 20th century. Following World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the former disintegrated during the 1990s, resulting in four new states on the Adriatic coast. Italy and Albania agreed on their maritime boundary in 1992, Fisheries and tourism are significant sources of income all along the Adriatic coast. Adriatic Croatias tourism industry has grown faster economically than the rest of the Adriatic Basins, maritime transport is also a significant branch of the areas economy—there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than a million tonnes of cargo per year. The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is the Port of Trieste, in the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to the Ionian Sea at the 72-kilometre wide Strait of Otranto
23.
Servian Wall
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The Servian Wall was an ancient Roman defensive barrier constructed around the city of Rome in the early 4th century BC. It is presumed that the wall is named after the sixth Roman King, due to the ease with which the Gauls entered the city, it is conjectured that at some time previous to this, Rome had been forced by its Etruscan rulers to dismantle any significant prior defenses. The wall was built from blocks of tuff quarried from the Grotta Oscura quarry near Romes early rival Veii. In addition to the blocks, some sections of the structure incorporated a deep fossa, or ditch in front of it, along part of its topographically weaker northern perimeter was an agger, a defensive ramp of earth heaped up to the wall along the inside. This thickened the wall, and also gave defenders a base to stand while repelling any attack, the wall was also outfitted with defensive war engines, including catapults. The Servian Wall was formidable enough to repel Hannibal during the Second Punic War, Hannibal famously invaded Italy across the Alps with elephants, and had crushed several Roman armies in the early stages of the war. However, the wall was never put to the test as Hannibal only once, in 211 BC, brought his Carthaginian army to Rome as part of a feint to draw the Roman army from Capua. When it was clear that this had failed, he turned away, without approaching closer than 3 miles to Rome, as a Roman army sallied out of the Servian walls, during the Roman civil wars, the Servian walls were repeatedly overrun. The wall was maintained through the end of the Republic. By this time, Rome had already begun to grow outside the original Servian Wall. The organization of Rome into regions under Augustus placed regions II, III, IV, VI, VIII, X, the wall became unnecessary as Rome became well protected by the ever-expanding military strength of the Republic and of the later Empire. As the city continued to grow and prosper, it was essentially unwalled for the first three centuries of the Empire, when German tribes made further incursions along the Roman frontier in the 3rd century AD, Emperor Aurelian had the larger Aurelian Walls built to protect Rome. Sections of the Servian Wall are still visible in various locations around Rome, the largest section is preserved just outside Termini Station, the main railway station in Rome. Another notable section on the Aventine incorporates an arch for a defensive catapult from the late Republic, the following lists the gates that are believed to have been built, clockwise from the westernmost. Porta Flumentana – this gate was where the via Aurelia entered Rome after crossing the Tiber River, porta Carmentalis – the western end of the Capitoline. Porta Fontinalis – led from the end of the Capitoline into the Campus Martius along the via Lata. Porta Sanqualis – on the Quirinal, porta Salutaris – on the Quirinal. Porta Quirinalis – on the Quirinal, porta Collina – the northernmost gate, on the Quirinal, leading to the via Salaria
24.
Tiber
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It drains a basin estimated at 17,375 square kilometres. The river has achieved lasting fame as the watercourse of the city of Rome. The river rises at Mount Fumaiolo in central Italy and flows in a southerly direction past Perugia. However, it does not form a delta, owing to a strong north-flowing sea current close to the shore, to the steep shelving of the coast. The source of the Tiber consists of two springs 10 metres away from each other on Mount Fumaiolo and these springs are called Le Vene. The springs are in a beech forest 1,268 metres above sea level, during the 1930s, Benito Mussolini placed an antique marble Roman column at the point where the river arises, inscribed QUI NASCE IL FIUME SACRO AI DESTINI DI ROMA. There is an eagle on the top of this column, the first miles of the Tiber run through Valtiberina before entering Umbria. It is probable that the genesis of the name Tiber was pre-Latin, like the Roman name of Tibur, the same root is found in the Latin praenomen Tiberius. There are also Etruscan variants of this praenomen in Thefarie and Teperie, the legendary king Tiberinus, ninth in the king-list of Alba Longa, was said to have drowned in the river Albula, which was afterward called Tiberis. Yet another etymology is from *dubri-, water, considered by Alessio as Sicel and this root *dubri- is widespread in Western Europe e. g. Dover, Portus Dubris. According to the legend, Jupiter made him a god and guardian spirit of the river and this gave rise to the standard Roman depiction of the river as a powerfully built reclining god, also named Tiberinus, with streams of water flowing from his hair and beard. The Tiber was also believed to be the river into which Romulus and Remus were thrown as infants, according to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC on the banks of the Tiber about 25 kilometres from the sea at Ostia. The island Isola Tiberina in the centre of Rome, between Trastevere and the ancient center, was the site of an important ancient ford and was later bridged. Legend says Romes founders, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, were abandoned on its waters, the river marked the boundary between the lands of the Etruscans to the west, the Sabines to the east and the Latins to the south. Benito Mussolini, born in Romagna, adjusted the boundary between Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna, so that the springs of the Tiber would lie in Romagna and it was later used to ship stone, timber and foodstuffs to Rome. During the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC, the harbour at Ostia became a key naval base and it later became Romes most important port, where wheat, olive oil, and wine were imported from Romes colonies around the Mediterranean. Wharves were also built along the riverside in Rome itself, lining the riverbanks around the Campus Martius area, the Romans connected the river with a sewer system and with an underground network of tunnels and other channels, to bring its water into the middle of the city. Wealthy Romans had garden-parks or horti on the banks of the river in Rome up through the first century BC and these may have been sold and developed about a century later
25.
Campus Martius
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The Campus Martius, was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about 2 square kilometres in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome, the IV rione of Rome, Campo Marzio, which covers a smaller section of the original area, bears the same name. Washing ashore further downriver, the brothers would return later to found a new city. Romulus, who became Rome’s sole king, ruled for years until sometime in the seventh century B. C. As he came to the end of his life, a cloud descended upon the center of the open field outside the city’s pomerium in order to lift the elderly king to heaven. This land, “between the city and the Tiber, ” became the property of Rome’s last Etruscan king Tarquinius Superbus, after his defeat and exile, the plain was dedicated to the god Mars. Roman men assembled every spring before heading off to fight hostile tribes, surrounding Rome, with the exception of a small altar to Mars near the center of the field, it wasn’t until the fifth century B. C. that any visible changes were made to the field. In 435 B. C. the Villa Publica was established in a prepared 300m clearing, the area was meant to be a gathering space for citizens to congregate every five years, to be counted in a census. Free from any permanent structures, no additions would be made for two centuries. With the advent of the Punic Wars in the mid-third century B. C. Roman military expansion moved out of the Italian peninsula, the number of foreign wars, however, greatly increased the amount of wealth flowing into Rome. Generals who had sworn to various deities to build temples in their honor if victorious, besides temples and wooden markets, entertainment venues were built also, though they were to be temporary. Starting in the time of Sulla, building lots were sold or granted to influential Romans and it later became the place for comitia centuriata, civic meetings with weapons, and for the citys militia. In 55 BC, Pompey constructed a permanent theater made of stone, when the Curia Hostilia burnt down in 52 BC, the theater was sometimes used as a meeting place for the Senate. The area was used as the assembling ground for elections. Julius Caesar planned for the Saepta to be placed there, they were completed by his heir Augustus. In 33 BC, Octavian dedicated the Porticus Octaviae, built from spoils of the Dalmatian War, the Campus Martius also held the Ara Pacis, built by the Senate to mark the establishment of peace by Augustus. It was intended to symbolize the successful completion of Augustus efforts to stabilize the Empire, Marcus Agrippa had the original swampy ground made into a pool and baths in a setting of parkland and temples, the Laconicum Sudatorium or Baths of Agrippa. Also, he built the Porticus Argonautarum and the Pantheon, which was rebuilt by Hadrian as it still stands today
26.
Appian Way
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The Appian Way was one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient republic. It connected Rome to Brindisi, in southeast Italy and its importance is indicated by its common name, recorded by Statius, Appia longarum. The Appian Way was used as a route for military supplies since its construction for that purpose in 312 B. C. The Appian Way was the first long road built specifically to transport troops outside the region of greater Rome. The few roads outside the city were Etruscan and went mainly to Etruria. By the late Republic, the Romans had expanded over most of Italy and were masters of road construction, Rome had an affinity for the people of Campania, who, like themselves, traced their backgrounds to the Etruscans. The Samnite Wars were instigated by the Samnites when Rome attempted to ally itself with the city of Capua in Campania, the Italic speakers in Latium had long ago been subdued and incorporated into the Roman state. They were responsible for changing Rome from a primarily Etruscan to a primarily Italic state, dense populations of sovereign Samnites remained in the mountains north of Capua, which is just north of the Greek city of Neapolis. Around 343 BC, Rome and Capua attempted to form an alliance, the Samnites reacted with military force. Between Capua and Rome lay the Pontine Marshes, a swamp infested with malaria, a tortuous coastal road wound between Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber and Neapolis. The via Latina followed its ancient and scarcely more accessible path along the foothills of Monti Laziali and Monti Lepini, in the First Samnite War the Romans found they could not support or resupply troops in the field against the Samnites across the marsh. A revolt of the Latin League drained their resources further and they gave up the attempted alliance and settled with Samnium. The Romans were only biding their time while they looked for a solution, the first answer was the colonia, a cultivation of settlers from Rome, who would maintain a permanent base of operations. The Second Samnite War erupted when Rome attempted to place a colony at Cales in 334, the Samnites, now a major power after defeating the Greeks of Tarentum, occupied Neapolis to try to ensure its loyalty. The Neapolitans appealed to Rome, which sent an army and expelled the Samnites from Neapolis, in 312 BC, Appius Claudius Caecus became censor at Rome. He was of the gens Claudia, who were descended from the Sabines taken into the early Roman state. He had been given the name of the ancestor of the gens. He was a populist, i. e. an advocate of the common people, a man of inner perspicacity, in the years of success he was said to have lost his outer vision and thus acquired the name caecus, blind
27.
Mausoleum of Augustus
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The Mausoleum of Augustus is a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome, Italy. The mausoleum is located on the Piazza Augusto Imperatore, near the corner with Via di Ripetta as it runs along the Tiber. The grounds cover an equivalent to a few city blocks. The interior of the mausoleum is not open to tourists, the mausoleum was one of the first projects initiated by Augustus in the City of Rome following his victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The mausoleum was circular in plan, consisting of concentric rings of earth and brick, planted with cypresses on top of the building and capped by a conical roof. Vaults held up the roof and opened up the spaces below. Twin pink granite obelisks flanked the entryway, these have been removed, one now stands at the Piazza dellEsquilino. The completed mausoleum measured 90 m in diameter by 42 m in height, a corridor ran from the entryway into the heart of the mausoleum, where there was a chamber with three niches to hold the golden urns enshrining the ashes of the Imperial Family. LacusCurtius claims however that The story of its plundering by Alaric in 410 has no historical foundation, in the Middle Ages the tumulus was fortified as a castle— as was the mausoleum of Hadrian, which was turned into the Castel SantAngelo— and occupied by the Colonna family. After the disastrous defeat of the Commune of Rome at the hands of the Count of Tusculum in 1167, the Colonna were disgraced and banished, and their fortification in the Campo was dismantled. It was not until the 1930s that the site was opened as an archaeological landmark along with the newly moved and reconstructed Ara Pacis nearby. Mussolini viewed himself especially connected to the achievements of Augustus, seeing himself as a reborn Augustus ready to usher in a new age of Italian dominance, res Gestae Divi Augusti Catacombs of Rome Dal Maso, Leonardo B. Lanciani, Rodolfo, Pagan and Christian Rome,1892, J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd, London,1951. Mausoleum Augusti at LacusCurtius Images of the Mausoleum of Augustus
28.
Diocletian
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Diocletian, born Diocles, was a Roman emperor from 284 to 305. Born to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia, after the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. The title was claimed by Carus other surviving son, Carinus. Diocletians reign stabilized the empire and marks the end of the Crisis of the Third Century and he appointed fellow officer Maximian as Augustus, co-emperor, in 286. Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as Caesars, under this tetrarchy, or rule of four, each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. Diocletian secured the borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298, Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empires traditional enemy. In 299 he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon, Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. He established new centres in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction increased the states expenditures. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, not all of Diocletians plans were successful, the Edict on Maximum Prices, his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the office on 1 May 305. He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast and his palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split in Croatia. Diocletian was born near Salona in Dalmatia, some time around 244 and his parents gave him the Greek name Diocles, or possibly Diocles Valerius. The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes his official birthday,22 December, other historians are not so certain. Diocles parents were of low status, and writers critical of him claimed that his father was a scribe or a freedman of the senator Anullinus, the first forty years of his life are mostly obscure. The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was Dux Moesiae, the often-unreliable Historia Augusta states that he served in Gaul, but this account is not corroborated by other sources and is ignored by modern historians of the period
29.
Aqua Virgo
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The Aqua Virgo was one of the eleven Roman aqueducts that supplied the city of ancient Rome. The aqueduct fell into disuse with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Aqua Virgo was completed in 19 BC by Marcus Agrippa, during the reign of the emperor Augustus. Its source is just before the 8th milestone north of the Via Collatina and it was also supplemented by several feeder channels along its course. The name probably derives from the purity and clarity of the water because it does not chalk significantly. According to a legend repeated by Frontinus, thirsty Roman soldiers asked a girl for water who directed them to the springs that later supplied the aqueduct. Along its more-than-20 km length, the aqueduct dropped only 4 m to reach Rome in the centre of the Campus Martius, at its height, the aqueduct was capable of supplying more than 100,000 cubic metres of water every day. The aqueduct ran underground for nearly all of its length except the last stretch of 1,835 m running on arches in the Campus Martius area, of which one section remains in via del Nazzareno. In 537, the Goths besieging Rome tried to use this channel as a secret route to invade Rome. After deteriorating with the fall of the Roman Empire, the Aqua Virgo was repaired by Pope Adrian I in the 8th century and this also led the water to the Trevi Fountain and the fountains of Piazzo del Popolo which it still serves today. In the 1930s a pressurised version was built, the Acqua Vergine Nuovo, the Aqueduct can be visited below the Spanish Steps and the Villa Medici, where a spiral staircase in perfect condition still leads to the underground conduit. Aqueduct technology https, //www. maquettes-historiques. net/P9. html Aquae Urbis Romae, the Waters of the City of Rome, Katherine W
30.
Aurelian
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Aurelian was Roman Emperor from 270 to 275. Born in humble circumstances, he rose through the ranks to become emperor. During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war and he also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empires eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273, the following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome, and his successes were instrumental in ending the Roman Empires Crisis of the Third Century, earning him the title Restitutor Orbis or Restorer of the World. Although Domitian was the first emperor who had demanded to be hailed as dominus et deus. Aurelian was born on 9 September, most likely in 214 AD, the ancient sources are not agreed on his place of birth, although he was generally accepted as being a native of Illyricum. Sirmium in Pannonia Inferior is the location, which was created by Aurelian as Emperor when he abandoned the old trans-Danubian territory of Dacia. The academic consensus is that he was of humble birth and that his father was a peasant-farmer who took his Roman nomen from his landlord, however, it seems that this pleasant extrapolation of dubious facts is now generally accepted as being no more than just that. It is commonly accepted that Aurelian probably joined the army in 235 AD at around age twenty and it is also generally assumed that, as a member of the lowest rank of society - albeit a citizen - he would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. This would have opened up for him the tres militia - the three steps of the military career - one of the routes to higher equestrian office in the Imperial Service. This could be a more expeditious route to senior military and procuratorial offices than that pursued by ex-rankers and his suggestion has not been taken up by other academic authorities. Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must have built up a solid reputation for military competence during the tumultuous mid-decades of the century. His successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of emperor Gallienus entourage, in 268, Aurelian and his cavalry participated in general Claudius victory over the Goths at the Battle of Naissus. Later that year Gallienus traveled to Italy and fought Aureolus, his former general, driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum, Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. However, while the siege was ongoing the Emperor was assassinated, one source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple – which is plausible. Aurelian was married to Ulpia Severina, about whom little is known, like Aurelian she was from Dacia. They are known to have had a daughter together, Claudius was acclaimed Emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum
31.
Ara Pacis
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The Ara Pacis Augustae is an altar in Rome dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of Peace. The monument was commissioned by the Roman Senate on July 4,13 BC to honor the return of Augustus to Rome after three years in Hispania and Gaul, and consecrated on January 30,9 BC and it was reassembled in its current location in 1938. The altar reflects the Augustan vision of Roman civil religion, within the enclosing precinct walls, the altar itself was carved with images illustrating the lex aria, the law governing the ritual performed at the altar. What remains of the altar is otherwise fragmentary, but it appears to have been largely functional with less emphasis on art, the interior of the precinct walls are carved with bucrania, ox skulls, from which carved garlands hang. The garlands bear fruits from various types of plants, all displayed on a garland as allegorical representations of plenty. The bucrania in turn evoke the idea of sacrificial piety, appropriate motifs for the interior of the altar precinct. The upper register of the northern and southern walls depict scenes of the emperor, his family, various togate figures are shown with their heads covered, signifying their role as both priests and sacrificiants. Other figures wear laurel crowns, traditional Roman symbols of victory, members of individual priestly colleges are depicted in traditional garb appropriate to their office, while lictors can be identified by their iconographic fasces. The western and eastern walls are pierced by entryways to the altar, although the interior would only have been accessed by a stairway on the western side. The entryways were flanked by panels depicting allegorical or mythological scenes evocative of peace, piety, the identity of these various figures has been a point of some controversy over the years, relying heavily on interpretation of fragmentary remains, discussed below. The sculpture of the Ara Pacis is primarily symbolic rather than decorative, peter Holliday suggested that the Altars imagery of the Golden Age, usually discussed as mere poetic allusion, appealed to a significant component of the Roman populace. The East and West walls each contain two panels, one well preserved and one represented only in fragments and this scene has been reconstructed, based on coins that depict such a seated Roma. When the monument was being reconstructed at its present site, Edmund Buchner and other scholars sketched what the panel may have looked like and this interpretation, although widely accepted, can not be proved correct, as so little of the original panel survives. The other panel is more controversial in its subject, but far better preserved, a goddess sits amid a scene of fertility and prosperity with twins on her lap. Scholars have variously suggested that the goddess is Italia, Tellus, Venus, due to the widespread depiction around the sculpture of scenes of peace, and because the Altar is named for peace, the favoured conclusion is that the goddess is Pax. The West Wall also contains two panels, the fragmentary Lupercal Panel apparently preserves the moment when Romulus and Remus were discovered by Faustulus the shepherd, while Mars looks on. Again this panel is a drawing without much evidence. Marble fragments of the tree and the head and shoulder of Mars and part of a second individual survive, but the addition of the she-wolf, Romulus, the better preserved scene depicts the sacrifice of a pig by an old priest and two attendants
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Aurelian Walls
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The Aurelian Walls are a line of city walls built between 271 AD and 275 AD in Rome, Italy, during the reign of the Roman Emperors Aurelian and Probus. They superseded the earlier Servian Wall built during the 4th century BC, the walls enclosed all the seven hills of Rome plus the Campus Martius and, on the right bank of the Tiber, the Trastevere district. The river banks within the city appear to have been left unfortified. The size of the enclosed area is 1,400 hectares. The full circuit ran for 19 kilometres surrounding an area of 13.7 square kilometres, the walls were constructed in brick-faced concrete,3.5 metres thick and 8 metres high, with a square tower every 100 Roman feet. In the 4th century, remodelling doubled the height of the walls to 16 metres, by 500 AD, the circuit possessed 383 towers,7,020 crenellations,18 main gates,5 postern gates,116 latrines, and 2,066 large external windows. By the third century AD, the boundaries of Rome had grown far beyond the area enclosed by the old Servian Wall, Rome had remained unfortified during the subsequent centuries of expansion and consolidation due to lack of hostile threats against the city. The citizens of Rome took great pride in knowing that Rome required no fortifications because of the stability brought by the Pax Romana and the protection of the Roman Army. However, the need for updated defences became acute during the crisis of the Third Century, when barbarian tribes flooded through the Germanic frontier and the Roman Army struggled to stop them. In 270, the barbarian Juthungi and Vandals invaded northern Italy, further trouble broke out in Rome itself in the summer of 271, when the mint workers rose in rebellion. Several thousand people died in the fighting that resulted. The construction of the walls was by far the largest building project that had taken place in Rome for many decades, the construction project was unusually left to the citizens themselves to complete as Aurelian could not afford to spare a single legionary for the project. The walls were built in the time of only five years. Progress was accelerated, and money saved, by incorporating existing buildings into the structure and these included the Amphitheatrum Castrense, the Castra Praetoria, the Pyramid of Cestius, and even a section of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct near the Porta Maggiore. As much as a sixth of the walls is estimated to have composed of pre-existing structures. An area behind the walls was cleared and sentry passages were built to enable it to be reinforced quickly in an emergency, the actual effectiveness of the wall is disputable, given the relatively small size of the citys garrison. The entire combined strength of the Praetorian Guard, cohortes urbanae, instead, they carried out hit-and-run raids against ill-defended targets. The wall was a deterrent against such tactics, parts of the wall were doubled in height by Maxentius, who also improved the watch-towers
33.
Pope Alexander VII
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Pope Alexander VII, born Fabio Chigi, was pope from 7 April 1655 to his death in 1667. He began his career as a legate, and he held various diplomatic positions in the Holy See. He was ordained as a priest in 1634, and he became Bishop of Nardo in 1635 and he was later transferred in 1652, and he became Bishop of Imola. Pope Innocent X made him Secretary of State in 1651, and in 1652, he was appointed as a Cardinal. Early in his papacy, Alexander, who was seen as anti-Nepotist at the time of his election, lived simply, later, however, he gave jobs to his relatives and his administration worked to support the Jesuits. However, his administrations relations with France were strained due to his frictions with French diplomats, Alexander was interested in architecture and supported various urban projects in Rome. He also wrote poetry and patronized artists who expanded the decoration of churches and his theological writings included discussions of heliocentrism and the Immaculate Conception. Fabios elder brother, Mario, married Berenice, the daughter of Tiberio della Ciala, producing four children, Flavio was created cardinal by his uncle on April 9,1657. His brother, Augusto Chigi, married Olimpia della Ciaia and continued the line as the parents of Agostino Chigi. Fabios sister Onorata Mignanelli married Firmano Bichi, their son Antonio was named Bishop of Montalcino and then Osimo, in 1627 he began his apprenticeship as vice-papal legate at Ferrara, and on recommendations from two cardinals he was appointed Inquisitor of Malta. Chigi was ordained a priest in December 1634 and he was appointed Referendarius utriusque signaturae, which made him a prelate and gave him the right to practice before the Roman courts. On 8 January 1635, Chigi was named Bishop of Nardò in southern Italy and consecrated on 1 July 1635 by Miguel Juan Balaguer Camarasa, on 13 May 1652 he was transferred to the Bishopric of Imola. Bishop Chigi was named nuncio in Cologne on 11 June 1639, there, he supported Urban VIIIs condemnation of the heretical book Augustinus by Cornelius Jansen, Bishop of Ypres, in the papal Bull In eminenti of 1642. Though expected to take part in the negotiations which led in 1648 to the Peace of Westphalia, negotiations therefore took place in two cities, Osnabrück and Münster in Westphalia, with intermediaries travelling back and forth between the Protestant and the Catholic delegates. Chigi, of course, protested on behalf of the Papacy, Pope Innocent himself stated that the Peace is null, void, invalid, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time. The Peace ended the Thirty Years War and established the balance of European power that lasted until the wars of the French Revolution, Pope Innocent X recalled Chigi to Rome. In December 1651 Pope Innocent named Cardinal Chigi Secretary of State and he was created cardinal by Innocent X in the Consistory of 19 February 1652, and on 12 March was granted the title of Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria del Popolo. In December 1651 Pope Innocent named Cardinal Chigi Cardinal Secretary of State
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Chigi Family
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The Chigi family is a Roman princely family of Sienese extraction descended from the counts of Ardenghesca, which possessed castles in the Maremma, southern Tuscany. The earliest authentic mention of them is in the 13th century, with one Alemanno, the first very prominent member was Mariano, a banker and two times ambassador of Siena to the Popes Alexander VI and Julius II. He founded the Roman branch of the family, the branch was started by his brother. Agostino Chigi was the most famous member of the family during the Renaissance and he became an immensely rich banker, and built the palace and gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments. Pope Julius II made him practically his finance minister and gave him the privilege of quartering his own arms with those of the Chigi, Cardinal Fabio Chigi, on being elected pope as Alexander VII at the Conclave of 1655, conferred the Roman patriciate on his family. His elder brother Mario, last commander of the Corsican Guard in Rome and his brother Augusto continued the line in Rome. Augustos son Agostino was made Reichsfurst by Leopold I in 1659, Agostino married Maria Virginia Borghese, and acquired the principates of Farnese, Campagnano and Ariccia, where a famous palazzo bearing the family name still exists. The pope also had two nephews who became cardinals, Flavio I, who was his Cardinal-Nephew and one of the art collectors of the family and built the Villa Cetinale in 1680. During the 18th century, Flavio II became cardinal, on the marriage in 1735 of another Agostino Chigi with Giulia Albani, heiress of the Albani, a Venetian patrician family, said to be of Albanian origin, her name was added to that of Chigi. Prince Sigismondo Chigi Albani della Rovere, Prince of Campagnano, had a son, Don Mario Chigi, and four daughters. Prince Sigismondos brother, Flavio III, became a Cardinal on December 22,1873 with the title of Santa Maria del Popolo, Prince Mario Chigi Albani della Rovere succeeded his father in 1877 and served as Marshal of the Holy Roman Church at the Conclave of 1878. He married Antonietta, the daughter of Prince Louis of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Sayn in 1857 and they had three children, Agostino, Ludovico and Eleonora. Prince Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere, son of Prince Mario, in 1893 he married Donna Anna Aldobrandini, Princess of Sarsina, they had three children, Sigismondo, Petro and Laura. Prince Ludovico was Marshal of both the conclave of 1922 and that of 1939, Prince Sigismondo Chigi, Hereditary Marshal of the Holy Roman Church, was the son of Prince Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere and Donna Anna Aldobrandini, princess of Sarsina. He had one son, Don Agostino Chigi Albani della Rovere and one daughter and he was the Marshal of the Conclave both in 1958 and 1963. The office, to which the Chigi had succeeded after the extinction of the Savelli in 1712, was abolished by Pope Paul VI in a motu proprio, Pontificalis Domus, the family owns large estates at Siena. The family palace on the Via del Corso in Rome is currently seat of the Italian government, another Palazzo Chigi in Ariccia is now a museum and site for meetings. The familys mausoleum is in the Chigi Chapel of the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome, annuario della nobilta italiana Anno I
35.
Pietro da Cortona
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Pietro da Cortona was an Italian Baroque painter and architect. Along with his contemporaries and rivals Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini and he was also an important designer of interior decorations. He was born Pietro Berrettini, but is known by the name of his native town of Cortona in Tuscany. He worked mainly in Rome and Florence, only a limited number of his architectural projects were built but nonetheless they are as distinctive and as inventive as those of his rivals. Berrettini was born into a family of artisans and masons, in Cortona and he trained in painting in Florence under Andrea Commodi, but soon he departed for Rome at around 1612/3, where he joined the studio of Baccio Ciarpi. In Rome, he had encouragement from many prominent patrons, according to Cortonas biographers his gifted copy of Raphaels Galatea fresco brought him to the attention of Marcello Sacchetti, papal treasurer during the Barberini papacy. Such contacts helped him gain a major commission in Rome. In 1633, Pope Urban VIII commissioned from Cortona a large painting for the main salon ceiling of the Barberini family palace. It was completed six years later, following Cortonas influential visit to northern Italy where he would have seen at first hand perspectival works by Paolo Veronese, Cortonas huge Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power marks a watershed in Baroque painting. The ornamented architectural framework essentially forms five compartments, the central and most significant part celebrates the glorification of the reign of Urban VIII in a light filled scene populated with allegorical figures and Barberini family emblems. The illusion of spatial extension through paint, the grandiose theme, the first two represented the ages of silver and gold. In 1641, he was recalled to paint the Bronze Age and he began work on the decoration of the grand-ducal reception rooms on the first floor of the Palazzo Pitti, now part of the Palatine Gallery. These highly ornate ceilings with frescoes and elaborate stucco work essentially celebrate the Medici lineage, Pietro left Florence in 1647, and his pupil and collaborator, Ciro Ferri, completed the cycle by the 1660s. For a number of years, Cortona was involved for decades in the decoration of the frescoes in the Oratorian Chiesa Nuova in Rome. Other frescoes are in Palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona, in 1660, he executed The Stoning of Saint Stephen for the church of San Ambrogio della Massima in Rome. The work currently hangs in the Hermitage, towards the end of his life he devoted much of his time to architecture, but he published a treatise on painting in 1652 under a pseudonym and in collaboration. He refused invitations to both France and Spain and he was elected as director of the Academy of St Luke the painters guild in Rome, in 1634. It was at the Academy in 1636 that Cortona and Andrea Sacchi were involved in controversies regarding the number of figures that were appropriate in a painted work
36.
Trevi Fountain
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The Trevi Fountain is a fountain in the Trevi district in Rome, Italy, designed by Italian architect Nicola Salvi and completed by Pietro Bracci. Standing 26.3 metres high and 49.15 metres wide, it is the largest Baroque fountain in the city, the fountain has appeared in several notable films, including Federico Fellinis La Dolce Vita. The fountain at the junction of three marks the terminal point of the modern Acqua Vergine, the revived Aqua Virgo. In 19 BC, supposedly with the help of a virgin, however, the eventual indirect route of the aqueduct made its length some 22 km. This Aqua Virgo led the water into the Baths of Agrippa and it served Rome for more than 400 years. Legend holds that in 19 BC thirsty Roman soldiers were guided by a girl to a source of pure water thirteen kilometres from the city of Rome. The aqueduct served the hot Baths of Agrippa, and Rome, in 1629 Pope Urban VIII, finding the earlier fountain insufficiently dramatic, asked Gian Lorenzo Bernini to sketch possible renovations, but the project was abandoned when the pope died. Though Berninis project was never constructed, there are many Bernini touches in the fountain as it exists today, competitions had become the rage during the Baroque era to design buildings, fountains and even the Spanish Steps. Work began in 1732 and the fountain was completed in 1762, long after Salvis death, the Trevi Fountain was finished in 1762 by Giuseppe Pannini, who substituted the present allegories for planned sculptures of Agrippa and Trivia, the Roman virgin. It was officially opened and inaugurated on May 22 by Pope Clemens XIII, the majority of the piece is made from Travertine stone, quarried near Tivoli, about 35 kilometres east of Rome. Restoration work began in June 2014 and was completed in November 2015, the fountain was reopened with an official ceremony on the evening of November 3,2015. The restoration included the installation of more than 100 LED lights to improve the illumination of the fountain. The backdrop for the fountain is the Palazzo Poli, given a new façade with a giant order of Corinthian pilasters that link the two main stories. Taming of the waters is the theme of the scheme that tumbles forward, mixing water and rockwork. Tritons guide Oceanus shell chariot, taming hippocamps, in the centre a robustly-modelled triumphal arch is superimposed on the palazzo façade. The centre niche or exedra framing Oceanus has free-standing columns for maximal light, in the niches flanking Oceanus, Abundance spills water from her urn and Salubrity holds a cup from which a snake drinks. Above, bas reliefs illustrate the Roman origin of the aqueducts, the tritons and horses provide symmetrical balance, with the maximum contrast in their mood and poses. Coins are purportedly meant to be using the right hand over the left shoulder
37.
Via del Babuino
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Via del Babuino is a street in the historic centre of Rome, located in the rione Campo Marzio. It connects Piazza del Popolo to Piazza di Spagna and is part of the complex of streets known as Tridente, the origins of Via del Babuino dates back to 13th century. The first two names of the street were Via dell’Orto di Napoli and Via del Cavalletto, in 1525, works commissioned by Pope Clement VII gave the street a new aspect and a new name, Via Clementina, in honor of its creator. It later became Via Paolina, because of the carried out under Pope Paul III in 1540. In 1571, on the initiative of Pope Pius V, a new fountain for public use was installed along the street, in this occasion a statue of Silenus, an ancient classical deity related to springs and fountains, was also placed on the street. The statue quickly became infamous among the inhabitants of the rione because of its ugliness, the statues was compared to a monkey, and was thus nicknamed Babuino, this name soon came to indicate the whole street. A plate remembers the twinning ratified on October 16,2002 between Via del Babuino and Madison Avenue in New York City
38.
The Corso, Manly
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The Corso is one of the main streets of Manly, New South Wales, Australia. It connects the Manly ferry wharf and Sydney Harbour, to the Pacific Ocean side of the Manly peninsula and it is named after the Via del Corso in Rome. There has long been a track between Manly Cove and Ocean Beach, worn by the local Aboriginal people, the Kay-ye-my clan of the Guringai people, by the 1920s the Corso was the main shopping precinct of the Northern Beaches. The Corso was partially returned to a street in the 1970s. Its ocean-side intersection marks the boundary between the North Steyne and South Steyne sections of Manly Beach, trams in Sydney - Manly lines The Corso at the Dictionary of Sydney by John MacRitchie,2008. The Corso Community Precinct The Corso Manly artefact catalogue at Research Data Australia, published by the Australian National Data Service
39.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
