1.
Spanish naming customs
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Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a persons name consists of a name followed by two family names. The first surname is usually the fathers first surname, and the second the mothers first surname, in recent years, the order of the surnames can be reversed at birth if it is so decided by the parents. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name, a composite given name comprises two single names, for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families, traditionally, a persons first surname is the fathers first surname, and the second one is the mothers first surname. From 2013, if the parents of a child are unable to agree on order of surnames, the law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the y or e. For example, a name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename, a paternal surname. There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, for example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under Arbó, assuming that Sebastiá and Juan were both given names. However, Juan was actually his first surname, to resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names, one must consult the person involved, or legal documents. A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be addressed as José Antonio, José, Pepe, Antonio, or Toño Jose, Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín, Antoñito, Tonín or Nono. Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José, colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mothers family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, as these peoples paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names. It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as Zapatero, a practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words. Parents choose their childs name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name, common sources of names are the parents taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina, legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian and typical Spanish names
2.
Seville
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Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
3.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
4.
Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
5.
Poet
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POET LLC is a U. S. biofuel company that specializes in the creation of bioethanol. The privately held corporation, which was originally called Broin Companies, is headquartered in Sioux Falls, in 2007, the Renewable Fuels Association named POET the largest U. S. ethanol producer, creating 1.1 billion US gallons of fuel per year. Currently, POET produces 1.7 billion gallons of ethanol per year, POET operates 27 ethanol plants spread across Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Minnesota, and South Dakota. In 2007, the received a US$80 million grant from the U. S. Department of Energy for the creation of a cellulosic ethanol production facility in Emmetsburg. A grand opening was held for the facility on September 3rd,2014 and it is expected to produce 25 million gallons of ethanol per year from corncobs, leaves and husks provided by farmers in and around the area. POET has also collaborated with companies, including Deere & Co. and Vermeer Company. Among its products in the process are distillers grains branded Dakota Gold, Inviz, the company traces its history to the family farm in Wanamingo, Minnesota where the Broins began producing ethanol in 1983. In 1986 it became commercial launching its flagship plant in Scotland, in 2007, it was renamed POET. Then company president Jeff Broin said the new name is not an acronym, bush in Wentworth, South Dakota in April 2002 and by Barack Obama in Macon, Missouri in April 2010. POET has constructed an $8 million pilot plant to produce cellulosic ethanol made from corn cobs, a commercial scale project, based on the pilot plant, was undertaken as a joint venture with Royal DSM under the name POET-DSM Advanced Biofuels, LLC. A federal loan guarantee was obtained in July,2011 for a plant to be built in Emmetsburg. This loan guarantee was later declined when the joint venture with Royal DSM was announced. Originally scheduled to open in 2013, the facility opened a year late in September,2014
6.
Nobel Prize in Literature
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Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here work refers to an authors work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year, the academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the worlds most prestigious literature prize, many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has become seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise, whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for Swedish professors, as of 2016,16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, Nobels vague wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word translates as either idealistic or ideal. The Nobel Committees interpretation has varied over the years, in recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature and it is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 about 220 proposals are returned and these proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates, by May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature
7.
Nobel Prize for Literature
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Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here work refers to an authors work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year, the academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the worlds most prestigious literature prize, many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has become seen as a political one - a peace prize in literary disguise, whose judges are prejudiced against authors with different political tastes to them. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for Swedish professors, as of 2016,16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, Nobels vague wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word translates as either idealistic or ideal. The Nobel Committees interpretation has varied over the years, in recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that the Storting approved it. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, the Royal Swedish Academy was to award the Prize in Literature. Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature and it is not permitted to nominate oneself. Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and as of 2011 about 220 proposals are returned and these proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates, by May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The subsequent four months are spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than half of the votes is named the Nobel laureate in Literature
8.
Surrealism
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Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream, leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I, the word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works, after the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the son of writer. He admired the young writers anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition, later Breton wrote, In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most. Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and they began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields, continuing to write, they came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada form of attack on prevailing values. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin, freuds work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness, as Salvador Dalí later proclaimed, There is only one difference between a madman and me. Beside the use of analysis, they emphasized that one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power, the group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to people from false rationality, and restrictive customs. Breton proclaimed that the aim of Surrealism was long live the social revolution. To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism, in 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Guillaume Apollinaire, the other group, led by Breton, included Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Jacques Baron, Jacques-André Boiffard, Jean Carrive, René Crevel and Georges Malkine, among others. Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, in the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority
9.
Complutense University of Madrid
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The Complutense University of Madrid is a public research university located in Madrid, and one of the oldest universities in the world. The university enrolls over 86,000 students, and consistently ranks as one of the top universities in Spain, according to the Spanish newspaper El Mundo, the university is widely regarded as the most prestigious academic institution in Spain. In the course of seven centuries, the University of Madrid has provided invaluable contributions in the sciences, fine arts. Alumni include renowned philosophers, writers, scientists, historians, military leaders, foreign leaders, in the year 1785, the University of Madrid became one of the first Universities in the world to grant a Doctorate degree to a female student. By Royal Decree of 1857, the University of Madrid was the institution in Spain authorized to grant doctorates throughout the Spanish Empire. On 13 April 1499, Cardinal Cisneros secured from Pope Alexander VI a Papal bull to expand Complutense into a full university and this Papal Bull conferred official recognition throughout Christendom to all degrees granted by the University. It also renamed the institution Universitas Complutensis, after Complutum, which was the Latin name of Alcalá de Henares, in the 1509–1510 school year, the Complutense University already operated with five major schools, Arts and Philosophy, Theology, Canon law, Philology and Medicine. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Complutense University became one of the greatest centers of Academic excellence in the world, many of the leading figures in science, arts and politics of that Age studied or taught in Complutenses classrooms. Special colleges were created for students of foreign origin, such as Flemish or Irish, in 1785, Complutense became one of the first Universities in the world to grant a Doctorate to a female student, María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda. In comparison, University of Oxford did not accept female scholars until the year 1920, in 1824, Francisco Tadeo Calomarde further expanded Complutense by merging it with the University of Sigüenza. The University would be known under this name until its name of Complutense was restored in the 1970s. The University of Madrid awarded Albert Einstein a Doctor of Science degree Honoris Causa on 28 February 1923 and this was the first Doctor of Science degree Honoris Causa that Albert Einstein accepted from a European University. However, as the situation began to deteriorate throughout Europe. The University greatly expanded during the 19th century, and its accommodations in central Madrid proved to be increasingly inadequate. This situation changed in 1927, when by royal decree King Alfonso XIII officially ceded state-held lands in the proximity of the Palace of La Moncloa to establish space for the University of Madrid. A council appointed by King Alfonso XIII had decided that the new University of Madrid would require the innovative architecture and planning. Indeed, the buildings, exemplary amongst them the Schools of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odontology, are an homage to structural functionalism. The city of Alcalá de Henares decided to open a university within the campus buildings
10.
Copper Canyon Press
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Copper Canyon Press is an independent, non-profit small press, specializing in the publication of poetry and located in Port Townsend, Washington. Since 1972, the Press has published poetry exclusively, the press achieved national stature when Copper Canyon poet, W. S. Merwin later won the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and in 2010 was named United States Poet Laureate. S. The press published What About This, Collected Poems of Frank Stanford to great acclaim in 2015. In his New York Times review, Dwight Garner complimented the press for performing a vital and difficult task, national Public Radio called the books release the big event in poetry for 2015. Also in 2015, Copper Canyon Press acquired the U. S. rights to a manuscript of lost poems by Nobel Laureate Pablo Neruda. Copper Canyon was also awarded the rights to publish Neruda’s first book, Crepusulario, not only does Copper Canyon Press publish works of established poets, it also strives to publish the first books by extraordinary new poets. In 2016, Copper Canyon published two collections, Camille Rankines Incorrect Merciful Impulses and Ocean Vuongs Night Sky With Exit Wounds. W. S. Merwin -2009 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for The Shadow of Sirius Ted Kooser -2005 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for Delights and Shadows W. S
11.
Lewis Hyde
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Lewis Hyde is a scholar, essayist, translator, cultural critic and writer whose scholarly work focuses on the nature of imagination, creativity, and property. Hyde was born in Boston, the son of Elizabeth Sanford Hyde, Hyde taught writing at Harvard University, in his last year there, he directed the undergraduate writing program. From 1989 to 2001 he was the Luce Professor of Arts, since 2006 he has served as the Richard L. Thomas Professor of Creative Writing at Kenyon, and a visiting fellow at Harvards Berkman Center. He is also a Nonresident Fellow at the USC Annenberg Center for Communication, the Gift has also been cited as the inspiration for visual artist Jim Motts Itinerant Artist Project. Hyde is married to Patricia Vigderman, the couple divide their time between Gambier, Ohio and Cambridge, Massachusetts
12.
1924
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January 10 – The British submarine L-24 sinks in the English Channel,43 lives are lost. January 12 – Gopinath Saha shoots a man he thinks is Sir Charles Tegart, the police commissioner of Calcutta. January 21 – Following the death of Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin immediately begins to purge his rivals to clear the way for his leadership, January 22 – Ramsay MacDonald becomes the first Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. January 23 – The Soviet Union officially declares that Lenin died January 21, January 25 – The 1924 Winter Olympics open in Chamonix, in the French Alps. January 26 – Petrograd is renamed Leningrad and it reverts to Saint Petersburg in 1991. January 27 – Lenin is buried in Lenins Mausoleum in Moscows Red Square, february 1 – The United Kingdom recognizes the Soviet Union. February 5 – GMT, A radio time signal is broadcast for the first time from the Royal Greenwich Observatory, february 7 – Capital punishment, The first state execution using gas in the United States takes place in Nevada. February 12 – Rhapsody in Blue, by George Gershwin, is first performed in New York City at Aeolian Hall, february 14 – The Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, based in the U. S. state of New York, is renamed International Business Machines. February 16-February 26 – Dock strikes break out in various U. S. harbors, february 22 Treaty of Rome, Agreement for the Kingdom of Italy to annexe the Free State of Fiume and for the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to absorb Sušak. Calvin Coolidge becomes the first President of the United States to deliver a radio broadcast from the White House, March 3 The 1, 400-year-old Islamic caliphate is abolished when Caliph Abdülmecid II of the Ottoman Empire is deposed. The last remnant of the old regime gives way to the reformed Turkey of President Kemal Atatürk, the Free State of Fiume is annexed by the Kingdom of Italy. March 6 – İsmet İnönü forms a new government in Turkey, March 8 – The Castle Gate Mine disaster kills 172 coal miners in Utah, United States. March 25 – The Second Hellenic Republic is proclaimed in Greece, March 29 – In France, the Third Ministry of Raymond Poincaré begins. April 1 Adolf Hitler is sentenced to 5 years in jail for his participation in the Beer Hall Putsch, the first revenue flight for Belgiums Sabena Airlines takes place. April 6 – Fascists win the elections in Italy with a ⅔ majority, april 13 A referendum in Greece favors the formation of the Second Hellenic Republic. The A. E. K. is founded in Greece, april 16 – American media company Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer is founded in Los Angeles. April 23 – British Empire Exhibition opens and it was the largest colonial exhibition with 58 countries of the empire dramatically represented. April 26 – Harry Grindell Matthews demonstrates his death ray in London, april 27 – A group of Alawites kill several nuns in Syria, French troops march against them
13.
1927
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January 1 – The Cristero War erupts in Mexico when Catholic rebels attack the government, which had placed heavy restrictions on the Catholic Church. January 7 – The first transatlantic telephone call is made via radio from New York City to London, january 7 – The Harlem Globetrotters play their first ever road game in Hinckley, Illinois. January 9 – A military rebellion is crushed in Lisbon, Portugal, january 15 – Teddy Wakelam gives the first sports commentary on BBC Radio. January 19 – Great Britain sends troops to China to protect foreign nationals from spreading anti-foreign riots in Central China, january 24 – U. S. marines invade Nicaragua by orders of President Calvin Coolidge, intervening in the Nicaraguan Civil War and remaining in the country until 1933. January 30 – Right-wing veterans and the Republikanischer Schutzbund clash in Schattendorf, Austria, february – Werner Heisenberg formulates his famous uncertainty principle while employed as a lecturer at Niels Bohrs Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen. February 12 – The first British troops land in Shanghai, february 14 – An earthquake in Yugoslavia kills 100. February 19 A general strike in Shanghai protests the presence of British troops, in the United States, the silent romantic comedy film It starring Clara Bow, is released, popularising the concept of the It girl. February 23 – The U. S. Federal Radio Commission begins to regulate the use of radio frequencies, March 4 – A diamond rush in South Africa includes trained athletes that have been hired by major companies to stake claims. March 7 – The 7.0 Mw Kita Tango earthquake kills at least 2,925 in the Toyooka and Mineyama areas, western Honshu, March 10 – Albania mobilizes in case of an attack by Yugoslavia. March 11 In New York City, the Roxy Theatre is opened by Samuel Roxy Rothafel, the first armored car robbery is committed by the Flatheads Gang near Pittsburgh. March 13 – Fritz Langs culturally influential film Metropolis premieres in Germany. S, Navy and the British Royal Navy fire shells and shot to disperse the crowds. April 1 – The U. S. Bureau of Prohibition is founded, April 5 – In Britain, the Trade Disputes and Trade Unions Act 1927 forbids strikes of support. April 7 – Bell Telephone Co. transmits an image of Herbert Hoover, April 12 The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 renames the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The change acknowledges that the Irish Free State is no part of the Kingdom. Kuomintang troops kill a number of communist-supporting workers in Shanghai, the incident is called the April 12 Incident, or the Shanghai Massacre. The 1st United Front between the Nationalists and Communist ends, and the Civil War lasting until 1949 begins, April 14 – The first Volvo automobile rolled off the production line in Gothenburg, Sweden. April 18 – The Kuomintang set up a government in Nanking, April 21 – A banking crisis hits Japan. April 22–May 5 – The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 strikes 700,000 people in the greatest natural disaster in American history through that time, April 27 The Carabineros de Chile are created
14.
1928
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January – English bacteriologist Frederick Griffith reports the results of Griffiths experiment, indirectly proving the existence of DNA. January 1 Estonia changes its currency from the mark to the kroon, abolition of domestic slavery in the British Protectorate of Sierra Leone comes into effect. Eastern Bloc emigration and defection, Boris Bazhanov, Joseph Stalins personal secretary, January 6–7 – The River Thames floods in London,14 drown. On January 7 the moat at the Tower of London is completely refilled by the river, January 12 – Convicted American murderer Ruth Snyder is executed at Sing Sing. January 17 – The OGPU arrests Leon Trotsky in Moscow, he assumes a status of passive resistance, January 26 – The volcanic island Anak Krakatau appears. January 31 – Leon Trotsky is exiled to Alma-Ata, february 8 – British inventor John Logie Baird broadcasts a transatlantic television signal from London to Hartsdale, New York. February 11–19 – The 1928 Winter Olympics are held in St. Moritz, Switzerland, sonja Henie of Norway wins her first gold medal in womens figure skating. February 12 – Heavy hail kills 11 in Britain, february 20 – The Japanese general election produces a hung parliament. February 25 – Charles Jenkins Laboratories of Washington, D. C. becomes the first holder of a license from the Federal Radio Commission. March 12 – In California, the St. Francis Dam north of Los Angeles fails, March 15 March 15 incident, The Japanese government cracks down on socialists and communists. Chinese warlord Shi Yousan sets fire to the Shaolin Monastery in Henan, destroying some of its ancient structures, March 21 – Charles Lindbergh is presented with the Medal of Honor for his first Transatlantic flight. March 26 – The China Academy of Art is founded in Hangzhou, april 10 – Pineapple Primary, The United States Republican Party primary elections in Chicago are preceded by violence, bombings and assassination attempts. April 12 – A bomb attack against Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini in Milan kills 17 bystanders, april 12–14 – The first ever east–west transatlantic flight by aeroplane takes place from Dublin, Ireland, to Greenly Island, Canada, using German Junkers W33 Bremen. April 14 – Two earthquakes in Chirpan and Plovdiv in Bulgaria destroy more than 21,000 buildings, april 19 – The last section of the original Oxford English Dictionary is completed and published. April 22 – An Ms 6.0 earthquake affects southern Greece with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX, leaving 20 dead, a non-destructive tsunami was also observed. April 28 –28 inches of snow fall in southern-central Pennsylvania, may 3 – Jinan incident, An armed conflict between the Imperial Japanese Army allied with Northern Chinese warlords against the Kuomintangs southern army, occurs in Jinan, China. May 7 – Passage of the Representation of the People Act in the United Kingdom lowers the age for women from 30 to 21 giving them equal suffrage with men from July 2. May 10 – The first regular schedule of television programming begins in Schenectady, may 15 The Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia commences operations
15.
Golden Age
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By definition, one is never in the Golden Age. By extension Golden Age denotes a period of peace, harmony, stability. During this age peace and harmony prevailed, people did not have to work to feed themselves and they lived to a very old age with a youthful appearance, eventually dying peacefully, with spirits living on as guardians. Plato in Cratylus recounts the golden race of humans who came first and he clarifies that Hesiod did not mean literally made of gold, but good and noble. There are analogous concepts in the religious and philosophical traditions of the South Asian subcontinent, for example, the Vedic or ancient Hindu culture saw history as cyclical, composed of yugas with alternating Dark and Golden Ages. The Kali yuga, Dwapara yuga, Treta yuga and Satya yuga correspond to the four Greek ages, similar beliefs occur in the ancient Middle East and throughout the ancient world, as well. In classical Greek mythology the Golden Age was presided over by the leading Titan Cronus, in some version of the myth Astraea also ruled. The earliest attested reference to the European myth of the Ages of Man 500 BC-350 BC appears in the late 6th century BC works of the Greek poet Hesiods Works and Days. Hesiod, a deteriorationist, identifies the Golden Age, the Silver Age, the Bronze Age, the Heroic Age, with the exception of the Heroic Age, each succeeding age was worse than the one that went before. When they died, it was as though they were overcome with sleep and they dwelt in ease and peace. Plato in his Cratylus referred to an age of men and also expounded at some length on Ages of Man from Hesiods Works. The Roman poet Ovid simplified the concept by reducing the number of Ages to four, Gold, Bronze, Silver, in Hesiods version, the Golden Age ended when the Titan Prometheus conferred on mankind the gift of fire and all the other arts. For this, Zeus punished Prometheus by chaining him to a rock in the Caucasus, the gods sent the beautiful maiden Pandora to Prometheuss brother Epimetheus. The Orphic school, a cult that originated in Thrace and spread to Greece in the 5th century BCE, held similar beliefs about the early days of man. In common with the other mystery cults prevalent in the Graeco-Roman world. Initiation into its secret rites, together with ascetic practices, was supposed to guarantee the individuals soul eventual release from the circle of mortality. Orphics sometimes identified the Golden Age with the era of the god Phanes, in classical mythology however, the Golden Age was associated with the reign of Saturn. However, in the 3rd century BCE, the Greek poet, Theocritus, writing in Alexandria, set his poetry in on the lushly fertile island of Sicily
16.
1932
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January 1 – The United States Post Office Department issues a set of 12 stamps commemorating the 200th anniversary of George Washingtons birth. January 3 – The British arrest and intern Mohandas Gandhi and Vallabhbhai Patel, January 7 – The Stimson Doctrine is proclaimed, in response to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. January 8 – In Great Britain the Archbishop of Canterbury forbids Anglican church remarriage of divorced persons, January 9 – Sakuradamon Incident, Korean nationalist Lee Bong-chang fails in his effort to assassinate Hirohito Emperor of Japan. The Kuomintangs official newspaper runs an editorial expressing regret that the attempt failed, January 12 – Hattie W. Caraway becomes the first woman elected to the United States Senate. January 14 – Maurice Ravels Concerto in G debuts with piano soloist Marguerite Long, January 15 – About 6 million are unemployed in Germany. January 26 – The British submarine M2 sinks with all 60 hands, January 28 – Conflict between Japan and China in the Battle of Shanghai. January 29 – The minority government of Karl Buresch in Austria ends the governmental crisis, January 31 – Japanese warships arrive in Nanking. February 1 – Brave New World, a novel by Aldous Huxley, is first published, february 2 A general World Disarmament Conference begins in Geneva. The principal issue at the conference is the demand made by Germany for gleichberechtigung, the League of Nations again recommends negotiations between the Republic of China and Japan. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation begins operations in Washington, D. C, february 4 The 1932 Winter Olympics open in Lake Placid, New York. February 11 – Pope Pius XI meets Benito Mussolini in Vatican City, february 18 – Japan declares Manchukuo formally independent from China. February 22 – The first Purple Heart is awarded, february 24 – Womens suffrage is granted in Brazil. February 25 – Adolf Hitler obtains German citizenship by naturalization, opening the opportunity for him to run in the 1932 election for Reichspräsident, february 27 – The Mäntsälä rebellion occurs in Finland. March 1 Charles Lindbergh, Jr. the infant son of Anne Morrow Lindbergh and Charles Lindbergh, is kidnapped from the home near Hopewell. Japan proclaims Manchuria an independent state and installs Puyi as puppet emperor, march 2 – The Mäntsälä rebellion ends in failure, Finnish democracy prevails. The Lapua Movement is condemned by conservative Finnish President Pehr Evind Svinhufvud in a radio speech, march 5 – Dan Takuma, prominent Japanese businessman and director of the Mitsui Zaibatsu conglomerate is assassinated by the radical right-wing League of Blood group. March 7 – Four people are killed when police fire upon 3,000 unemployed autoworkers marching outside the Ford River Rouge Plant in Dearborn, march 9 – Éamon de Valera is elected President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State. It is the first change of government in the Irish Free State since its foundation 10 years previously, march 14 – George Eastman, founder of Kodak, commits suicide
17.
Arthur Rimbaud
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Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud was a French poet who is known for his influence on modern literature and arts, which prefigured surrealism. Rimbaud was known to have been a libertine and for being a restless soul, having engaged in an at times violent romantic relationship with fellow poet Paul Verlaine, which lasted nearly two years. After the end of his career, he traveled extensively on three continents as a merchant before his death from cancer just after his thirty-seventh birthday. As a poet, Rimbaud is well known for his contributions to Symbolism and, among other works, A Season in Hell, Arthur Rimbaud was born in the provincial town of Charleville in the Ardennes département in northeastern France. He was the child of Frédéric Rimbaud and Marie Catherine Vitalie Cuif. Rimbauds father, a Burgundian of Provençal extraction, was an infantry captain risen from the ranks, from 1844 to 1850, he participated in the conquest of Algeria, and in 1854 was awarded the Légion dhonneur by Imperial decree. Captain Rimbaud was described as good-tempered, easy-going and generous, with the long moustaches and goatee of a Chasseur officer. In October 1852, Captain Rimbaud, then aged 38, was transferred to Mézières where he met Vitalie Cuif,11 years his junior and she came from a solidly established Ardennais family, but one with its share of bohemians, two of her brothers were alcoholics. Her personality was the exact opposite of Captain Rimbauds, she was narrowminded, stingy, completely lacking in a sense of humour. When Charles Houin, a biographer, interviewed her, he found her withdrawn. Arthur Rimbauds private name for her was Mouth of Darkness, nevertheless, on 8 February 1853, Captain Rimbaud and Vitalie Cuif married, their first-born, Jean Nicolas Frédéric, arrived nine months later on 2 November. The next year, on 20 October 1854, Jean Nicolas Arthur was born, three more children followed, Victorine-Pauline-Vitalie on 4 June 1857, Jeanne-Rosalie-Vitalie on 15 June 1858 and, finally, Frédérique Marie Isabelle on 1 June 1860. Though the marriage lasted seven years, Captain Rimbaud lived continuously in the home for less than three months, from February to May 1853. The rest of the time his military postings—including active service in the Crimean War and he was not at home for his childrens births, nor their baptisms. Isabelles birth in 1860 must have been the last straw, as after this Captain Rimbaud stopped returning home on leave entirely. Though they never divorced, the separation was complete, thereafter Mme Rimbaud let herself be known as Widow Rimbaud, neither the captain nor his children showed the slightest interest in re-establishing contact. Fearing her children were being over-influenced by the children of the poor. Rimbaud moved her family to the Cours dOrléans in 1862 and this was a better neighbourhood, and the boys, now aged nine and eight, who had been taught at home by their mother, were now sent to the Pension Rossat
18.
Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
19.
1935
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January – Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia creates a military school at Holeta. January 1 – The Italian colonies of Tripoli and Cyrenaica are joined together as Libya, january 3 – The trial of Bruno Richard Hauptmann, accused of the kidnapping and murder of Charles Lindbergh, Jr. begins in Flemington, New Jersey. January 4 – Dry Tortugas National Park is established, january 7 – Italian premier Benito Mussolini and French Foreign Minister Pierre Laval conclude an agreement in which each power agrees not to oppose the others colonial claims. January 11 – Amelia Earhart becomes the first person to fly solo from Hawaii to California, january 13 – A plebiscite in the Territory of the Saar Basin shows that 90. 3% of those voting wish to join Germany. January 16 – The FBI kills the Barker Gang, including Ma Barker, january 19 – Coopers Inc. sells the worlds first mens briefs, as jockeys, in Chicago. January 24 – The first canned beer is sold in Richmond, Virginia, United States, january 28 – Iceland legalizes abortion on medical grounds. February 6 – Parker Brothers begins selling the board game Monopoly in the United States, february 23 – The classic Mickey Mouse cartoon The Band Concert is released by United Artists in the United States. February 26 In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler orders reinstatement of the air force, Robert Watson-Watt first demonstrates the use of radar to detect aircraft at Daventry in England. February 28 – Ladby ship, Viking ship grave discovered in Denmark, March 11935 Greek coup détat attempt, Nikolaos Plastiras, Anastasios Papoulas and other Venizelists lead a coup against the Peoples Party government in Greece. The attempt is suppressed by March 11 and the condemned to death for treason. İsmet İnönü forms the new government in Turkey, March 2 – King Prajadhipok of Siam abdicates the throne. He is succeeded by his 9-year-old-nephew Ananda Mahidol, March 8 – Faithful dog Hachikō dies on the spot where he had awaited his dead owner for nine years in Japan. March 9 – Porky Pig makes his debut as the first major Looney Tunes character in I Havent Got a Hat, March 16 – Adolf Hitler announces German re-armament in violation of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. March 19 – Harlem riot of 1935, A race riot breaks out in Harlem after a rumor circulates that a teenage Puerto Rican shoplifter in the S. H. Kress & Co. department store has been brutally beaten, March 21 – Persia is renamed Iran. March 22 – The worlds first television program by Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow is transmitted from the Funkturm in Berlin, april 1 – The North American NA-16, prototype of the North American T-6 Texan or Harvard flying trainer, flies for the first time. April 14 – Dust Bowl, The great dust storm in the United States hits eastern New Mexico and Colorado and it will be made famous by Woody Guthrie in his dust bowl ballads. April 15 – Roerich Pact, a Pan-American treaty on the protection of cultural artefacts, is signed in Washington D. C, april 16 – Fibber McGee and Molly debuts on NBC Radio in the United States. April 17 – Sun Myung Moon, a teenage Presbyterian convert in Korea under Japanese rule, april 27 – FA Cup, Sheffield Wednesday F. C. beat West Bromwich Albion 4–2 at Wembley Stadium in England
20.
1944
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Below, events of World War II have the WWII prefix. January 2 – WWII, Free French General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny is appointed to command French Army B, Landing at Saidor,13,000 US and Australian troops land on Papua New Guinea in an attempt to cut off a Japanese retreat. January 8 – WWII, Philippine Commonwealth troops enter the province of Ilocos Sur in northern Luzon, january 11 President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt proposes a Second Bill of Rights for social and economic security in his State of the Union address. Nazi German administration expanded Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp into larger and standalone Konzentrationslager Plaszow bei Krakau, january 12 – Winston Churchill and Charles de Gaulle begin a 2-day wartime conference in Marrakech. Fifth Army commanded by Lieutenant-General Mark W. Clark arrive on the River Garigliano, the French Expeditionary Corps under command of General Alphonse Juin moves into the mountains north of Monte Cassino. January 14 – WWII, Soviet troops start the offensive at Leningrad, january 15 WWII, The 27th Polish Home Army Infantry Division is re-created, marking the start of Operation Tempest by the Polish Home Army. 1944 San Juan earthquake, An earthquake hits San Juan, Argentina, january 17 – WWII, British forces in Italy cross the Garigliano river. The Battle of Monte Cassino begins in Italy, the Soviet Union ceases production of the Mosin–Nagant 1891/30 sniper rifle. January 20 – WWII, The Royal Air Force drops 2,300 tons of bombs on Berlin, the United States 36th Infantry Division, in Italy, attempts to cross the Rapido River. January 22 – WWII, Operation Shingle, The Allies begin the assault on Anzio, the U. S. 45th Infantry Division stand their ground at Anzio against violent assaults for 4 months. January 27 – WWII, The 2-year Siege of Leningrad is lifted, january 29 – WWII, Koniuchy massacre, Soviet and Jewish partisans kill at least 38 villagers in Koniuchy, Poland. Light cruiser HMS Spartan is sunk by a Henschel Hs 293 guided missile from a German aircraft off Anzio, western Italy, january 30 – WWII, The Battle of Cisterna opens as United States Army Rangers attempt to break out of the Anzio beachhead. United States troops invade Majuro, Marshall Islands, january 31 – WWII, Battle of Kwajalein, American forces land on Kwajalein Atoll and other islands in the Japanese-held Marshall Islands. February 1 – WWII, Pacific War – United States troops land in the Marshall Islands, february 2 – The first issue of Human Events is published in Washington, D. C. February 3 – WWII, United States troops capture the Marshall Islands, february 7 – WWII, At Anzio, German forces launch a counteroffensive. February 8 – WWII,2,765 drown when USS Snook torpedoes Lima Maru,2,670 drown when HMS Sportsman torpedoes Petrella. February 14 – WWII, An anti-Japanese revolt breaks out on Java, february 15 – WWII – Battle of Monte Cassino, The monastery atop Monte Cassino is destroyed by Allied bombing. February 17 – WWII, Pacific War – The Battle of Eniwetok begins when U. S. forces invade the atoll in the Marshall Islands, february 18 – WWII, HMS Penelope torpedoed by the German U-boat
21.
Luis Cernuda
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Luis Cernuda was a Spanish poet, a member of the Generation of 27. During the Spanish Civil War, in early 1938, he went to the UK to deliver some lectures and he taught in the universities of Glasgow and Cambridge before moving in 1947 to the US. In the 1950s he moved to Mexico, while he continued to write poetry, he also published wide-ranging books of critical essays, covering French, English and German as well as Spanish literature. He was frank about his homosexuality at a time when this was problematic and his collected poems were published under the title La realidad y el deseo. Cernuda was born in the Barrio Santa Cruz, Calle Conde de Tójar 6, in Seville in 1902, the son of a colonel in the Regiment of Engineers. His first encounter with poetry came at the age of 9 when he glanced through a copy of Bécquers Rimas that had lent to his sisters by their cousins Luisa. In 1914, the moved into the Engineers Barracks in the Prado. In 1918, they moved to Calle del Aire, where he would write the poems of Perfil del aire. In 1919 he began to study Law at the University of Seville and his extreme shyness prevented him from mentioning his literary activities until Salinas notice was caught by a prose poem published in a student magazine. He gave Cernuda encouragement and urged him to both classical Spanish poetry and modern French literature. It was at Salinas suggestion that Cernuda sent his first collection of poetry, Perfil del aire, to Altolaguirre and Prados, as was the practice in those days, many such magazines published collections of poetry as supplements. His father died in 1920 and he continued to live at home with his mother, in 1923 he did military service in the Regiment of Cavalry. In 1924, as he was reaching the end of his undergraduate course and these stimulated his poetic vocation and helped to guide his readings of French literature. He became a Bachelor of Law in September 1925 but was undecided about what to do next and he thought about joining the diplomatic service but decided not to on discovering that it would entail a move to Madrid. In October, Salinas arranged for him to make the acquaintance of Juan Ramón Jiménez in the gardens of the Alcázar of Seville. Although he later described himself at that time as inexperto, aislado en Sevilla and his indecision about a choice of career continued through 1926-27. Although he took no part in the proceedings, he did get the chance to read some of his poems. His mother died in July 1928 and, at the start of September and he spent a few days in Málaga with Altolaguirre, Prados and José María Hinojosa before moving to Madrid
22.
Symbol
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A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
23.
Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)
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Garcilaso de la Vega was a Spanish soldier and poet. Although not the first or the one to do so, he was the most influential poet to introduce Italian Renaissance verse forms, poetic techniques. He was well known in poetic circles during his lifetime, and his poetry was published posthumously by Juan Boscán in 1543, and it has been the subject of several annotated editions, the first and most famous of which appeared in 1574. Garcilaso was born in the Spanish city of Toledo and his father, Pedro Suárez de Figueroa, was a nobleman in the royal court of the Catholic Monarchs. His mothers name was Sancha de Guzmán, Garcilaso was the second son which meant he did not receive the mayorazgo to his fathers estate. However, he spent his younger years receiving an education, mastered five languages, and learned how to play the zither, lute. When his father died in 1509, Garcilaso received an inheritance from his father. After his schooling, he joined the military in hopes of joining the royal guard and he was named contino of Charles V in 1520, and he was made a member of the Order of Santiago in 1523. There were a few women in the life of this poet and his first lover was Guiomar Carrillo, with whom he had an illegitimate child. He had another suspected lover named Isabel Freire, who was a lady-in-waiting of Isabel of Portugal, in 1525, Garcilaso married Elena de Zúñiga, who served as a lady-in-waiting for the Kings favorite sister, Leonor. Their marriage took place in Garcilasos hometown of Toledo in one of the familys estates and he had six children, Lorenzo, an illegitimate child with Guiomar Carrillo, Garcilaso, Íñigo de Zúñiga, Pedro de Guzmán, Sancha, and Francisco. Garcilasos military career meant that he took part in the numerous battles and his duties took him to Italy, Germany, Tunisia and France. In 1532 for a period he was exiled to a Danube island where he was the guest of the Count György Cseszneky. Later in France, he would fight his last battle, the King desired to take control of Marseille and eventually control of the Mediterranean Sea, but this goal was never realized. Garcilaso de la Vega died on 14 October 1536 in Nice and his body was first buried in the Church of St. Dominic in Nice, but two years later his wife had his body moved to the Church of San Pedro Martir in Toledo. Garcilaso de la Vega is best known for his love poetry that contrasts the playful poetry of his predecessors. He seemed to progress through three episodes of his life which are reflected in his works. Influenced by many Italian Renaissance poets, Garcilaso adapted the eleven-syllable line to the Spanish language in his sonetos, mostly written in the 1520s, increasing the number of syllables in the verse from eight to eleven allowed for greater flexibility
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
25.
List of Nobel laureates in Literature
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The Nobel Prize in Literature is awarded annually by the Swedish Academy to authors for outstanding contributions in the field of literature. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which are awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. As dictated by Nobels will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation, the first Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded in 1901 to Sully Prudhomme of France. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary prize that has varied throughout the years. In 1901, Prudhomme received 150,782 SEK, which is equivalent to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007, the award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. As of 2016, the Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded to 113 individuals, when he received the award in 1958, Russian-born Boris Pasternak was forced to publicly reject the award under pressure from the government of the Soviet Union. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre made known that he did not wish to accept the Nobel Prize in Literature, however the Nobel committee does not acknowledge refusals, and includes Pasternak and Sartre in its list of Nobel laureates. Fourteen women have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, more than any other Nobel Prize with the exception of the Nobel Peace Prize. Among all the years the Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded, there have been seven years in which the Nobel Prize in Literature was not awarded. The country with the most recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature is France, with 16, followed by the United States with 11, the 113 Nobel laureates in literature from 1901 to 2016 have come from the following countries, One Nobel laureate is classified as stateless. These three Nobel laureates have been sorted under Bengali, French and Russian, respectively, the 113 Nobel laureates in literature from 1901 to 2016 were from the following genders, General Specific Notes
26.
Sully Prudhomme
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René François Armand Prudhomme was a French poet and essayist. He was the first ever winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1901, born in Paris, Prudhomme originally studied to be an engineer, but turned to philosophy and later to poetry, he declared it as his intention to create scientific poetry for modern times. In character sincere and melancholic, he was linked to the Parnassus school, although, at the same time, Prudhomme was born to a French shopkeeper. Prudhomme attended the Lycée Bonaparte, but eye trouble interrupted his studies and he worked for a while in the Creusot region for the Schneider steel foundry, and then began studying law in a notarys office. The favourable reception of his poems by the Conférence La Bruyère encouraged him to begin a literary career. His first collection, Stances et Poèmes, was praised by Sainte-Beuve and it included his most famous poem, Le vase brisé. He published more poetry before the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War and this war, which he discussed in Impressions de la guerre and La France, permanently damaged his health. The inspiration was clearly Lucretiuss De rerum natura, for the first book of which he made a verse translation and his philosophy was expressed in La Justice and Le Bonheur. The extreme economy of means employed in these poems has, however and he was elected to the Académie française in 1881. Another distinction, Chevalier de la Légion d’honneur, was to follow in 1895, after, Le Bonheur, Prudhomme turned from poetry to write essays on aesthetics and philosophy. The first writer to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature, he devoted the bulk of the money he received to the creation of a prize awarded by the Société des gens de lettres. He also founded, in 1902, the Société des poètes français with Jose-Maria de Heredia, at the end of his life, his poor health forced him to live almost as a recluse at Châtenay-Malabry, suffering attacks of paralysis while continuing to work on essays. He died suddenly on 6 September 1907, and was buried at Père-Lachaise in Paris,1901, Testament poétique 1905, La vraie religion selon Pascal 1922, Journal intime, lettres-pensée Gale Contemporary Authors Online, from the Gale Biography Resource Center database Petri Liukkonen. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013
27.
Theodor Mommsen
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His work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental importance for contemporary research. He was also a prominent German politician, as a member of the Prussian and German parliaments and his works on Roman law and on the law of obligations had a significant impact on the German civil code. Mommsen was born to German parents in Garding in the Duchy of Schleswig in 1817, then ruled by the king of Denmark, and grew up in Bad Oldesloe in Holstein and he studied mostly at home, though he attended the gymnasium Christianeum in Altona for four years. He studied Greek and Latin and received his diploma in 1837, as he could not afford to study at Göttingen, he enrolled at the University of Kiel. Mommsen studied jurisprudence at Kiel from 1838 to 1843, finishing his studies with the degree of Doctor of Roman Law, during this time he was the roommate of Theodor Storm, who was later to become a renowned poet. Together with Mommsens brother Tycho, the three friends even published a collection of poems, thanks to a royal Danish grant, Mommsen was able to visit France and Italy to study preserved classical Roman inscriptions. During the revolution of 1848 he worked as a war correspondent in then-Danish Rendsburg, supporting the German annexation of Schleswig-Holstein, having been forced to leave the country by the Danes, he became a professor of law in the same year at the University of Leipzig. When Mommsen protested against the new constitution of Saxony in 1851, however, the next year he obtained a professorship in Roman law at the University of Zurich and then spent a couple of years in exile. In 1854 he became a professor of law at the University of Breslau where he met Jakob Bernays, Mommsen became a research professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1857. He later helped to create and manage the German Archaeological Institute in Rome. In 1858 Mommsen was appointed a member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and he became professor of Roman History at the University of Berlin in 1861. At 2 a. m. on 7 July 1880 a fire occurred in the upper floor workroom-library of Mommsens house at Marchstraße 6 in Berlin, after being burned while attempting to remove valuable papers, he was restrained from returning to the blazing house. Several old manuscripts were burnt to ashes, including Manuscript 0.4.36, there is information that the important Manuscript of Jordanes from Heidelberg University library was burnt. Two other important manuscripts, from Brussels and Halle, were also destroyed, Mommsen was an indefatigable worker who rose at five to do research in his library. People often saw him reading whilst walking in the streets, Mommsen had sixteen children with his wife Marie. Their oldest daughter Maria married Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, the great Classics scholar and their grandson Theodor Ernst Mommsen became a professor of medieval history in the United States. Two of the great-grandsons, Hans Mommsen and Wolfgang Mommsen, were prominent German historians, Mommsen published over 1,500 works, and effectively established a new framework for the systematic study of Roman history. He pioneered epigraphy, the study of inscriptions in material artifacts
28.
Henryk Sienkiewicz
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Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz was a Polish journalist, novelist and the Nobel Prize laureate. He is best remembered for his novels, especially for his internationally known best-seller Quo Vadis. Born into an impoverished Polish noble family in Russian-ruled Congress Poland, in the late 1860s he began publishing journalistic, in the late 1870s he traveled to the United States, sending back travel essays that won him popularity with Polish readers. In the 1880s he began serializing novels that further increased his popularity, many of his novels remain in print. The Trilogy and Quo Vadis have been filmed, the several times. Sienkiewicz was born on 5 May 1846 in Wola Okrzejska, now a village in the part of eastern Polish region of Lubelskie. His family were impoverished Polish nobles, on his fathers side deriving from Tatars who had settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and his parents were Józef Sienkiewicz and Stefania, née Cieciszowska. He had five siblings, a brother, Kazimierz, and four sisters, Aniela, Helena. His family were entitled to use the Polish Oszyk coat of arms, Wola Okrzejska belonged to the writers maternal grandmother, Felicjana Cieciszowska. His family moved several times, and young Henryk spent his childhood on family estates in Grabowce Górne, Wężyczyn, in September 1858 he began his education in Warsaw, where the family would finally settle in 1861, having bought a tenement house in eastern Warsaws Praga district. He received relatively poor school grades except in the humanities, notably Polish language, due to the hard times, 19-year-old Sienkiewicz took a job as tutor to the Weyher family in Płońsk. It was probably in this period that he wrote his first novel, Ofiara and he also worked on his first novel to be published, Na marne. He completed extramural secondary-school classes, and in 1866 he received his secondary-school diploma, Little is known about this period of his life, other than that he moved out of his parents home, tutored part-time, and lived in poverty. His situation improved somewhat in 1868 when he became tutor to the princely Woroniecki family, in 1867 he wrote a rhymed piece, Sielanka Młodości, which was rejected by Tygodnik Ilustrowany. He completed his university studies in 1871, though he failed to receive a diploma because he did not pass the examination in Greek language, Sienkiewicz also wrote for Gazeta Polska and Niwa, under the pen name Litwos. In 1873 he began writing a column, Bez tytułu, in The Polish Gazette, in 1874 a column, Sprawy bieżące for Niwa and he also collaborated on a Polish translation, published in 1874, of Victor Hugos last novel, Ninety-Three. In June that year, he became co-owner of Niwa, meanwhile, in 1872, he had debuted as a fiction writer with his short novel Na marne, published in the magazine Wieniec. This was followed by Humoreski z teki Woroszyłły, Stary Sługa, Hania, the last three are known as the Little Trilogy
29.
Rudyard Kipling
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Joseph Rudyard Kipling was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. Kiplings works of fiction include The Jungle Book, Kim, and many short stories and his poems include Mandalay, Gunga Din, The Gods of the Copybook Headings, The White Mans Burden, and If—. Kipling was one of the most popular writers in the United Kingdom, Henry James said, Kipling strikes me personally as the most complete man of genius, as distinct from fine intelligence, that I have ever known. In 1907, at the age of 42, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize and its youngest recipient to date. He was also sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and on occasions for a knighthood. Kiplings subsequent reputation has changed according to the political and social climate of the age, George Orwell called him a prophet of British imperialism. Literary critic Douglas Kerr wrote, is still an author who can inspire passionate disagreement and his place in literary, but as the age of the European empires recedes, he is recognised as an incomparable, if controversial, interpreter of how empire was experienced. That, and a recognition of his extraordinary narrative gifts. Rudyard Kipling was born on 30 December 1865, in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, to Alice Kipling, Alice was a vivacious woman about whom Lord Dufferin would say, Dullness and Mrs. Kipling cannot exist in the same room. Lockwood Kipling, a sculptor and pottery designer, was the Principal, John Lockwood and Alice had met in 1863 and courted at Rudyard Lake in Rudyard, Staffordshire, England. They married and moved to India in 1865 and they had been so moved by the beauty of the Rudyard Lake area that when their first child was born they referenced it when naming him. Alices sister Georgiana was married to painter Edward Burne-Jones, and her sister Agnes was married to painter Edward Poynter, Kiplings most famous relative was his first cousin, Stanley Baldwin, who was Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times in the 1920s and 1930s. Kiplings birth home on the campus of the J J School of Art in Bombay for many years was used as the Deans residence. Although the cottage bears a plaque stating that this is the site where Kipling was born, the original cottage may have torn down decades ago. Some historians and conservationists are also of the view that the bungalow merely marks a site close to the home of his birth, as the bungalow was built in 1882, Kipling seems to have also said so to the dean when he visited J J School in the 1930s. Kipling was to write of Bombay, According to Bernice M. Murphy, Kipling’s parents considered themselves Anglo-Indians and so too would their son, complex issues of identity and national allegiance would become prominent features in his fiction. So one spoke English, haltingly translated out of the idiom that one thought. Kiplings days of light and darkness in Bombay ended when he was five years old
30.
Rudolf Christoph Eucken
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Rudolf Christoph Eucken was a German philosopher. Eucken was born on 5 January 1846 in Aurich, then in the Kingdom of Hanover and his father, Ammo Becker Eucken died when he was a child, and he was brought up by his mother, Ida Maria. He was educated at Aurich, where one of his teachers was the classical philologist and he studied at Göttingen University, where Hermann Lotze was one of his teachers, and Berlin University. In the latter place, Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg was a professor whose ethical tendencies, Eucken received his Ph. D. in classical philology and ancient history at Göttingen University in 1866 with a dissertation under the title De Aristotelis dicendi ratione. However, the bent of his mind was definitely towards the side of theology. He stayed there until 1874 when he took up a position at the University of Jena. He stayed there until he retired in 1920, from 1913–1914 he served as guest lecturer at New York University. During World War I, Eucken, like many of his academic colleagues, Euckens philosophical work is partly historical and partly constructive, the former side being predominant in his earlier, the latter in his later works. Their most striking feature is the organic relationship between the two parts. The aim of the works is to show the necessary connexion between philosophical concepts and the age to which they belong, the same idea is at the root of his constructive speculation. All philosophy is philosophy of life, the development of a new culture, not mere intellectualism and this practical idealism Eucken described by the term ethical activism. In accordance with this principle, Eucken gave considerable attention to social and educational problems and he maintained that humans have souls, and that they are therefore at the junction between nature and spirit. He believed that people should overcome their non-spiritual nature by continuous efforts to achieve a life, another aspect of his ethical activism. He married Irene Passow in 1882 and had a daughter and two sons and his son Walter Eucken became a famous founder of ordoliberal thought in economics. His son Arnold Eucken was a chemist/physicist, Rudolf Eucken died on 15 September 1926 in Jena at the age of 80. Main Currents of Modern Thought, A Study of the Spiritual and Intellectual Movements of the Present Day, the Meaning and Value of Life, A. and C. Collected Essays, T. Fisher Unwin,1914 and he delivered lectures in England in 1911 and spent six months lecturing at Harvard University and elsewhere in the United States in 1912–1913. Rudolf Eucken, His Philosophy and Influence, Charles Scribners Sons,1913, Rudolf Euckens Philosophy, The Dublin Review, Vol. CLV, July/October,1914
31.
Paul Heyse
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Paul Johann Ludwig von Heyse was a distinguished German writer and translator. A member of two important literary societies, the Tunnel über der Spree in Berlin and Die Krokodile in Munich, he wrote novels, poetry,177 short stories, the sum of Heyses many and varied productions made him a dominant figure among German men of letters. Wirsen, one of the Nobel judges, said that Germany has not had a literary genius since Goethe. Heyse is the fifth oldest laureate in literature, after Doris Lessing, Theodor Mommsen, Alice Munro, paul Heyse was born on 15 March 1830 in Heiliggeiststraße, Berlin. His paternal grandfather Johann Christian August Heyse, was a famous German grammarian, Heyse attended the renamed Friedrich-Wilhelms-Gymnasium until 1847. He was later remembered as a model student, after leaving school Heyse began studying classical philology. He met Jacob Burckhardt, Adolph Menzel, Theodor Fontane and Theodor Storm, frühlingsanfang 1848, the first of Heyses poems to see print, expressed his enthusiasm for the recent Revolution. After a brief excursion to see the student militias he returned home without joining them, apparently out of consideration for the concerns of his parents and friends. Having studied for two years at the University of Berlin he left for Bonn in April 1849 in order to art history. Heyses first book, Der Jungbrunnen was published anonymously by his father that year as was his tragedy Francesca von Rimini. About the same time, Heyse received from the publisher Alexander Duncker a manuscript by the then-unknown Theodor Storm, Heyses enthusiastic critique of Sommergeschichten und Lieder laid the foundations of their future friendship. In 1851 Heyse won a contest held by the members of the Tunnel for the ballad Das Tal von Espigno, wolf also set poems from Heyses collection Italienisches Liederbuch of 1860. Throughout his career Heyse worked as a translator, above all of Italian literature, in May 1852 Heyse was awarded a doctorate for his work on the troubadours, and a Prussian scholarship allowed him to depart for Italy to look for old Provençal manuscripts. He made friends with Arnold Böcklin and Joseph Victor von Scheffel but was banned from the Vatican library after being discovered copying passages from unpublished manuscripts, much of his new writing appeared in the Argo, the yearbook of the Rütli writers. Emanuel Geibel persuaded the King of Bavaria, Maximilian II, to grant Heyse a titular professorship in Munich, Heyse was thus appointed professor of Romance philology, although he never taught at that citys university. After his marriage on 15 May to Margarete Kugler he arrived in Munich on 25 May 1854, in December Heyse began a long correspondence with Eduard Mörike. On 22 August 1855 Heyses first son, Franz, was born, Heyse would have four children by his first marriage, Franz, Julie or Lulu, Ernst and Clara. On 30 September 1862, his wife Margarete died in Meran of a lung illness and he completed the historical drama, Ludwig der Bayer – a Bavarian period piece which Maximilian II had long been eager to see – but its theatrical production was a failure
32.
Maurice Maeterlinck
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Maurice Polydore Marie Bernard Maeterlinck was a Belgian playwright, poet, and essayist who was Flemish but wrote in French. The main themes in his work are death and the meaning of life and his plays form an important part of the Symbolist movement. In later life, Maeterlinck committed plagiarism, Maeterlinck was born in Ghent, Belgium, to a wealthy, French-speaking family. His mother, Mathilde Colette Françoise, came from a wealthy family and his father, Polydore, was a notary who enjoyed tending the greenhouses on their property. In September 1874 he was sent to the Jesuit College of Sainte-Barbe and his experiences at this school influenced his distaste for the Catholic Church and organized religion. He had written poems and short novels during his studies, after finishing his law studies at the University of Ghent in 1885, he spent a few months in Paris, France. He met some members of the new Symbolism movement, Villiers de lIsle Adam in particular, Maeterlinck instantly became a public figure when his first play, Princess Maleine, received enthusiastic praise from Octave Mirbeau, the literary critic of Le Figaro in August 1890. In the following years, he wrote a series of symbolist plays characterized by fatalism and mysticism, most importantly Intruder, The Blind and Pelléas and he had a relationship with the singer and actress Georgette Leblanc from 1895 until 1918. Leblanc influenced his work for the two decades. With the play Aglavaine and Sélysette Maeterlinck began to create characters, especially female characters, Leblanc performed these female characters on stage. Even though mysticism and metaphysics influenced his work throughout his career, in 1895, with his parents frowning upon his open relationship with an actress, Maeterlinck and Leblanc moved to the district of Passy in Paris. The Catholic Church was unwilling to grant her a divorce from her Spanish husband and they frequently entertained guests, including Mirbeau, Jean Lorrain, and Paul Fort. They spent their summers in Normandy, during this period, Maeterlinck published his Twelve Songs, The Treasure of the Humble, The Life of the Bee, and Ariadne and Bluebeard. In 1903, Maeterlinck received the Triennial Prize for Dramatic Literature from the Belgian government. During this period, and down to the Great War, he was looked up to, throughout Europe, as a great sage. In 1906, Maeterlinck and Leblanc moved to a villa in Grasse and he spent his hours meditating and walking. As he emotionally pulled away from Leblanc, he entered a state of depression, diagnosed with neurasthenia, he rented the Benedictine Abbey of St. Wandrille in Normandy to help him relax. By renting the abbey he rescued it from the desecration of being sold and used as a chemical factory, Leblanc would often walk around in the garb of an abbess, he would wear roller skates as he moved about the house
33.
Gerhart Hauptmann
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Gerhart Johann Robert Hauptmann was a German dramatist and novelist. He is counted among the most important promoters of literary naturalism and he received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1912. Gerhart Hauptmann was born in 1862 in Obersalzbrunn, now known as Szczawno-Zdrój and his parents were the Robert and Marie Hauptmann, who ran a hotel in the area. As a youth, Hauptmann had a reputation of being loose with the truth, beginning in 1868, he attended the village school and then, in 1874, the Realschule in Breslau for which he had only barely passed the qualifying exam. Hauptmann had difficulties adjusting himself to his new surroundings in the city and he lived, along with his brother Carl, in a somewhat run-down student boarding house before finding lodging with a pastor. He also ran into problems with the Prussian-influenced school, above all the strictness of the teachers and the better treatment of his noble classmates. His dislike and numerous illness which kept him from attending class, over time, he came to appreciate Breslau because of the opportunity to visit the theater. In the spring of 1878, Hauptmann left the Realschule to learn agriculture on his uncles farm in Lohnig, after a year and a half, however, he had to break off his training. He was not physically prepared for the work and he had a contracted a lung ailment that troubled him for the next twenty months. After he failed to pass an entry exam for the Prussian Army, Hauptmann entered the sculpture school at the Royal Art. There he met Josef Block who became a lifelong friend, for his brothers wedding, he wrote a short play, Liebesfrühling, that was performed on the night before the wedding. Also at the wedding, he met the sister, Marie Thienemann. After he left Jena, Marie financed a Mediterranean trip, which he undertook with his brother Carl, on the trip, he decided to settle in Rome as a sculptor, however he had little success. His attempt to himself as part of Romes German expatriate community also failed. Hauptmann returned to Germany, disappointed and began a stint at the Royal Academy in Dresden before beginning to study history at Humboldt University of Berlin. While there, he devoted his interests to the rather than to his studies. In 1891 he moved to Schreiberhau in Silesia and it was followed by The Reconciliation, Lonely People and The Weavers, a powerful drama depicting the uprising of the Silesian weavers in 1844 for which he is best known outside of Germany. Hauptmann married Marie Theienemann in Radebeul on May 5,1885, in July, they took their honeymoon to Rügen along with Carl and his wife, Maries sister, Martha
34.
Rabindranath Tagore
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Author of Gitanjali and its profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse, he became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. Sometimes referred to as the Bard of Bengal, Tagores poetic songs were viewed as spiritual and mercurial, however, his elegant prose, a Pirali Brahmin from Calcutta with ancestral gentry roots in Jessore, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old. At the age of sixteen, he released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha, by 1877 he graduated to his first short stories and dramas, published under his real name. As a humanist, universalist internationalist, and ardent anti-nationalist, he denounced the British Raj, Tagore modernised Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms and resisting linguistic strictures. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to topics political and personal, Gitanjali, Gora and Ghare-Baire are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed—or panned—for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and unnatural contemplation. His compositions were chosen by two nations as national anthems, Indias Jana Gana Mana and Bangladeshs Amar Shonar Bangla, the Sri Lankan national anthem was inspired by his work. The youngest of thirteen surviving children, Tagore was born on 7 May 1861 in the Jorasanko mansion in Calcutta to Debendranath Tagore, Tagore was raised mostly by servants, his mother had died in his early childhood and his father travelled widely. The Tagore family was at the forefront of the Bengal renaissance and they hosted the publication of literary magazines, theatre and recitals of Bengali and Western classical music featured there regularly. Tagores father invited several professional Dhrupad musicians to stay in the house, Tagores oldest brother Dwijendranath was a philosopher and poet. Another brother, Satyendranath, was the first Indian appointed to the elite, yet another brother, Jyotirindranath, was a musician, composer, and playwright. His sister Swarnakumari became a novelist, jyotirindranaths wife Kadambari Devi, slightly older than Tagore, was a dear friend and powerful influence. Her abrupt suicide in 1884, soon after he married, left him for years profoundly distraught, Tagore largely avoided classroom schooling and preferred to roam the manor or nearby Bolpur and Panihati, idylls which the family visited. His brother Hemendranath tutored and physically conditioned him—by having him swim the Ganges or trek through hills, by gymnastics and he learned drawing, anatomy, geography and history, literature, mathematics, Sanskrit, and English—his least favourite subject. Tagore loathed formal education—his scholarly travails at the local Presidency College spanned a single day, there Tagore read biographies, studied history, astronomy, modern science, and Sanskrit, and examined the classical poetry of Kālidāsa. Tagore returned to Jorosanko and completed a set of works by 1877. As a joke, he claimed that these were the lost works of a newly discovered 17th-century Vaiṣṇava poet Bhānusiṃha, regional experts accepted them as the lost works of Bhānusiṃha. He debuted in the genre in Bengali with Bhikharini. Published in the year, Sandhya Sangit includes the poem Nirjharer Swapnabhanga
35.
Romain Rolland
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Rolland was born in Clamecy, Nièvre into a family that had both wealthy townspeople and farmers in its lineage. Writing introspectively in his Voyage intérieur, he himself as a representative of an antique species. He would cast these ancestors in Colas Breugnon, accepted to the École normale supérieure in 1886, he first studied philosophy, but his independence of spirit led him to abandon that so as not to submit to the dominant ideology. When he returned to France in 1895, he received his degree with his thesis Les origines du théâtre lyrique moderne. Histoire de l’opéra en Europe avant Lulli et Scarlatti, for the next two decades, he taught at various lycées in Paris before directing the newly established music school École des Hautes Études Sociales from 1902–11. In 1903 he was appointed to the first chair of history at the Sorbonne. His first book was published in 1902, when he was 36 years old, through his advocacy for a peoples theatre, he made a significant contribution towards the democratization of the theatre. As a humanist, he embraced the work of the philosophers of India, Rolland was strongly influenced by the Vedanta philosophy of India, primarily through the works of Swami Vivekananda. A demanding, yet timid, young man, he did not like teaching and he was not indifferent to youth, Jean-Christophe, Olivier and their friends, the heroes of his novels, are young people. But with real-life persons, youths as well as adults, Rolland maintained only a distant relationship and he was first and foremost a writer. Assured that literature would provide him with a modest income, he resigned from the university in 1912, Romain Rolland was a lifelong pacifist. He was one of the few major French writers to retain his pacifist internationalist values and he protested against the first World War in Au-dessus de la mêlée, Above the Battle. In 1924, his book on Gandhi contributed to the Indian nonviolent leaders reputation, in 1932 Rolland was among the first members of the World Committee Against War and Fascism, organized by Willi Münzenberg. Rolland criticized the control Münzenberg assumed over the committee and was against it being based in Berlin, Rolland moved to Villeneuve, on the shores of Lac Léman to devote himself to writing. His life was interrupted by health problems, and by travels to art exhibitions and his voyage to Moscow, on the invitation of Maxim Gorky, was an opportunity to meet Joseph Stalin, whom he considered the greatest man of his time. Rolland served unofficially as ambassador of French artists to the Soviet Union, however, as a pacifist, he was uncomfortable with Stalins brutal repression of the opposition. During Serges imprisonment, Rolland had agreed to handle the publications of Serges writings in France, in 1937, he came back to live in Vézelay, which, in 1940, was occupied by the Germans. During the occupation, he isolated himself in complete solitude, never stopping his work, in 1940, he finished his memoirs
36.
Verner von Heidenstam
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Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam was a Swedish poet, novelist and laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1916. He was a member of the Swedish Academy from 1912 and his poems and prose work are filled with a great joy of life, sometimes imbued with a love of Swedish history and scenery, particularly its physical aspects. He was born in Olshammar, Örebro County on 6 July 1859 to a noble family and he studied paintings in the Academy of Stockholm, but soon left because of ill health. He then traveled extensively in Europe, Africa and the orient and he was at once greeted as a poet of promise on the publication of his first collection of poems, Vallfart och vandringsår. It is a collection of inspired by his experiences in the orient. His love for beauty is also by the long narrative poem Hans Alienus. Dikter and Karolinerna, a series of portraits of King Charles XII of Sweden and his cavaliers. English translations of stories from Karolinerna can be found in the American-Scandinavian Review, May 1914, November 1915. The two volumes of Folkunga Trädet are the inspired, epic story of a clan of Swede chieftains in the Middle Ages, professors Lidforss and Böök also took part. Heidenstams chief contribution was the pamphlet, directed chiefly against Strindberg, heidenstams poetical collection Nya Dikter, published in 1915, deals with philosophical themes, mainly concerning the elevation of man to a better humanity from solitude. He died at his home Övralid on 20 May 1940, works in English translation A King and his Campaigners The Soothsayer Swedens Laureate. Sweden and Visions of Norway, Politics and Culture, 1814-1905, Swedish Literature, The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 8, pp. 313–329
37.
Karl Adolph Gjellerup
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Karl Adolph Gjellerup was a Danish poet and novelist who together with his compatriot Henrik Pontoppidan won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1917. He belonged to the Modern Break-Through and he occasionally used the pseudonym Epigonos. Gjellerup was the son of a vicar in Zealand who died when his son was three years, Karl Gjellerup was raised then by the uncle of Johannes Fibiger, he grew up in a national and romantic idealistic atmosphere. In the 1870s he broke with his background and at first he became a supporter of the naturalist movement and Georg Brandes, writing audacious novels about free love. Strongly influenced by his origin he left the Brandes line and 1885 he broke totally with the naturalists. As years passed he totally identified with the German Empire, including its war aims 1914-18, some Wagnerian dramas show his growing romanticist interests. An important work is the novel Møllen, a melodrama of love. In his last years he was influenced by Buddhism and Oriental culture. His critically acclaimed work Der Pilger Kamanita/Pilgrimen Kamanita has been called one of the oddest novels written in Danish, in Thailand, which is a Buddhist country, the Thai translation of The Pilgrim Kamanita co-translated by Phraya Anuman Rajadhon was formerly used as part of the school textbooks. Den fuldendtes hustru is a drama, inspired by Dantes Divine Comedy, about Buddhas earthly life as Siddharta, being inhibited in his spiritual efforts by his wife. Rudolph Stens Landpraksis is set in the rural Zealand of Gjellerups youth, das heiligste Tier was Gjellerups last work. Having elements of self-parody, it is regarded as his attempt at humour. It is a peculiar mythological satire in which animals arrive at their own Elysium after death and these include the snake that killed Cleopatra, Odysseus dog Argos, Wisvamitra, the donkey of Jesus and the horses of various historical commanders in field. The assembly select, after discussion, Buddhas horse Kantaka as the holiest of animals, in Denmark, Gjellerups Nobel award was received with little enthusiasm. He had long regarded as a German writer. During various stages of his career, he had made himself unpopular with both the naturalist left surrounding Georg Brandes and the conservative right and his nomination for the Nobel award was, however, supported from Danish side for several times. Because Sweden was neutral during World War I, the prize did not arouse political speculations about partial decision. Today Gjellerup is almost forgotten in Denmark, in spite of this, however, literary historians normally regard him as an honest seeker after truth
38.
Henrik Pontoppidan
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Henrik Pontoppidan was a Danish realist writer who shared with Karl Gjellerup the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1917 for his authentic descriptions of present-day life in Denmark. As a writer he was a figure, distancing himself both from the conservative environment in which he was brought up and from his socialist contemporaries. He was the youngest and in ways the most original and influential member of the Modern Break-Through. The first phase of his work constitutes rebellious social criticism, and he was perhaps the first Danish progressive writer to break with an idealised portrayal of farmers. The tales from this era are collected in Landsbybilleder and Fra Hytterne, after this period he increasingly concentrated on psychological and naturalist problems without giving up his social engagement. Pontoppidans 1889 review Messias and 1890 piece Den gamle Adam were anonymously published and triggered a controversy after being denounced as blasphemous, the editor, Ernst Brandes, was fined 300 kroner for Messias in December 1891 and committed suicide in 1892. The three novels which are considered to be Pontoppidan’s main works were written from about 1890 to 1920. In these works he established on his own terms a Danish version of the description of society novel in the tradition of Balzac. Det forjættede Land, describes a fantasist and his dream of being a preacher in the country leads to self-deception. However, at the height of his success, they at last catch up with him, pontoppidans last large novel Mands Himmerig is an almost desperate description of the crisis of a Danish intellectual at the time of the outbreak of World War I. Pontoppidan also wrote short novels and long tales in which he discussed political, psychological and sexual themes. Isbjørnen describes the confrontation between an outspoken vicar from Greenland and his narrow-minded Danish provincial clergymen, mimoser is an ironic-tragic tale about the exaggerated intolerance of unfaithfulness. Nattevagt deals with a courageous and revolutionary artist who is nevertheless a frustrated failure as a husband, Pontoppidan drew on the life of his friend the painter L. A. Ring for the portrait of the artist Thorkild Drehling, Ring considered it a betrayal of trust, Den gamle Adam deals with both men’s fear of women and of sexuality as a whole. Ørneflugt is a commentary on Hans Christian Andersens The Ugly Duckling with the opposite morale. Borgmester Hoeck og Hustru portrays a tragic marriage dominated by the husbands jealousy, a central theme in most of these tales is the difficulties of handling the new tolerance, open-mindedness and democratisation which are introduced by both the transition of society and by literature. Another theme is the conflict between the introverted and closed male nature and the vitality of the woman, behind all this lies the classic naturalist theme of heritage and milieu against which man has to rebel without quite denying their existence. In his later works he sometimes seems to become a mixture of a castigator of society, between 1933 and 1943 Pontoppidan wrote two different versions of his Memoirs, in which he tried to define his own view of his personal development
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Carl Spitteler
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Carl Friedrich Georg Spitteler was a Swiss poet who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1919 in special appreciation of his epic, Olympian Spring. His work includes both pessimistic and heroic poems and his father was an official of the government, being Federal Secretary of the Treasury from 1849–56. Young Spitteler attended the gymnasium at Basel, having among his teachers philologist Wilhelm Wackernagel, from 1863 he studied law at the University of Zurich. In 1865–1870 he studied theology in the institution, at Heidelberg and Basel, though when a position as pastor was offered him. He had begun to realize his mission as an epic poet, later he worked in Russia as tutor, starting from August 1871, remaining there until 1879. Later he was teacher in Bern and La Neuveville, as well as journalist for the Der Kunstwart. In 1883 Spitteler married Marie op der Hoff, previously his pupil in Neuveville and this 1881 edition was given an extended psychological exegesis by Carl Gustav Jung in his book Psychological Types. Late in life, Spitteler reworked Prometheus and Epimetheus and published it under his true name, in 1882 he published his Extramundana, a collection of poems. He gave up teaching in 1885 and devoted himself to a career in Basel. Now his works began to come in rapid succession, in 1891 there appeared Friedli, der Kalderi, a collection of short stories, in which Spitteler, as he himself says, depicted Russian realism. Literarische Gleichnisse appeared in 1892, and Balladen in 1896, in 1900–1905 Spitteler wrote the powerful allegoric-epic poem, in iambic hexameters, Olympischer Frühling. This work, mixing fantastic, naturalistic, religions and mythological themes, during World War I he opposed the pro-German attitude of the Swiss German-speaking majority, a position put forward in the essay Unser Schweizer Standpunkt. In 1919 he won the Nobel Prize, Spitteler died at Lucerne in 1924. Carl Spittelers estate is archived in the Swiss Literary Archives in Bern, in the Zürich Central Library, Carl Jung claimed his idea of the archetype of the Anima was based upon what Spitteler described as My Lady Soul. Musician David Bowie, who described himself as Jungian wrote a song in 1973 entitled Lady Grinning Soul. dichtermuseum. ch/willkommen
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Knut Hamsun
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Knut Hamsun was a major Norwegian writer, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1920. Hamsuns work spans more than 70 years and shows variation with regard to the subject, perspective and he published more than 20 novels, a collection of poetry, some short stories and plays, a travelogue, and some essays. The young Hamsun objected to realism and naturalism and he argued that the main object of modernist literature should be the intricacies of the human mind, that writers should describe the whisper of blood, and the pleading of bone marrow. Hamsun is considered the leader of the Neo-Romantic revolt at the turn of the 20th century, with such as Hunger, Mysteries, Pan. His later works—in particular his Nordland novels—were influenced by the Norwegian new realism, portraying life in rural Norway and often employing local dialect, irony. Hamsun is considered to be one of the most influential and innovative literary stylists of the past hundred years, isaac Bashevis Singer called Hamsun the father of the modern school of literature in his every aspect—his subjectiveness, his fragmentariness, his use of flashbacks, his lyricism. The whole modern school of fiction in the twentieth century stems from Hamsun, on August 4,2009, the Knut Hamsun Centre was opened in Hamarøy. Since 1916, several of Hamsuns works have been adapted into motion pictures, Knut Hamsun was born as Knud Pedersen in Lom in the Gudbrandsdal valley of Norway. He was the son of Tora Olsdatter and Peder Pedersen. When he was three, the moved to Hamsund, Hamarøy in Nordland. They were poor and an uncle had invited them to farm his land for him, at nine Knut was separated from his family and lived with his uncle Hans Olsen, who needed help with the post office he ran. Olsen used to beat and starve his nephew, and Hamsun later stated that his chronic nervous difficulties were due to the way his uncle treated him. In 1874 he finally escaped back to Lom, for the five years he did any job for money, he was a store clerk, peddler, shoemakers apprentice, sheriffs assistant. At 17 he became an apprentice, at about the same time he started to write. He asked businessman Erasmus Zahl to give him significant monetary support, Hamsun later used Zahl as a model for the character Mack appearing in his novels Pan, Dreamers, and Benoni and Rosa. He spent several years in America, traveling and working at various jobs, working all those odd jobs paid off, and he published his first book about it, Den Gaadefulde, En Kjærlighedshistorie fra Nordland. In his second novel Bjørger, he attempted to imitate Bjørnstjerne Bjørnsons writing style of the Icelandic saga narrative, the melodramatic story follows a poet Bjørger and his love for Laura. This book was published under the pseudonym Knud Pedersen Hamsund and this book later served as the basis for Victoria, En Kærligheds Historie
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Anatole France
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Anatole France was a French poet, journalist, and novelist. He was a successful novelist, with several best-sellers, ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. Anatole France was also documented to have a brain size just three-quarters the normal weight, France is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcels literary idol Bergotte in Marcel Prousts In Search of Lost Time. The son of a bookseller, France spent most of his life around books and was a bibliophile and his fathers bookstore, called the Librairie France, specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many notable writers and scholars of the day. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, after several years he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876 he was appointed librarian for the French Senate, Anatole France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, Le Parnasse Contemporain published one of his poems, in 1875, he sat on the committee which was in charge of the third Parnasse Contemporain compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote articles and notices. He became famous with the novel Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard and its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied Frances own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie française, in La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque Anatole France ridiculed belief in the occult, and in Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard, France captured the atmosphere of the fin de siècle. France was elected to the Académie française in 1896, France took an important part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zolas manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel Monsieur Bergeret and it is a satirical history of France, starting in Medieval times, going on to the writers own time with special attention to the Dreyfus Affair and concluding with a dystopian future. Les dieux ont soif is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Robespierre and it is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. La Revolte des Anges is often considered Frances most profound novel, loosley based on the Christian myth of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice dEsparvieu. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 and he died in 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine community cemetery near Paris. On 31 May 1922, Frances entire works were put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum of the Roman Catholic Church and he regarded this as a distinction. This Index was abolished in 1966, in 1877, Anatole France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI, with whom he had a daughter, Suzanne, in 1881
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Jacinto Benavente
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Jacinto Benavente y Martínez was one of the foremost Spanish dramatists of the 20th century. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1922 for the manner in which he has continued the illustrious traditions of the Spanish drama. Benavente showed a preoccupation with aesthetics and later with ethics, in 1936 Benaventes name became associated with the assassination of the Spanish poet and dramatist Federico Garcia Lorca. This happened when the Nationalist newspapers Estampa, El Correo de Andalucia, Benavente died in Aldeaencabo de Escalona at the age of 87. According to many sources, he was homosexual, among his most important works are, El nido ajeno, comedy, three acts. Gente conocida, satirical scenes of life, four acts. La noche del sábado, stage romance, five divisions, Imperia is a ballerina and later prostitute who falls in love with Prince Miguel, rosas de otoño, sentimental comedy, three acts. Los intereses creados, comedy of masks based on the Italian commedia dellarte, Benaventes most famous, señora ama, rural drama, a penetrating psychological study of a woman jealous of her husband. The Unloved Woman, 1913), rural drama, three acts, the basis for the 1921 film The Passion Flower, starring Norma Talmadge. La ciudad alegre y confiada, continuation from Los intereses creados, archived from the original on 4 July 2013
