1.
North British Locomotive Company
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Its main factories were located at the neighbouring Atlas and Hyde Park Works in central Springburn, as well as the Queens Park Works in Polmadie. The two other Railway works in Springburn were St. Rollox railway works, owned by the Caledonian Railway and Cowlairs railway works, latterly both works were operated by British Rail Engineering Limited after rail nationalisation in 1948. In 1918 NBL produced the first prototype of the Anglo-American Mark VIII battlefield tank for the Allied armies, NBL built steam locomotives for countries all over the world. This included North America, South America, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, Asia, the New South Wales Government Railways purchased numerous North British locomotives, as did the Victorian Railways as late as 1951. The Western Australian Government Railways also purchased many North British Locomotives, between 1903 and 1959 NB supplied many locomotives of various classes to Egyptian State Railways. They included 40 of the 545 class 2-6-0 in 1928, between 1921 and 1925, NBL supplied New Zealand Government Railways with 85 NZR AB class locomotives. The whole fleet of AB class engines numbered 143, as built, in 1935 NB supplied six Palestine Railways P class 4-6-0 locomotives to haul main line trains between Haifa and the Suez Canal. In 1939 NB supplied 40 4-8-2 locomotives to the New Zealand Railways Department, in 1951 NB supplied another 16 JA class, though these did not have the American-style streamlining of the J class. Together with the NB predecessor firms, North British supplied about a quarter of the locomotives used by the NZR. In 1949 South African Railways bought more than 100 2-8-4 locomotives from NBL, additionally South Africa also purchased some of its Class 25, 4-8-4 engines from the company between 1953–55. These successful engines with various in-service modifications survived until the end of steam in South Africa in 1992, NB also introduced the Modified Fairlie locomotive in 1924. In total South Africa purchased over 2,000 locomotives from the North British Locomotive Company. As of January 2010, Umgeni Steam Railway operates SAR Class 3BR engine 1486 and she hauls vintage sightseeing trains some coaches of which date back to 1908. In 1953, RENFE in Spain acquired 25 2-8-2 locomotives from the North British Locomotive Company, one example, 141F2111 is preserved in working order. After 1923, customers included the Great Western Railway, London, Midland and Scottish Railway, London and North Eastern Railway, Northern Counties Committee, Southern Railway, War Department. In 1922 the New Zealand Railways Department ordered a batch of its very successful AB class Pacifics from NBL, to be built, the trio 22878,22879 and 22880 were built amidst this batch. 22878 and 22879 were loaded aboard SS Wiltshire and she sailed for Auckland, New Zealand, remnants of both locomotives, and the Wiltshire can be seen on the sea floor. 22880 was dispatched on a subsequent sailing and was put into service in New Zealand as AB class number 745 and this locomotive was in service for more than 30 years but then hit a washout near Hawera
2.
Glasgow
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Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
3.
Whyte notation
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The notation counts the number of leading wheels, then the number of driving wheels, and finally the number of trailing wheels, groups of numbers being separated by dashes. Other classification schemes, like UIC classification and the French, Turkish and Swiss systems for steam locomotives, in the notation a locomotive with two leading axles in front, then three driving axles and then one trailing axle is classified as 4-6-2. Articulated locomotives such as Garratts, which are two locomotives joined by a common boiler, have a + between the arrangements of each engine. Thus a double Pacific type Garratt is a 4-6-2+2-6-4, for Garratt locomotives the + sign is used even when there are no intermediate unpowered wheels, e. g. the LMS Garratt 2-6-0+0-6-2. This is because the two units are more than just power bogies. They are complete engines, carrying fuel and water tanks, the + sign represents the bridge that links the two engines. Simpler articulated types such as Mallets, have a frame under a common boiler where there are no unpowered wheels between the sets of powered wheels. Typically, the frame is free to swing, whereas the rear frame is rigid with the boiler. Thus a Union Pacific Big Boy is a 4-8-8-4, four leading wheels, one group of eight driving wheels, another group of eight driving wheels and this numbering system is shared by duplex locomotives, which have powered wheel sets sharing a rigid frame. No suffix means a tender locomotive, T indicates a tank locomotive, in European practice, this is sometimes extended to indicate the type of tank locomotive, T means side tank, PT pannier tank, ST saddle tank, WT well tank. T+T means a tank locomotive that also has a tender, in Europe, the suffix R can signify rack or reversible, the latter being Bi-cabine locomotives used in France. The suffix F indicates a fireless locomotive, other suffixes have been used, including ng for narrow-gauge and CA or ca for compressed air. In Britain, small diesel and petrol locomotives are classified in the same way as steam locomotives. This may be followed by D for diesel or P for petrol, thus 0-6-0DE denotes a six-wheel diesel locomotive with electric transmission. Where the axles are coupled by chains or shafts or are individually driven, thus 4wPE indicates a four-wheel petrol locomotive with electric transmission. For large diesel locomotives the UIC classification is used, the main limitation of Whyte Notation is that it does not cover non-standard types such as Shay locomotives, which use geared trucks rather than driving wheels. The most commonly used system in Europe outside the United Kingdom is UIC classification, based on German practice, in American practice, most wheel arrangements in common use were given names, sometimes from the name of the first such locomotive built. For example, the 2-2-0 type arrangement is named Planet, after the 1830 locomotive on which it was first used, the most common wheel arrangements are listed below
4.
4-6-4
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Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, 4-6-4 represents the wheel arrangement of four leading wheels, six powered and coupled driving wheels and four trailing wheels. In France where the type was first used, it is known as the Baltic while it became known as the Hudson in most of North America. The 4-6-4 tender locomotive was first introduced in 1911 and throughout the 1920s to 1940s, the type combined the basic design principles of the 4-6-2 Pacific type with an improved boiler and larger firebox that necessitated additional support at the rear of the locomotive. In general, the tractive effort differed little from that of the Pacific. The 4-6-4 was best suited to high-speed running across flat terrain, since the type had fewer driving wheels than carrying wheels, a smaller percentage of the locomotives weight contributed to traction, compared to other types. Like the Pacific, it was suited for high speed passenger trains, but not for starting heavy freight trains and slogging on long sustained grades. The first 4-6-4 tender locomotive in the world was a compound locomotive. The first 4-6-4 in the United States of America, the J-1 of the New York Central Railroad, was built in 1927 to the design by the American Locomotive Company. There, the type was named the Hudson after the Hudson River, the world speed record for steam locomotives was held by a 4-6-4 at least twice. In 1934, the Milwaukee Road’s class F6 no.6402 reached 103.5 miles per hour and, in 1936, the German class 05.002 reached 124.5 miles per hour. That record was broken by the British 4-6-2 Pacific no.4468 Mallard on 3 July 1938, the 4-6-4T was also a fairly common wheel arrangement for passenger tank locomotives. As such, it was essentially the tank locomotive equivalent of a 4-6-0 tender locomotive, with water tanks, in New Zealand, all 4-6-4T locomotives were tank versions of 4-6-2 locomotives. This sole locomotive later became the Class C2 on the South African Railways and these became the Class E on the SAR in 1912. A number were preserved and some of these continued to operate on special excursion trains, the use of these R class locomotives on the Warrnambool line did not continue after the demise of the private operator in 2004. Tank locomotives The 4-6-4 tank locomotive configuration was a type with the Western Australian Government Railways. The D class was introduced for passenger service in 1912. Its successors, both also of the 4-6-4T wheel arrangement, were the Dm class of 1945 that was rebuilt from older E class 4-6-2 Pacific tender locomotives, Government Railways 30 Class 4-6-4T locomotives were used on Sydney and Newcastle suburban passenger train workings. No.3046 is preserved at the Dorrigo Steam Railway and Museum on the N. S. W and they were highly successful and improved service and journey times on the CPRs transcontinental routes
5.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
6.
5 ft 3 in gauge railways
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Railways with track gauge of 5 ft 3 in are broad gauge railways, currently in use in Australia, Brazil and Ireland. 600 BCE The Diolkos across the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece – a grooved paved trackway – was constructed with a gauge of 5 ft 3 in. 1840 The Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway was constructed to 5 ft 3 in gauge,1843 The Board of Trade of the United Kingdom recommended the use of 5 ft 3 in in Ireland, after investigating a dispute caused by diverse gauges in Ireland. 1846 The Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846 made this gauge mandatory throughout all of Ireland,1847 The Swiss Northern Railway was opened, converted to standard gauge in 1854. 1854 The first Australian 5 ft 3 in line was opened,1858 The first Brazilian 5 ft 3 in railway was opened, the Companhia de Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II. 1863 The Canterbury Provincial Railways in New Zealand was built in 5 ft 3 in until gauge conversion to 3 ft 6 in in 1876 In Ireland this gauge is known as Irish gauge, in Australia this gauge is known as Victorian Broad Gauge. In Brazil this gauge is known as Bitola larga. The Pennsylvania trolley gauges of 5 ft 2 1⁄2 in and 5 ft 2 1⁄4 in are similar to Irish gauge, there is also 5 ft 2 in gauge, which is similar as well. One of the advantages of the broader 1,600 mm Irish gauge. In practice, Ireland does not have any heavily-loaded or steeply-graded lines that would require especially powerful locomotives. The most powerful locomotives on systems of this gauge were. By comparison a non-articulated standard gauge locomotive in the country was
7.
Driving wheel
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On a steam locomotive, a driving wheel is a powered wheel which is driven by the locomotives pistons. On diesel and electric locomotives, the wheels may be directly driven by the traction motors. Coupling rods are not usually used, and it is common for each axle to have its own motor. Jackshaft drive and coupling rods were used in the past but their use is now confined to shunting locomotives, on an articulated locomotive or a duplex locomotive, driving wheels are grouped into sets which are linked together within the set
8.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
9.
Pounds per square inch
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The pound per square inch or, more accurately, pound-force per square inch is a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. Now converting the psi to standard atmospheres,1 atm =101325 Pa =101325 Pa 6894.757293168 Pa / psi ≈14.70 psi Therefore,1 atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Pounds per square inch absolute is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around 14.7 psi, the converse is pounds per square inch gauge or pounds per square inch gage, indicating that the pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. For example, a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi above atmospheric pressure. When gauge pressure is referenced to something other than ambient atmospheric pressure, the kilopound per square inch is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi. Ksi are not widely used for gas pressures and they are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI Units is 1 ksi =6.895 MPa, the megapound per square inch is another multiple equal to a million psi. It is used in mechanics for the modulus of the materials. The conversion in SI Units is 1 Mpsi =6.895 GPa, inch of water,0.036 psid Blood pressure – clinically normal human blood pressure,2.32 psig/1.55 psig Natural gas residential piped in for consumer appliance, 4–6 psig. Boost pressure provided by a turbocharger, 6–15 psig NFL football,12. 5–13.5 psig Atmospheric pressure at sea level,14
10.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
11.
Cylinder (locomotive)
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The cylinders of a steam locomotive are the components that convert the power stored in the steam into motion. Cylinders may be arranged in different ways. On early locomotives, such as Puffing Billy, the cylinders were often set vertical, the next stage, for example Stephensons Rocket, was to drive the wheels directly from steeply inclined cylinders placed at the back of the locomotive. Direct drive became the standard arrangement, but the cylinders were moved to the front, the front-mounted cylinders could be placed either inside or outside. The reason for this difference is unclear, from about 1920, outside cylinders became more common in the UK but many inside-cylinder engines continued to be built. Inside cylinders give a stable ride with less yaw or nosing. Some designers used inside cylinders for aesthetic reasons, the demand for more power led to the development of engines with three cylinders or four cylinders. As the cylinders are double-acting this gives four impulses per revolution, on a three-cylinder engine, two arrangements are possible, cranks set to give six equally spaced impulses per revolution – the usual arrangement. For a given tractive effort and adhesion factor, a locomotive of this design will be less prone to wheelslip when starting than a 2-cylinder locomotive. Outside cranks set at 90 degrees, inside crank set at 135 degrees and this arrangement was sometimes used on three-cylinder compound locomotives which used the outside cylinders for starting. This will give evenly spaced exhausts when the engine is working compound, two arrangements are also possible on a four-cylinder engine, all four cranks set at 90 degrees. With this arrangement the cylinders act in pairs, so there are four impulses per revolution, most four-cylinder engines are of this type. Pairs of cranks set at 90 degrees with the pair set at 45 degrees to the outside pair. This gives eight impulses per revolution and it increases weight and complexity, by requiring four sets of valve gear, but gives smoother torque and reduces the risk of slipping. This was relatively unusual in British practice but was used on the SR Lord Nelson class, such locomotives are easily distinguished by their exhaust beats, whicb occur at twice the frequency of a normal 2- or 4-cylinder engine. The valve chests or steam chests which contain the slide valves or piston valves may be located in various positions, if the cylinders are small, the valve chests may be located between the cylinders. For larger cylinders the valve chests are usually on top of the cylinders but, in early locomotives, the valve chests are usually on top of the cylinders but, in older locomotives, the valve chests were sometimes located alongside the cylinders and inserted through slots in the frames. This meant that, while the cylinders were outside, the valves were inside, there are many variations in the location of the valve gear
12.
Tractive force
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In railway engineering, the term tractive effort is often used synonymously with tractive force to describe the pulling or pushing capability of a locomotive. The published tractive force value for any vehicle may be theoretical—that is, the term tractive effort is often qualified as starting tractive effort, continuous tractive effort and maximum tractive effort. The product of μ and m is the factor of adhesion, Starting tractive effort, Starting tractive effort is the tractive force that can be generated at a standstill. This figure is important on railways because it determines the maximum weight that a locomotive can set into motion. Maximum tractive effort, Maximum tractive effort is defined as the highest tractive force that can be generated under any condition that is not injurious to the vehicle or machine. In most cases, maximum tractive effort is developed at low speed, due to the relationship between power, velocity and force, described as, P = vF or P/v = F tractive effort inversely varies with speed at any given level of available power. Continuous tractive effort is often shown in graph form at a range of speeds as part of a tractive effort curve, the period of time for which the maximum continuous tractive effort may be safely generated is usually limited by thermal considerations. Such as temperature rise in a traction motor, specifications of locomotives often include tractive effort curves, showing the relationship between tractive effort and velocity. The shape of the graph is shown at right, the line AB shows operation at the maximum tractive effort, the line BC shows continuous tractive effort that is inversely proportional to speed. Tractive effort curves often have graphs of rolling resistance superimposed on them—the intersection of the rolling resistance graph, once in motion, the train will develop additional drag as it accelerates due to aerodynamic forces, which increase with the square of the speed. Drag may also be produced at speed due to truck hunting, if acceleration continues, the train will eventually attain a speed at which the available tractive force of the locomotive will exactly offset the total drag, causing acceleration to cease. This top speed will be increased on a due to gravity assisting the motive power. Tractive effort can be calculated from a locomotives mechanical characteristics, or by actual testing with drawbar strain sensors. Power at rail is a term for the available power for traction, that is. An estimate for the effort of a single cylinder steam locomotive can be obtained from the cylinder pressure, cylinder area, stroke of the piston. The torque developed by the motion of the piston depends on the angle that the driving rod makes with the tangent of the radius on the driving wheel. For a more useful value an average value over the rotation of the wheel is used, the driving force is the torque divided by the wheel radius. Modern locomotives with roller bearings were probably underestimated, european designers used a constant of 0.6 instead of 0.85, so the two cannot be compared without a conversion factor
13.
Newton (unit)
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The newton is the International System of Units derived unit of force. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, see below for the conversion factors. One newton is the force needed to one kilogram of mass at the rate of one metre per second squared in direction of the applied force. In 1948, the 9th CGPM resolution 7 adopted the name newton for this force, the MKS system then became the blueprint for todays SI system of units. The newton thus became the unit of force in le Système International dUnités. This SI unit is named after Isaac Newton, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. Newtons second law of motion states that F = ma, where F is the applied, m is the mass of the object receiving the force. The newton is therefore, where the symbols are used for the units, N for newton, kg for kilogram, m for metre. In dimensional analysis, F = M L T2 where F is force, M is mass, L is length, at average gravity on earth, a kilogram mass exerts a force of about 9.8 newtons. An average-sized apple exerts about one newton of force, which we measure as the apples weight, for example, the tractive effort of a Class Y steam train and the thrust of an F100 fighter jet engine are both around 130 kN. One kilonewton,1 kN, is 102.0 kgf,1 kN =102 kg ×9.81 m/s2 So for example, a platform rated at 321 kilonewtons will safely support a 32,100 kilograms load. Specifications in kilonewtons are common in safety specifications for, the values of fasteners, Earth anchors. Working loads in tension and in shear, thrust of rocket engines and launch vehicles clamping forces of the various moulds in injection moulding machines used to manufacture plastic parts
14.
Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
15.
Victorian Railways
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The Victorian Railways operated in the Australian state of Victoria from 1859 to 1983. The first railways in Victoria were private companies, but when these companies failed or defaulted, a Department of Railways was created in 1856 with the first appointment of staff. British engineer, George Christian Darbyshire was made first Engineer-in-Chief in 1857, because of political turmoil in the Victorian Government, Higginbotham was one of 137 officials removed from office on Black Wednesday on 8 January 1878 when the Government was denied supply. He, like a number of senior officers, was not reappointed. Robert Watson then took over as Engineer-in-Chief, but in 1880 a new Ministry expressed a wish to redress the injustice by re-instating Higginbotham. On 1 November 1883 assent was given to the Victorian Railways Commissioners Act 1883,47 Vic, no.767, to construct, maintain and manage the states railways. The staff of the Department of Railways came under the authority of the Railway Commissioners, the elaborate headquarters at 67 Spencer Street were opened in 1893. Victorian Railways grew to all parts of the state, even extending some lines into New South Wales under the 1922 Border Railways Act. In the late 19th century the railways became something of a football with politicians demanding new lines to be built in places where traffic levels never justified it. In 1864 there was just 254 miles of railway, the system expanded rapidly to reach 2,900 route miles by 1891 and to its greatest extent of 4,755 route miles in 1939. The result was that by the beginning of the 20th century, the period from the end of the 1930s saw a slow decline in route mileage as unprofitable branches were closed. 1937 saw the introduction of the streamlined Spirit of Progress passenger train, with air conditioning, diesel power was introduced in 1951 with ten F-class diesel-electric shunting locomotives, followed by B-class mainline diesel-electric locomotives in 1952/53. The last steam locomotive was withdrawn in 1972, in May 1973 the Railways Act 1972 passed the management of the Railways from the Victorian Railways Commissioners to a Victorian Railways Board. In 1974 the Victorian Railways was rebranded as VicRail, but the royal blue, the State Transport Authority traded under the V/Line name, while the Metropolitan Transit Authority used that name until the Public Transport Corporation was formed in 1989. Between 1996 and 1999 V/Line and The Met were privatised, V/Line Passenger was franchised to the National Express Group, returning to government ownership in 2002. Metro Trains Melbourne now operates the railway network. When first formed in 1857, the management of the Railways Department was initially vested in the President of the Board of Land and Works, this situation remaining until 1884. With the passing of the Victorian Railways Commissioners Act 1883, a board of four commissioners was put in charge, the board could have up to seven members, with six being initially appointed
16.
Victorian Railways A2 class
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The A2 class was an express passenger locomotive that ran on Victorian Railways from 1907 to 1963. Based on the success of the prototype A2572, a total of 125 Stephenson valve gear A2 locomotives were built between 1907 and 1915, for over forty years, the A2 was the main express passenger locomotive on the VR, hauling intrastate and interstate services. With a maximum permitted speed of 70 miles per hour the A2 was instrumental in the acceleration of timetables on many lines in the years following its introduction. A2s were also used to haul a number of services, such as the Royal Trains for the Prince of Wales. Towards the end of their lives, A2995 and 996 also had the distinction of hauling the last broad gauge Spirit of Progress service into Melbourne on 16 April 1962. With their comparatively high tractive effort they also saw use as a fast goods locomotive. In 1933, two A2 class locomotives set a record for Victorian Railways when they took a 75 truck 1. In 1928, the A2 was replaced on the principal North-eastern line Sydney Limited, the majority of A2 locomotives were originally built with saturated steam boilers. The last of the A1 class, No,808, was converted in October 1949. Experiments were conducted in 1923-4 with A2800 using Pulverised Brown Coal burning equipment, however the experiment was discontinued, the A2 class, along with other post-1900 VR steam locomotive designs, was equipped with electric lighting from 1926 onwards. Automatic Staff Exchange equipment to allow non-stop high-speed running between track sections was also fitted from 1926 onwards. In 1933, C class heavy goods locomotive C5 was equipped with a new front end, based on the Association of American Railroads design of self-cleaning smokebox, experiments based on the work of Dr Wagner of the Deutsche Reichsbahn and E. C. Maximum drawbar horsepower increased some 40% from 860 hp at 26 mph to 1,230 hp at 32 mph, feedwater heater was fitted to A2973. However, there was not sufficient improvement in efficiency for the equipment to be fitted to other locomotives, with the reduced exhaust blast resulting from the revised smokebox, smoke deflectors were fitted to prevent drifting smoke from obscuring visibility. In the years following World War II, problems with the quality and availability of supplies caused VR to order the conversion of all 60 Walschaerts A2s to oil firing. Late in their life, some of the A2s also received Boxpok driving wheels as their conventional spoked wheels began to fatigue cracks with age and mileage. In 1939, by which time most of the class was already over twenty-five years old, World War II broke out, the massive increase in traffic on the VR the war effort brought saw these ageing locomotives subjected to a punishing regime of heavy utilisation and minimal maintenance. The extra S class locomotives were never built and the line to Adelaide did not receive the necessary upgrades to take the weight of the H class and it was not until March 1946 when the first of the class, A2878, was withdrawn from service
17.
4-6-0
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During the second half of the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries, the 4-6-0 was constructed in large numbers for passenger and mixed traffic service. The primary limitation of the type was the size of the firebox. In passenger service, it was superseded by the 4-6-2 Pacific type whose trailing truck allowed it to carry a greatly enlarged firebox. For freight service, the addition of a driving axle created the 4-8-0 Mastodon type, which was rare in North America. The 4-6-0T locomotive version was a far less common type, during the First World War, the type was also used on narrow gauge military railways. In 1907, five 6th Class locomotives of the Cape Government Railways were sold to the 3 ft 6 in Benguela Railway and these included one of the Dübs-built locomotives of 1897 and two each of the Neilson and Company and Neilson, Reid and Company-built locomotives of 1897 and 1898. In the mid-1930s, in order to ease maintenance, modifications were made to the running boards, the former involved mounting the running boards higher, thereby getting rid of the driving wheel fairings. This gave the locomotives a much more American rather than British appearance, in April 1951, three Class NG9 locomotives were purchased from the South African Railways for the Caminhos de Ferro de Moçâmedes. They were placed in service on the Ramal da Chibía, a 600 mm gauge line across 116 kilometres from Sá da Bandeira to Chiange. The locomotives were observed dumped at the Sá da Bandeira shops by 1969, the line through Bechuanaland Protectorate was still under construction and was operated by the CGR on behalf of the BR at the time. The locomotives were returned to the CGR. The Finnish State Railways operated the Classes Hk1, Hk2, Hk3, Hk5, Hv1, Hv2, Hv3, Hv4, Hr2, the Class Hk1, numbers 232 to 241, was built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1898. The ten Baldwin locomotives were originally designated H1 class, numbers 291 to 300 and 322 to 333 were built by the Richmond Locomotive Works in 1900 and 1901. The 22 Richmond locomotives were originally designated H2 class and were nicknamed Big-Wheel Kaanari, another 100 of these locomotives were manufactured in Finland from 1903 to 1916, numbered in the range from 437 to 574 and initially designated H3 to H8 classes. The Class Hk5 was numbered from 439 to 515, the Class Hv1 was built from 1915 by Tampella and Lokomo. They were nicknamed Heikki and were numbered 545 to 578 and 648 to 655, the class remained in service until 1967. One, no.555 named Princess, is preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum, the Class Hv2 was built by Berliner Maschinenbau and Lokomo in the years between 1919 and 1926. They were numbered 579 to 593,671 to 684 and 777 to 780, the Class Hv3 was built by Berliner, Tampella and Lokomo in the years from 1921 to 1941
18.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
19.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
20.
Post-war
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A post-war period or postwar period is the interval immediately following the end of a war. A post-war period can become an interwar period or interbellum, when a war between the same parties resumes at a later date, by contrast, a post-war period marks the cessation of conflict entirely. The term post-war can have different meanings in different countries and refer to a period determined by local considerations based on the effect of the war there. Considering the post-war era as equivalent to the Cold War era, post-war sometimes includes the 1980s, putting the end at December 1991, the 1990s are rarely considered to be part of the post-war era. Interbellum Interwar Post 9/11 era Postbellum Pre-war Reconstruction Era of the U. S
21.
Diesel locomotive
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A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotive have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which power is conveyed to the driving wheels. Early internal combustion engine-powered locomotives and railmotors used gasoline as their fuel, soon after Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1892, it was considered for railway propulsion. Progress was slow, however, as several problems had to be overcome, power transmission was a primary concern. As opposed to steam and electric engines, internal combustion engines work efficiently only within a range of turning frequencies. In light vehicles, this could be overcome by a clutch, in heavy railway vehicles, mechanical transmission never worked well or wore out too soon. Experience with early gasoline powered locomotives and railcars was valuable for the development of diesel traction, one step towards diesel-electric transmission was the petrol-electric vehicle, such as the Acsev Weitzer railmotor, which could operate from batteries and electric overhead wires too. Steady improvements in diesel design gradually reduced its size and improved its power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Once the concept of drive was accepted, the pace of development quickened. In 1930, Armstrong Whitworth of the United Kingdom delivered two 1,200 hp locomotives using engines of Sulzer design to Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway of Argentina, currently, almost all diesel locomotives are diesel-electric, although the diesel-hydraulic type was widely used between the 1950s and 1970s. The Soviet diesel locomotive TEP80-0002 lays claim to the speed record for a diesel railed vehicle. In 1894, a 20 h. p. two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks, in 1896 an oil-engined railway locomotive was built for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896, using an engine designed by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. It was not, strictly, a diesel because it used a hot bulb engine, following the expiration of Dr. Rudolf Diesels patent in 1912, his engine design was successfully applied to marine propulsion and stationary applications. However, the massiveness and poor power-to-weight ratio of early engines made them unsuitable for propelling land-based vehicles. Therefore, the potential as a railroad prime mover was not initially recognized. This changed as development reduced the size and weight of the engine, the worlds first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur-Romanshorn Railroad in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam, Sulzer had been manufacturing Diesel engines since 1898. During further test runs in 1913 several problems were found, after the First World War broke out in 1914, all further trials were stopped
22.
Electric locomotive
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An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or on-board energy storage such as a battery or fuel cell. Electricity is used to smoke and take advantage of the high efficiency of electric motors. One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives, electrification results in higher performance, lower maintenance costs and lower energy costs. Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as locomotive engines, the power can come from clean or renewable sources, including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar power and wind turbines. Electric locomotives are quiet compared to locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise. The lack of reciprocating parts means electric locomotives are easier on the track, Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops. They are used on high-speed lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the U. S. Shinkansen in Japan, China Railway High-speed in China, Electric locomotives are used on freight routes with consistently high traffic volumes, or in areas with advanced rail networks. Electric locomotives benefit from the efficiency of electric motors, often above 90%. Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which allows energy to be recovered during braking to put power back on the line. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems provide for regenerative braking. The chief disadvantage of electrification is the cost for infrastructure, overhead lines or third rail, substations, public policy in the U. S. interferes with electrification, higher property taxes are imposed on privately owned rail facilities if they are electrified. In Europe and elsewhere, railway networks are considered part of the transport infrastructure, just like roads, highways and waterways. Operators of the rolling stock pay fees according to rail use and this makes possible the large investments required for the technically and, in the long-term, also economically advantageous electrification. Because railroad infrastructure is owned in the U. S. railroads are unwilling to make the necessary investments for electrification. The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen and it was powered by galvanic cells. Davidson later built a locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The seven-ton vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a cylinder on each axle. It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per hour for a distance of one and it was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use
23.
Scrap
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Ferrous metals are able to be recycled, with steel being one of the most recycled materials in the world. Ferrous metals contain a percentage of iron and the addition of carbon. In the United States, steel containers, cans, automobiles, appliances, a typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron. The steel industry has been actively recycling for more than 150 years and it is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and manipulate it through the production process to form new steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, the energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power eighteen million homes for one year. Basic oxygen steelmaking uses 25–35% recycled steel to make new steel, EAF steelmaking uses almost 100% recycled steel. This steel contains greater concentrations of elements that cannot be removed through the application of oxygen. It is used to make structural beams, plates, reinforcing bar, downcycling of steel by hard-to-separate impurities such as copper or tin can only be prevented by well-aimed scrap selection or dilution by pure steel. Recycling one metric ton of steel saves 1.1 metric tons of ore,630 kilograms of coal. Also known as borings or swarf Manganese steel – Non magnetic, hardened steel used in the industry, cement mixers, rock crushers. Rails – Rail or tram tracks As of 2008, more than 83% of steel was recycled in the United States and it is the most widely recycled material, in 2000, more than 60 million metric tons were recycled. Scrap metal British Metals Recycling Association Aluminium recycling Steel Recycling Institute
24.
Restored train
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They are operated in present-day service as moving examples of living history, as opposed to static exhibits. For authenticity, the location/route of preserved trains is often chosen to match the trains used. Often these restoration projects are accomplished by a local club or chapters of a national organization. Eureka & Palisades 4, also known as the Eureka, was purchased by a lawyer from Reno and she was restored and is still privately owned, operating occasionally on the Durango & Silverton and Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroads in Colorado
25.
Inter-city rail
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Inter-city rail services are express passenger train services that cover longer distances than commuter or regional trains. There is no definition of inter-city rail, its meaning may vary from country to country. Most typically, an inter-city train is a train with limited stops. Inter-city rail sometimes provides international services and this is most prevalent in Europe, due to the close proximity of its 50 countries in a 10,180,000 square kilometre area. Eurostar and EuroCity are examples of this and this use of the term appeared in the United Kingdom in the 1960s and has been widely imitated. The speeds of inter-city rail lines are diverse, ranging from 50 km/h in a mountainous area or on undeveloped tracks to 200–350 km/h on newly constructed or improved tracks. As a result, Inter-city rail may or may not fall into the category of higher-speed rail or high-speed rail, ideally, the average speed of inter-city rail service would be faster than 100 km/h in order to be competitive with car, bus and other methods of transport. 50–100 km The distance of an inter-city rail journey is usually at least 50–100 km, although in large metropolitan areas commuter. 100–500 km A distance of 100–500 km is a common journey distance for inter-city rail in many countries, in many cases, railway travel is most competitive at about 2–3 hours journey time. Inter-city rail can compete with highways and short-haul air travel for journeys of this distance. 500–1,000 km In journeys of 500–1,000 km, development of high-speed rail in some countries increases the share of railway for such longer-distance journeys. The Paris-Marseille TGV and Tokyo-Aomori Shinkansen are examples of type of journey. In conventional non high-speed rail, overnight trains are common for this distance, in many other countries, such long-distance rail journey has been replaced by air travel except for tourism or hobbyist purposes, luxury train journeys, or significant cost benefit. Discount Eurail Pass in Europe, Amtrak in the United States, New high-speed lines from 200–350 km/h operation are constructed, and many conventional lines are also upgraded to 200 km/h operation. Currently there are seven High-Speed Inter-City lines in China, with up to 21 planned and they are operated independently from the often parallel High-Speed-Rail-Lines. Japan has six main regional railway companies, known collectively as Japan Railways Group or simply as JR. Many other cities are covered by a network of JRs limited express inter-city trains on 1,067 mm, narrow gauge, major cities are covered by convenient train services of every one hour or more frequent. In addition to the JR Group, Japan has several major regional carriers such as the Kintetsu, almost every major town and city in South Korea is linked by railway, run by Korail
26.
V/Line
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V/Line is a government-owned corporation that operates the regional passenger train and coach services in Victoria, Australia. It was created after the split-up of VicRail in 1983, V/Line is owned by the V/Line Corporation, a Victorian State Government statutory authority. V/Line carried 16.8 million passengers in the 2015/16 financial year and it is the track manager of the Victorian intrastate rail network outside of the Australian Rail Track Corporation and Metro Trains Melbourne leases. As at June 2016, it operated 90 stations,41 locomotives,134 locomotive hauled carriages and 177 diesel multiple unit carriages, on 1 July 1983, the State Transport Authority and a range of other transport bodies were created, when the Transport Act 1983 came into effect. The new authority replaced VicRail, and established the V/Line operating brand for both passenger and freight. The VicRail orange and silver teacup livery used on rolling stock was replaced in August 1983 by an orange. The white and green V/Line logo was launched on 14 August 1983 by Transport Minister Steve Crabb, at Spencer Street station, with special trains running to Essendon to mark the occasion. This was altered when on 1 July 1989 the Transport Act took effect, on 1 July 1994, the operation of some of V/Lines regional passenger services was contracted out to the private sector. Hoys Roadlines took over the Melbourne to Cobram service with trains operated under contract by V/Line to Shepparton with Hoys operating a road coach service beyond, the service from Melbourne to Warrnambool was operated by West Coast Railway who operated their own trains throughout. Both of these returned to being operated by V/Line in 2004, Rail services to Leongatha ceased on 24 July 1993, Bairnsdale, Cobram and Dimboola on 21 August 1993, Ararat on 27 May 1994 and Mildura on 13 September 1994. In 1995, the freight and passenger rail divisions of V/Line were divided, with a new red, blue and this split was finalised on 1 July 1997 when separate management was brought in. On 1 July 1998, operation of the Stony Point line passed to Bayside Trains, V/Line continues to hire rolling stock to Metro Trains Melbourne to operate the service. V/Line Freight was sold to a consortium of RailAmerica, Fluor Daniel, Macquarie Bank and A Goninan & Co and rebranded as Freight Victoria effective from 1 May 1999. The sale included a 45-year lease of most regional track, with responsibilities for track, signalling and level crossings, after being renamed Freight Australia in March 2000, it was sold to Pacific National in August 2004. In May 2007 Pacific National sold the lease of the network back to VicTrack. On 29 August 1999, National Express took control of V/Line Passenger having won a 10 year concession after beating FirstGroup, Freight Victoria, GB Railways, Prism Rail, National Express also operated the M>Tram and M>Train franchises in Melbourne. It included all country rail operations in Victoria, with the exception of the Shepparton, National Express inherited a fleet of A, N, P and Y class locomotives, H, N, S and Z type carriages and Sprinter diesel multiple units. As a franchise commitment,29 two-car Vlocitys were ordered from Bombardier Transportation, in December 2002, National Express handed in its Victorian rail and tram franchises having been unable to renegotiate financial terms with the State Government
27.
West Coast Railway (Victoria)
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West Coast Railway was a passenger train company operating in Victoria, Australia that operated services between Melbourne and Warrnambool from September 1993 until August 2004. West Coast Railway was formed in 1993 when the Kennett State Government offered long-distance country rail services run by the government-owned operator V/Line to private operators. Bids were lodged in February 1993 and West Coast Railway was announced as the tender on 30 April the same year. The initial franchise was for eight years with operations commencing on 19 September 1993, subsequently a three-year extension was negotiated. While most other rail services tendered were replaced by coach services. During the 11 years of WCR operation of the line, patronage increased by 20%, the first rail service under WCR operated on 19 September when V/Line locomotive N466 hauled the 17,00 Warrnambool to Melbourne Spencer Street service. In August 2001, Connex purchased a 50% shareholding, in 2003, Connex sold its shareholding to Australian Public Trustees. In 2001 the two directors of the company bought a 50% share in Tranz Scenic, the national operator in New Zealand. In May 2004 the shareholding was sold back to Toll NZ and this was in contrast to the successful tenderer for the Shepparton line rail service from Hoys Roadlines, who decided to lease rolling stock from V/Line. A blue, white, yellow and grey livery was adopted, the first locomotive to be fully overhauled by was S300 which begun trials on 23 January 1995, entering regular service two weeks later. The railway depot at Ballarat East was leased by the company as its maintenance base. Specially modified R class steam locomotives were used to operate a Saturday return service. R711 entered service on trains on 21 November 1998 and was fitted with multiple unit control equipment for diesel electric locomotives. The company assisted with the restoration of a number of locomotives, with R711 and Y112 made operational, and work being carried out on J536, D3638, D3641. The company also took advantage of Victorias newly privatised rail freight market by hiring its T class locomotives and occasionally its mainline fleet of B class and S class and this is all items of rollingstock which were directly involved with West Coast Railway. West Coast Railway encountered a series of difficulties during 2003/04 which adversely affected its business. The death of one of the founding principals, Gary McDonald, on 25 April 2003 removed the guiding light. Once again the company was forced to two of its three daily-return rail services with road coaches
28.
Festival of Britain
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The Festival of Britain was a national exhibition and fair that reached millions of visitors throughout the United Kingdom in the summer of 1951. Up and down the land, lesser festivals enlisted much civic, Labour cabinet member Herbert Morrison was the prime mover, in 1947 he started with the original plan to celebrate the centennial of the Great Exhibition of 1851. However it was not to be another World Fair, for international themes were absent, instead the 1951 festival focused entirely on Britain and its achievements, it was funded chiefly by the government, with a budget of £12 million. The Festivals centrepiece was in London on the South Bank of the Thames, there were events in Poplar, Battersea, South Kensington and Glasgow. The Festival became a beacon for change that proved popular with thousands of elite visitors. It helped reshape British arts, crafts, designs and sports for a generation, journalist Harry Hopkins highlights the widespread impact of the Festival style. It was, clean, bright and new, in 1945, the government appointed a committee under Lord Ramsden to consider how exhibitions and fairs could promote exports. When the committee reported a year later, it was decided not to continue with the idea of an international exhibition because of its cost at a time when reconstruction was a high priority, Morrison insisted there be no politics, explicit or implicit. Much of London lay in ruins and models of redevelopment were needed, the Festival was an attempt to give Britons a feeling of recovery and progress and to promote better-quality design in the rebuilding of British towns and cities. The Festival of Britain described itself as one united act of national reassessment, gerald Barry, the Festival Director, described it as a tonic to the nation. A Festival Council to advise the government was set up under General Lord Ismay, responsibility for organisation devolved upon the Lord President of the Council, Herbert Morrison, the deputy leader of the Labour Party, who had been London County Council leader. In March 1948, a Festival Headquarters was set up, which was to be the nucleus of the Festival of Britain Office, Festival projects in Northern Ireland were undertaken by the government of Northern Ireland. Associated with the Festival of Britain Office were the Arts Council of Great Britain, the Council of Industrial Design, the British Film Institute and the National Book League. Government grants were made to the Arts Council, the Council of Industrial Design, the British Film Institute and the National Museum of Wales for work undertaken as part of the Festival. A long-time editor with left-leaning, middle-brow views, he was energetic and optimistic, with an eye for what would be popular, unlike Morrison, Barry was not seen as a Labour ideologue. Barry selected the next rank, giving preference to young architects and they thought along the same lines socially and aesthetically, as middle-class intellectuals with progressive sympathies. Thanks to Barry a collegial sentiments prevailed that minimised stress and delay, the arts were displayed in a series of country-wide musical and dramatic performances. Achievements in architecture were to presented in a new neighbourhood, the Lansbury Estate, planned, built, there were other displays elsewhere, each intended to be complete in itself, yet each part of the one single conception
29.
Bendigo railway station
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Bendigo railway station is the terminus of the Bendigo line, in Victoria, Australia. It serves the city of Bendigo, and opened on 21 October 1862 and it was originally named Sandhurst, and was renamed Bendigo in 1891, at the same time the city was officially renamed. North of the station, the line continues as the Deniliquin, the station was rebuilt after being destroyed by fire on 23 December 1965. The station building on the Up platform was refurbished in 1984, the light refreshment booth was demolished around this time, along with repairs and repainting of the footbridge and ironwork. Additional facilities and refurbishment occurred in 1988, during 1990, much of the station and yard was rearranged, and included the abolition of signal boxes A, B, C and D, new signal masts and turnouts. Disused station Golden Square is located between Bendigo and Kangaroo Flat, while disused stations Huntly, Bagshot, Wellsford, Goornong and it is serviced by V/Line Bendigo, Echuca and Swan Hill line services. Media related to Bendigo railway station at Wikimedia Commons Victorian Railway Stations gallery Melway map
30.
4-6-2
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The 4-6-2 locomotive became almost globally known as a Pacific type. The introduction of the 4-6-2 design in 1901 has been described as a milestone in locomotive progress. Nevertheless, new Pacific designs continued to be built until the mid-1950s, the type is well-suited to high speed running. The world speed record for steam traction of 126 miles per hour has been held by a British Pacific locomotive, the two earliest 4-6-2 locomotives, both created in the United States of America, were experimental designs which were not perpetuated. In 1889, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway rebuilt a conventional 4-6-0 with trailing wheels as a means of reducing its axle load, in 1896, six Q class 4-6-2 tank locomotives were introduced on the Western Australian Government Railways. Even before Baldwin had completed the order from New Zealand, their engineers realised the advantages of the new type, the design was soon widely adopted by designers throughout the world. There are different opinions concerning the origin of the name Pacific, the design was a natural enlargement of the existing Baldwin 4-4-2 Atlantic type, but the type name may also be in recognition of the fact that a New Zealand designer had first proposed it. Usually, however, new arrangements were named for, or named by. In the case of the Pacific, that was the Missouri Pacific Railroad in 1902, the Pacific type was used on mainline railways around the world. During the first half of the 20th century, the Pacific rapidly became the predominant passenger steam power in North America, between 1902 and 1930, about 6,800 locomotives of the type were built by North American manufacturers for service in the United States and Canada. With exported locomotives included, about 7,300 were built in total, about 45% of these were built by the American Locomotive Company which became the main builder of the type, and 28% by Baldwin. Large numbers were used in South America, most of which were supplied by manufacturers in the United Kingdom. Africa was the continent upon which the Pacific was regularly used. The earliest African examples were built in the United Kingdom by Kitson, within a few weeks, these were followed by a German Pacific type that, although already designed in 1905, only entered service in late 1907. The next was a British type, introduced in January 1908, by the outbreak of the First World War, the type was being widely used on the railways of Continental Europe. The Pacific type was introduced into Asia in 1907, the year that it was first used in Europe. By the 1920s, Pacifics were being used by many throughout the Asian continent. In 1923, the Pacific gave its name to Arthur Honeggers orchestral work, Pacific 231, during the first two decades of the 20th century, the Pacific wheel arrangement enjoyed limited popularity on tank locomotives
31.
Victorian Railways S class
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The Victorian Railways S class was a class of 4-6-2 express passenger steam locomotive operated by the Victorian Railways in Australia between 1928 and 1954. They were the first Pacific-type locomotives on the VR, as well as its first 3-cylinder locomotive type and they were also equipped with long-range tenders to enable the entire 190 1⁄2-mile journey to be run non-stop at a speed that remained for the next 20 years Australias fastest train service. Although only four S class locomotives were built, they were highly utilised and they ran up annual mileages double that of other classes of locomotives on the VR and by 1954 had run a combined total of approximately 5,700,000 miles. The S class locomotives were built to speed up principal expresses, although designed for normal operation at 70 miles per hour, they were credited as being capable of 90 miles per hour. The S class was VRs first three-cylinder locomotive, and Smiths design was influenced by Nigel Gresleys Great Northern Railway A1 class 4-6-2 with its Gresley conjugated valve gear. The S class also showed American design influence in its use of a trailing truck. The S class spent its entire service life on the main North East line. Although a numerically small class limited to a line, the S class was highly utilised. By 1936 they were averaging 56,200 miles per year with S303 having set an annual mileage for Victorian Railways locomotives. They were also noted for running 82,000 miles between overhauls, compared to an average 65,000 miles for other locomotive classes in the Victorian Railways fleet. S303 travelled 1,434,664 miles in its life of just 23 years,6 months. On 19 March 1928, S300 hauled its first revenue service between Seymour and Melbourne. The new locomotive attracted considerable public interest, with details of its construction, on 29 April 1928, S300 went on public display at Flinders Street station in conjunction with fundraising efforts for the building of the Shrine of Remembrance. It was inspected by around 3,000 people, a fourth locomotive, S303, was delivered in November 1930. Its introduction enabled both ordinary and limited services on the Albury line to be rostered for the S class. By July 1935, the S class locomotives had once again accelerated services, the 129 1⁄4-mile non-stop run between Seymour and Albury was also Australias longest. Initial tests with prototype S300 revealed only average performance for a locomotive of such size, in April 1935, S303 was equipped with VRs Modified Front End for improved drafting and reduced cylinder back pressure. Tests showed an indicated horsepower increase from 1,560 hp to 1,920 hp at 30 mph as a result of these changes, the boilers were modified to a design that incorporated a combustion chamber, arch tubes and thermic siphons
32.
Smokebox
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A smokebox is one of the major basic parts of a steam locomotive exhaust system. Smoke and hot gases pass from the firebox through tubes where they heat to the surrounding water in the boiler. The smoke then enters the smokebox, and is exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney, early locomotives had no smokebox and relied on a long chimney to provide natural draught for the fire but smokeboxes were soon included in the design for two main reasons. Secondly, the smokebox provides a convenient collection point for ash and cinders drawn through the boiler tubes, without a smokebox, all char must pass up the chimney or will collect in the tubes and flues themselves, gradually blocking them. The smokebox appears to be an extension of the boiler although it contains no water and is a separate component. Smokeboxes are usually made from riveted or welded steel plate and the floor is lined with concrete to protect the steel from hot char, to assist the passage of the smoke and hot gases, a blower is often used. This is an ending in a ring containing pin-sized holes. The steam forces out the smoke and draws further gases through the tubes and this in turn causes air to be drawn through the grate and firehole, making the fire burn hotter. When the locomotive is in motion, exhaust steam passes through the blastpipe, the steam is ejected through the chimney, again drawing the fire. The blastpipe is what produces the characteristic chuff sound, ashes and soot which may be present in the smoke are often deposited in the smokebox. The front of the smokebox has a door which is opened to remove these deposits at the end of locomotives working day. The handle must be tightened fully to prevent air leaks, which would reduce the draw on the fire and can also allow any unburnt char at the bottom of the smokebox to catch fire there. Some smokebox doors have a handle in the form of a wheel, many British-built locomotives have a pair of smokebox door handles resembling the hands of a clock. On many steamrollers an extension to the body of the smokebox also houses the bearing which supports the front roller, due to limitations of space, these rollers usually have a drop-down flap instead of a circular smokebox door. The smokebox incorporates the main pipes from the regulator, one leading to each valve chest. These may pass through the wall to join with the cylinder or may stay within the profile of the smokebox. Inside steam pipes do not require lagging as the smokebox keeps them warm, some locomotive classes used both types depending on the date the batch was constructed. Because heat losses from the smokebox are of consequence, it is not usually lagged
33.
Military history of Australia during World War II
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Australia entered World War II shortly after the invasion of Poland, declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939. This was because Australia at this time was a dominion of the British Empire, in addition, Australia came under direct attack for the first time in its post-colonial history. Its casualties from enemy action during the war were 27,073 killed and 23,477 wounded, while most Australian forces were withdrawn from the Mediterranean following the outbreak of war in the Pacific, they continued to take part in large numbers in the air offensive against Germany. From 1942 until early 1944, Australian forces played a key role in the Pacific War, the military was largely relegated to subsidiary fronts from mid-1944 but continued offensive operations against the Japanese until the war ended. World War II contributed to changes in the nations economy, military. The final effects of the war contributed to the development of a more diverse. Between World War I and World War II Australia suffered greatly from the Great Depression which started in 1929 and this limited Australian defence expenditure and led to a decline in the size and effectiveness of the armed forces during the late 1920s and early 1930s. In the years leading up to the war, Australia followed Britains policy towards Nazi Germany, supporting first its appeasement of Hitler, Australia entered the war against Germany on 3 September 1939, shortly after Britain declared war when its ultimatum for Germany to withdraw from Poland expired. Unlike in Canada and South Africa, no legislative debate took place and this position received almost universal public support though there was little enthusiasm for war. At the time war broke out in Europe, the Australian armed forces were less prepared than at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914. The Australian Army comprised a permanent cadre of 3,000 men and 80,000 part-time militiamen who had volunteered for training with the Citizen Military Forces. The Royal Australian Air Force, the weakest of the services, had 246 aircraft, on 15 September 1939 Menzies announced the formation of the Second Australian Imperial Force. This expeditionary force consisted of 20,000 men organised into an infantry division. On 15 November, Menzies announced the reintroduction of conscription for home-defence service, recruitment for the AIF was initially slow, but one in six men of military age had enlisted by March 1940 and a huge surge of volunteers came forward after the fall of France in June 1940. Men volunteered for the AIF for a range of reasons, with the most common being a sense of duty to defend Australia, the AIFs major units were raised between 1939 and 1941. A further three AIF infantry divisions were raised in the first half of 1940, as well as a headquarters and numerous support. All of these divisions and the majority of the units deployed overseas during 1940 and 1941. An AIF armoured division was raised in early 1941 but never left Australia
34.
Steam locomotive components
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This is a glossary of the components found on typical steam locomotives. 1 Tender — Container holding both water for the boiler and combustible fuel such as wood, coal or oil for the fire box,2 Cab — Compartment from which the engineer and fireman can control the engine and tend the firebox. 3 Whistle — Steam powered whistle, located on top of the boiler,4 Reach rod — Rod linking the reversing actuator in the cab ) to the valve gear. 5 Safety valve — Pressure relief valve to stop the boiler exceeding the operating limit,8 Throttle Lever/Regulator — Controls the opening of the regulator/throttle valve thereby controlling the supply of steam to the cylinders. 9 Steam dome — Collects the steam at the top of the boiler so that it can be fed to the engine via the regulator/throttle valve 10 Air pump — Provides air pressure for operating the brakes. This is sometimes called a Westinghouse pump or Knorr pump after George Westinghouse, usually a steam-powered pump with steam cylinder coupled with air cylinder. 11 Smokebox — Collects the hot gases that have passed from the firebox and it may contain a cinder guard to prevent hot cinders being exhausted up the chimney. Usually has a blower to help draw the fire when the regulator is closed, Steam exhausting from the cylinders is also directed up to the chimney through the smokebox to draw the fire while the regulator is open. Blower a circular pipe below the chimney petticoat pipe, with holes to blow steam upwards, Provides a draught to encourage the fire when stationary and the blastpipe is not effective. This draught also prevents smoke and flame from entering the cab, petticoat pipe is a pipe with a bellmouth-shaped end extending into the smokebox and the other end in the smoke stack. Its function is to enhance and equalize draft through the boiler tubes,12 Main steam pipe — carries steam to the cylinders. 13 Smoke box door — Hinged circular door to allow access to the smoke box. 14 Hand rail — Support rail for crew when walking along the foot board,15 Trailing truck/Rear bogie — Wheels at the rear of the locomotive to help support the weight of the cab and fire box. 16 Foot board/Running board — Walkway along the locomotive to facilitate inspection,17 Frame — Steel beams around which the locomotive is built. The wheels run in slots within the frames, and the cab, fire box, boiler, american locomotives usually have bar frames or cast steel frames, while British locomotives usually have plate frames. 18 Brake shoe and brake block — Applied directly to all the wheels for braking. 19 Sand pipe — Deposits sand directly in front of the wheels to aid traction. 20 Side rods/Coupling rods — Connects the driving wheels together,21 Valve gear/motion — System of rods and linkages synchronising the valves with the pistons and controls the direction and power output of the locomotive
35.
SCOA-P wheel
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SCOA-P pattern wheels are a type of steam locomotive wheel. Rather than having traditional solid spokes, the SCOA-P spoke is hollow and they are considerably lighter than a conventional spoked wheel or Boxpok wheel of the same size and strength. SCOA-P wheels were developed in the late 1940s by the Steel Company of Australia Ltd in response to Victorian Railways experiencing fatigue problems with conventional spoked wheels. The SCOA-P wheel was developed to allow the strength of the Boxpok design, the SCOA-P wheel centre of a 73-inch R class driving wheel weighed only 1,829 pounds,322 lb lighter than a Boxpok design of the same diameter and equivalent strength. 5-long-ton axle load). SCOA-P wheels were used on Victorian Railways R class 4-6-4 and J class 2-8-0 locomotives and they were also used on the Queensland Railways BB18¼ class 4-6-2 and Tasmanian Government Railways M class 4-6-2 and H class 4-8-2
36.
Victorian Railways H class
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The Victorian Railways H class was an express passenger steam locomotive operated by the Victorian Railways from 1941 to 1958. Nicknamed Heavy Harry, H220 was the largest locomotive built in Australia. The Victorian Railways Commissioners recommended considerably more powerful locomotives to haul trains of up to eleven cars unassisted over the ruling gradients on these lines, the S class 4-6-2 Pacifics displaced the A2s from North East line express services from 1928 onwards and allowed a faster timetable to be introduced. However a Pacific-type locomotive was not particularly suited to the Western line. The section between Melbourne and Ballarat had sharply curved, steep inclines, the most notorious of which was the 10-mile,1 in 48 ruling gradient of the Ingliston Bank, VR designers wished to improve on aspects of the earlier S class design. To this end, the H class had a different arrangement for its third cylinder. A German Henschel & Son conjugated valve gear mechanism, driven from the levers of the Walschaert valve gear for the outside cylinders, was utilised in favour of the Gresley mechanism. The inside cylinder was positioned further forward of the outside cylinders and drove the leading coupled axle. Construction of three H class locomotives at Newport Workshops commenced in 1939 and three sets of frames were manufactured, however work was halted due to the outbreak of World War II. Due to a shortage of power caused by increased wartime traffic, completion of class leader H220 was authorised. Streamlining similar to the S class was planned, but wartime economies saw this abandoned. The two additional, partly built H class locomotives remained incomplete while wartime production of armaments took precedence over express passenger locomotive construction and they were never completed, and the parts were subsequently scrapped. The necessary work was deferred due to restrictions on available resources. Results from the car showed that the locomotive developed around 3,300 drawbar horsepower at 47.5 mph. Although intended for passenger use, H220 was found to be particularly effective when used as a fast goods locomotive. It typically hauled five return trips a week between Melbourne and Wodonga, covering around 1,875 miles per week and hauling loads of up to 820 tons over the 1 in 50 gradients of this line. By comparison, the loads of the C class 2-8-0. Even after the introduction of mainline diesel-electric traction from 1952 onwards, one advertisement in Walkabout in November 1953, headed Trains we are proud of, promoted H220 as Australias mightiest engine and its nightly service hauling the 21,25 Albury Interstate Fast Freight
37.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
38.
Kilowatt
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
39.
SKF
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SKF, Svenska Kullagerfabriken AB, later AB SKF, is a leading bearing and seal manufacturing company founded in Gothenburg, Sweden in 1907. Sven Wingqvist, at the time a plant engineer responsible for repairs. In spring 1907, Wingquist presented a breakthrough – a double row self-aligning ball bearing with a raceway in the outer ring. This allowed the inner ring to align freely in relation to the outer ring, the new bearing solved the problem associated with misalignment of the shafts and thus did away with the frequent production stops. On 16 February 1907 on Sven Wingqvists applied for Swedish patent No,25406, a multi-row self-aligning radial ball bearing. The Patent was granted on 6 June in Sweden coinciding with patents in 10 other countries, the new ball bearing was successful from the outset. Three years after SKF was founded, the company had 325 employees, manufacturing operations were later established in multiple countries. By 1912, SKF was represented in 32 countries and by 1930, SKF began its operations in India in 1923 by establishing a trading outpost in Calcutta. The early operations involved importing of automotive bearings, SKF India Ltd was incorporated in 1961 following a collaboration between AB SKF, Associated Bearing Co. Ltd and Investment Corp. of India Ltd, in 1963, SKF set up its first bearing factory in Pune, Maharashtra. Assar Gabrielsson, SKF sales manager and Björn Prytz, Managing Director of SKF were the founders of Volvo AB in 1926, in the beginning, the company functioned as a subsidiary automobile company within the SKF group. SKF funded the production run of the first thousand cars, built at Hisingen in Gothenburg, SKF used one of the companys trademarked names, AB Volvo, which derives from the Latin I roll, with its obvious connotations of bearings in motion. The ownership of Volvo lasted until 1935 when the last shares were divested, in the 1970s SKF embarked on a massive production rationalization program in Europe. A visionary project, Production Concept for the 80s was launched with the aim to run the night shifts practically unmanned, to increase productivity and safeguard the product quality, a continuous, automatic flow of bearing rings was needed, so SKF developed the Flexlink brand. FlexLink created the multiflex plastic chain conveyor system to solve the business requirements, SKF divested FlexLink as a separate company in 1997. The SKF Group currently consists of approximately 150 companies including the seal manufacturer Chicago Rawhide, since its founding, SKFs company headquarters have been located in Gothenburg. One recent acquisition was that of Economos, part of Salzer Holding, the companys clients include General Electric, Rolls-Royce plc and Pratt & Whitney. It also supplies bearings for Ferrari racing vehicles, used in Formula One races, another focus area is the energy sector, including wind turbines which generate electricity
40.
Rolling-element bearing
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A rolling-element bearing, also known as a rolling bearing, is a bearing which carries a load by placing rolling elements between two bearing rings called races. The relative motion of the causes the rolling elements to roll with very little rolling resistance. One of the earliest and best-known rolling-element bearings are sets of logs laid on the ground with a stone block on top. As the stone is pulled, the roll along the ground with little sliding friction. As each log comes out the back, it is moved to the front where the block then rolls on to it and it is possible to imitate such a bearing by placing several pens or pencils on a table and placing an item on top of them. See bearings for more on the development of bearings. A rolling element rotary bearing uses a shaft in a larger hole. As the shaft turns, each acts as the logs in the above example. However, since the bearing is round, the rollers never fall out from under the load, rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good tradeoff between cost, size, weight, carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on. Only plain bearings are used as widely as rolling-element bearings, there are five types of rolling elements that are used in rolling-element bearings, balls, cylindrical rollers, spherical rollers, tapered rollers, and needle rollers. The cages reduce friction, wear, and bind by preventing the elements from rubbing against each other, caged roller bearings were invented by John Harrison in the mid-18th century as part of his work on chronometers. Typical rolling-element bearings range in size from 10 mm diameter to a few metres diameter, a particularly common kind of rolling-element bearing is the ball bearing. The bearing has inner and outer races between which balls roll, each race features a groove usually shaped so the ball fits slightly loose. Thus, in principle, the ball contacts each race across a narrow area. However, a load on a small point would cause infinitely high contact pressure. In practice, the ball deforms slightly where it contacts each race much as a tire flattens where it contacts the road, the race also yields slightly where each ball presses against it. Thus, the contact between ball and race is of size and has finite pressure. Note also that the ball and race do not roll entirely smoothly because different parts of the ball are moving at different speeds as it rolls
41.
Newport Workshops
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The Newport Railway Workshops is a facility in the Melbourne suburb of Newport, Australia, that builds, maintains and refurbishes railway rollingstock. It is located between the Williamstown and Werribee railway lines, plans for a workshop at Newport started in the 1860s, to replace the temporary Williamstown Workshops but nothing came of it. Construction of the permanent workshops commenced in 1884, and was completed in 1889, although the earlier carriage workshop closed at this time, it reopened in 1895 to manufacture signal equipment. The first carriages built by the workshops were completed in 1889, but locomotives were manufactured by the Phoenix Foundry in Ballarat, the first locomotive being built in 1893. The main elements of the workshops are an office block and clock tower, the East Block for carriage and wagon works. Expansion followed in 1905–1915, and 1925–1930, during World War II the workshops were turned over to military production, with the rear fuselage, and empennage of Bristol Beaufort bombers being built there. At the peak of operation it was one of Victorias largest and best-equipped engineering establishments, the workshops had its own cricket ground, and in the 1920s the game of Trugo is said to have been invented by workers on their lunch hour. In the late 1980s, the segments of the workshops were removed from everyday use, and modern workshops built along the eastern side of the site. On 15 January 2000, ownership of the workshops passed from the Public Transport Corporation to Clyde Engineering, the workshop also has the only broad gauge underfloor wheel lathe in Victoria. From 2018, it will build the High Capacity Metro Trains, a section of the workshops is leased to Siemens for maintenance of their Siemens Nexas trains. The original 1880s workshops have been maintained for heritage uses, the Australian Railway Historical Society Railway Museum is located south of the workshops, near North Williamstown railway station
42.
Victorian Railways X class
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The Victorian Railways X class was a mainline goods locomotive of the 2-8-2 Mikado type operated by the Victorian Railways between 1929 and 1960. The C class, with a narrow firebox between the frames, could not be easily converted. The X class retained the same cylinder and driving wheel dimensions as the C class as well as its valve gear, but introduced a larger boiler. The 2-8-2 layout of the X class allowed a wide, deep firebox suited to the high ash, low calorific coals from the State Coal Mine typically used for goods haulage. All but two were built with a featured a Franklin C2 type Booster engine on the truck axle. The booster allowed an additional 9,000 lbf tractive effort at starting and low speeds to increase the power of the locomotive. X36 and X37 were built without boosters and were rostered for plains working on the flat line between Gheringhap and Maroona stations. X37 was equipped with a booster in March 1932, however X36 was never fitted with one, the success of the original eleven locomotives delivered in 1929 led to further examples being built. X38 was assembled in 1937 from spare parts, helping to work for workshops staff at a time of high unemployment. A further seven X class locomotives were built in 1938, a followed by a six in 1942-43. The X class locomotives were described as always the master of their task, fast steaming, with their relatively heavy axle load, the X class was initially confined to the Bendigo and Wodonga lines, with the occasional journey on the Ballarat or Geelong lines. Even in its form, the X class locomotive was a marked improvement on the C class in terms of performance. As with the C class, it was occasionally pressed into mainline passenger service on key intercity routes, particularly during Christmas. By 1943, X class locomotives were each averaging 29,100 miles per annum, the new boiler design also featured a combustion chamber and thermic syphons to increase power and efficiency. X38 introduced a new welded fabricated trailing truck in place of the cast steel units previously imported from the Commonwealth Steel Company of Illinois and this design innovation was fitted to all subsequent examples built. In July 1938, X39 became the first VR locomotive to be equipped with A6-ET brake equipment, in 1949, the VR was faced with dwindling supplies of black coal due to industrial action on NSW coalfields and Victorian black coal reserves becoming exhausted. The trial was successful with the locomotive noted for its clean running, the steam requirements for both engine and booster were able to be met for unlimited periods at maximum steam pressure even against the action of both injectors. The locomotive gained a reputation for speed and dependability
43.
Southern Cross railway station
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Southern Cross railway station is a major railway station in Docklands, Melbourne. It is on Spencer Street, between Collins and La Trobe Streets, at the edge of the central business district. The Etihad Stadium sports arena is 500 metres north-west of the station, the station is owned, operated and maintained by AssetCo, a subsidiary of IFM Investors, under a 30 year lease to 2036 from the Victorian State Government, under a public-private partnership. The station is the terminus of the regional railway network operated by V/Line, The Overland rail service to Adelaide. It is also served by rail services operated by Metro Trains, being one of five stations on the City Loop. It is the second busiest railway station in Melbournes metropolitan network and this figure excludes V/Line passengers who use the station. Southern Cross also has a coach terminal underneath the Spencer Outlet shopping complex and it was not until 1874 that an extra platform was provided. The two major city stations were not linked until 1879, when a single-track ground-level line was opened and it operated only at night, and only for freight trains. In the 1880s, it was proposed that Spencer Street station be removed in order to facilitate the expansion of the city. The 1880s saw the first of several grand but unrealised plans for the station, the first accepted design, drafted by Albert Charles Cook in 1883, was a fanciful Palladian palazzo design of two and three storeys, with central portico. From 1888 to 1894 the layout of the platforms was altered, the current coach terminal location was the site of a number of new platforms built for suburban services. In 1888 work started on the double track Flinders Street Viaduct linking the station to Flinders Street station, the line was initially only used by freight trains, with passenger train operations commencing in 1894. It was at time that the first through platform was provided at the station, for suburban trains from Essendon. In 1938 it was announced that construction of a station entrance and new car park had been approved, at a cost of £2,000, designed by architects Messrs Stephenson. Once again however, no construction took place, in October 1960 work on a new Spencer Street station commenced, sparked by the construction of the interstate standard gauge line to Sydney. A station building was constructed which replaced the 1880s iron sheds. The passenger subway which had constructed as part of the 1918 works was extended to include access to country platforms. At the same time, the four tracks were resignalled for bi-directional operation
