1.
Roman emperor
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The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period. The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history, often when a given Roman is described as becoming emperor in English, it reflects his taking of the title Augustus or Caesar. Another title often used was imperator, originally a military honorific, early Emperors also used the title princeps. Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably Princeps Senatus, Consul, the first emperors reigned alone, later emperors would sometimes rule with co-Emperors and divide administration of the Empire between them. The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king, the first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically republican, his successor, Tiberius, nonetheless, for the first three hundred years of Roman Emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, a great effort was made to emphasize that the Emperors were the leaders of a Republic. Elements of the Republican institutional framework were preserved until the end of the Western Empire. The Eastern emperors ultimately adopted the title of Basileus, which had meant king in Greek, but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor, other kings were then referred to as rēgas. In addition to their office, some emperors were given divine status after death. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century, Romulus Augustulus is often considered to be the last emperor of the west after his forced abdication in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claim to the title until his death in 480. Constantine XI was the last Byzantine Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, a Byzantine group of claimant Roman Emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461. In western Europe the title of Roman Emperor was revived by Germanic rulers, the Holy Roman Emperors, in 800, at the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, however, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senates vote and approval. Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity in 45 BC and had been pontifex maximus for a long period. He gained these positions by senatorial consent, by the time of his assassination, he was the most powerful man in the Roman world. In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir, a decade after Caesars death, Octavians victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavians supremacy. His restoration of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas, some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus death, the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor, the Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps
2.
Gallic Empire
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The Gallic Empire is the modern name for a breakaway part of the Roman Empire that functioned de facto as a separate state from 260 to 274. It originated during the Crisis of the Third Century and it was established by Postumus in 260 in the wake of barbarian invasions and instability in Rome, and at its height included the territories of Germania, Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania. After Postumus assassination in 268 it lost much of its territory and it was retaken by Roman emperor Aurelian after the Battle of Châlons in 274. This left his son Gallienus in very shaky control, shortly thereafter, the Palmyrene Empire, which came to encompass Egypt, Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea also broke away. The governors in Pannonia staged unsuccessful local revolts, the Emperor left for the Danube to attend to their disruption. This left Postumus, who was governor of Germania Superior and Inferior, an exceptional administrator, Postumus had also protected the Germania Inferior against an invasion led by the Franks in the summer of 260 very well. In fact, Postumus defeated the Frankish forces at Empel so decisively and this all would have combined to make Postumus one of the most powerful men in the western reaches of the Roman empire. The imperial heir Saloninus and the praetorian prefect Silvanus remained at Colonia Agrippina, to keep the young out of danger. Before long, however, Postumus besieged Colonia Agrippina and put the young heir and his guardian to death, Postumus is thought to have established his capital at Cologne or Augusta Treverorum, with Lugdunum also becoming an important city in the empire. The Gallic Empire had its own praetorian guard, two elected consuls and probably its own senate. According to the evidence, Postumus himself held the office of consul five times. Postumus successfully fended off an incursion by Gallienus in 263. However, in early 268 he was challenged by Laelianus, probably one of his commanders, Postumus quickly retook Mogontiacum and Laelianus was killed. Postumus himself, however, was overthrown and killed by his own troops, after the death of Postumus, the Gallic Empire began to decline. Subsequently Victorinus came to power, being recognized as Emperor in northern Gaul and Britannia, Victorinus spent most of his reign dealing with insurgencies and attempting to recover the Gaulish territories taken by Claudius Gothicus. He was assassinated in 271, but his mother Victoria took control of his troops, with Victorias support, Tetricus was made Emperor, and was recognized in Britannia and the parts of Gaul still controlled by the Empire. He established the court at Trier, and in 273 he elevated his son, also named Tetricus. The following year the younger Tetricus was made co-consul, but the Empire grew weak from internal strife, by that time Aurelian had defeated the Palmyrene Empire and had made plans to re-conquer the west
3.
Marcus Aurelius Marius
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Marcus Aurelius Marius was emperor of the Gallic Empire in 269 following the assassination of Postumus. According to later tradition, he was a blacksmith by trade, earning the nickname Mamurius Veturius and he rose through the ranks of the Roman army to become an officer. He was present with the army that revolted at Moguntiacum after the emperor Postumus refused to allow it to sack the city and they murdered the emperor and in the confusion that followed, the army elected Marius to succeed Postumus. His first decision was in all likelihood to allow his troops to sack the city of Moguntiacum, seeking to solidify his power base, he then moved to Augusta Treverorum. This tradition is probably partially or entirely incorrect, based upon the number of coins he issued, a more accurate length for his reign would be at least two or three months. Marius is listed among the Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta and it is said that he was chosen because his names were evocative of two great Romans of the Past, Marcus Aurelius and Gaius Marius. Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus Eutropius, Brevarium, Book 9 Historia Augusta, Tyranni_XXX*. html The Thirty Tyrants Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge,2001 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge,2004 Jones, the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol
4.
Victoria (Gallic Empire)
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Victoria, also known as Vitruvia, was a leader in the Roman breakaway realm known as the Gallic Empire in the late 3rd century. She was the mother of Victorinus, who ruled as Gallic Emperor until his assassination in 271, afterwards, Victoria used her authority to stabilize the empire and select a successor. Victoria is mentioned in Aurelius Victors Liber de Caesaribus, and in the account of the Thirty Tyrants in the unreliable Historia Augusta. Nothing is known of her life, though she must have been from a wealthy and distinguished Gallic family. According to Aurelius Victor, after Victorinus was killed in a mutiny, Victoria stepped in, thus she assured the ascension of her chosen candidate for emperor, Tetricus I, formerly the governor of Gallia Aquitania. The Historia also says that she bore the titles Mater Castrorum and Augusta and minted her own coins. However, given the Historias notorious unreliability, the veracity of these elements are doubtful
5.
Domitianus II
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Domitianus was probably a Roman soldier of the mid-third century AD who was acclaimed emperor, probably in northern Gaul in late 270 or early 271 AD, and struck coins to advertise his elevation. His attempted ‘’coup’’ should also be understood in the context of the later history of the ‘Gallic Empire’ rather than that of the Empire as a whole. The only evidence for the existence and rule of an Imperial claimant named Domitianus derives from two coins, the first was part of a hoard discovered at Les Cléons, in the commune of Haute-Goulaine in the Loire area of France in 1900. The authenticity/significance of this item was much debated and as late as 1992 Domitianus was widely considered at best a conjectural figure. The other coin was found fused in a pot with some 5,000 other coins of the period 250-275 — thus providing incontrovertible provenance — in the village of Chalgrove in Oxfordshire, England, the hoard was acquired by the Ashmolean Museum in 2004. The design of coins is typical of those associated with the ‘Gallic Empire’. They are of the type and depict Domitianus as a bearded figure wearing a spiky or radiate crown representing the rays of the sun. Both coins bear the legend, i. e. IMP C DOMITIANUS P F AUG. An unusual feature here is the absence of any reference to Domitianuss Nomen or Praenomen, Gallic Empire coins usually bear the full tria nomina of the prince celebrated the better to carry out their propagandist function. On the reverse, the coins show Concordia, and have the legend CONCORDIA MILITVM, again this is a standard slogan for the Gallic emperors. The design of the Chalgrove coin and its Les Cléons counterpart is typical of others struck under the Gallic Empire and it also suggests that the date of the coin was prior to 274 when the Emperor Aurelian suppressed the Gallic regime. There are only two literary references for Domitianuss existence, neither of which names him as an emperor,1, the 6th-century Byzantine historian Zosimus records that a certain Domitianus was punished for a revolt during the reign of Aurelian. The text is vague as to the nature of his disloyalty and those provinces not controlled by either the ‘Gallic Emperors’ in the west or Zenobia in the east. The notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta, hereafter HA, mentions a Domitianus as an involved in the suppression of the revolt of Macrianus Major in 261. HA asserts that in this operation Domitianus was an associate of Gallienus’s Hipparchos Aureolus who is credited with the victory over Macrianus. However, the reference is made in terms that suggest that Domitianus was already a distinguished commander in his own right, there is nowhere in HA any suggestion that this Domitianus or any other man of that name was involved in any anti-regime activities during Aurelians reign. HA also suggests that Domitianus was descendant of the Emperor Domitian, the intention here may be to suggest that Domitianus was of senatorial rank. It is possible that his motive in doing this was to some of the glory accruing to the low-born Aureolus from his suppression of the Macrianic rebellion
6.
Tetricus I
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Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was Emperor of the Gallic Empire, reigning 271-274, succeeding the murdered Victorinus and ending with his surrender on the battlefield to the Roman emperor Aurelian. Tetricus, who ruled with his son, Tetricus II, was the last of the Gallic emperors, Tetricus was a senator born to a noble family of Gallic extraction. He was appointed to the position of praeses provinciae of Gallia Aquitania in 270. Tetricus accepted the nomination and took the purple at Burdigala in Gaul. Moving from Burdigala, he was on his way to Augusta Treverorum when Tetricus was forced to repel Germanic tribes that took advantage of the following the death of Victorinus to invade Gaul. However, continued invasions across the Rhine and along the coasts forced Tetricus to abandon the frontier forts, nevertheless, his regime was destabilised by attempts of certain areas to declare their allegiance to the Roman emperor Aurelian, such as the city of Argentoratum in 272. It was to shore up his support that Tetricus eventually appointed his son, Tetricus II, as Caesar sometime in 273. It did little to stem his faltering regime as in late 273 or early 274, Faustinus, provincial governor of Gallia Belgica, rebelled against him in Augusta Treverorum. To add to his woes, by the middle of 273, preparing for his advance, Tetricus and his son celebrated their joint consulship on 1 January 274 before marching southward from his capital to meet Aurelian, who was advancing into northern Gaul. The decisive battle took place near Châlons-sur-Marne, in late February 274, by March 274, both Tetricus and his son had surrendered to Aurelian. It was claimed that Tetricus quoted Virgil in his letter to Aurelian, eripe me his, invicte, Tetricus died at an unknown date in Italy, he is listed as one of Romes Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta. The antoninianii of Tetricus were the most frequently imitated prototypes for barbarous radiates, the Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge,2001 Potter, David Stone, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395, Routledge,2004 Jones, A. H. M. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol
7.
Roman Gaul
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Roman Gaul refers to Gaul under provincial rule in the Roman Empire from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD. The Roman Republic began its takeover of Celtic Gaul in 121 BC, julius Caesar significantly advanced the task by defeating the Celtic tribes in the Gallic Wars of 58-51 BC. In 22 BC, imperial administration of Gaul was reorganized, establishing the provinces of Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Belgica, parts of eastern Gaul were incorporated into the provinces Raetia and Germania Superior. During Late Antiquity, Gaulish and Roman culture amalgamated into a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish language was marginalized and eventually extinct, being replaced by regional forms of Late Latin which in the medieval period developed into the group of Gallo-Romance languages. Roman control over the provinces deteriorated in the 4th and 5th centuries, the last vestiges of any Roman control over parts of Gaul were effaced with the defeat of Syagrius at the Battle of Soissons. Gaul had three divisions, one of which was divided into multiple Roman provinces, Gallia Cisalpina or Gaul this side of the Alps. Gallia Narbonensis, formerly Gallia Transalpina or Gaul across the Alps was originally conquered and annexed in 121 BC in an attempt to solidify communications between Rome and the Iberian peninsula. It comprised the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur, most of Languedoc-Roussillon. Gallia Comata, or long haired Gaul, encompassed the remainder of present-day France, Belgium, and westernmost Germany, gauls continued writing some inscriptions in the Gaulish language, but switched from the Greek alphabet to the Latin alphabet during the Roman period. The Roman influence was most apparent in the areas of religion and administration. The Druidic religion was suppressed by Emperor Claudius I, and in later centuries Christianity was introduced, the prohibition of Druids and the syncretic nature of the Roman religion led to disappearance of the Celtic religion. It remains to this day poorly understood, current knowledge of the Celtic religion is based on archeology and via literary sources from several isolated areas such as Ireland, the Romans easily imposed their administrative, economic, artistic and literary culture. They wore the Roman tunic instead of their traditional clothing, the Romano-Gauls generally lived in the vici, small villages similar to those in Italy, or in villae, for the richest. Surviving Celtic influences also infiltrated back into the Roman Imperial culture in the 3rd century, for example, the Gaulish tunic—which gave Emperor Caracalla his surname—had not been replaced by Roman fashion. Similarly, certain Gaulish artisan techniques, such as the barrel, the Celtic heritage also continued in the spoken language. Gaulish spelling and pronunciation of Latin are apparent in several 5th century poets, the last pockets of Gaulish speakers appear to have lingered until the 6th or 7th century. Germanic placenames were first attested in border areas settled by Germanic colonizers, from the 4th to 5th centuries, the Franks settled in northern France and Belgium, the Alemanni in Alsace and Switzerland, and the Burgundians in Savoie. The Roman administration finally collapsed as remaining Roman troops withdrew southeast to protect Italy, between 455 and 476 the Visigoths, the Burgundians, and the Franks assumed control in Gaul
8.
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
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Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium was the Roman colony in the Rhineland from which the German city of Cologne developed. It was the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, with the administrative reforms under Diocletian, it became the capital of Germania Secunda. Many artifacts from the ancient city survive including the arch of the city gate with the inscription CCAA. A Germanic tribe known as the Eburones had originally inhabited the present-day Cologne Lowland, but they were wiped out in a war of reprisal carried out by Julius Caesar. This brought the Ubii within Roman-occupied territory, the Ubii chose an island in the Rhine as the central location of their settlement area. The island was a rise that was protected from flooding. The location of the settlement no longer exists today but it comprises the area between the areas of the Heumarkt and the Alter Markt sections of the old city of Cologne. The settlement can be dated by archeological finds to the first half of the 1st century AD, by this time the typical Roman grid-style street plan was already in use. The settlement’s assumed name is probably Oppidum Ubiorum, the Roman epoch of the history of the city of Cologne begins with this oppidum. During the rule of Augustus, the Ara Ubiorum was constructed within the city limits and this altar was possibly foreseen as the central place of worship for a greater Germanic province, which would comprise lands across the Rhine, which remained unconquered at this point. The noble Segimundus is mentioned as the priest of the Ara in the year AD9 and he was from the family of Arminius, leader of the Cherusci. After Arminius defeat of Publius Quinctilius Varus in the year at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. However, the altar itself retained some of its importance as the city is mentioned as “Ara Ubiorum” in many inscriptions, between 9 and AD30 the area of present-day Cologne was mainly a garrison. Legion I Germanica and the Legion XX Valeria Victrix were stationed nearby, the place of the initial Roman Castra was known as Apud Aram Ubiorum. The headquarters of Germanicus were located in Cologne from AD13 to 17, with the death of Augustus in AD14 the legions garrisoned in Cologne mutinied with the aim of establishing Germanicus as emperor. These legions probably united in mutiny with those from Vetera stationed at their summer garrison in Castrum Novasium, Germanicus however remained loyal to Tiberius, who was heir to the throne. He dissuaded the legions from declaring him emperor and at the same time placated the mutineers through generous concessions, Legio I was later stationed in Bonna and Legio XX garrisoned Castrum Novaesium near present-day Neuss. Agrippina the younger was born in AD15 in Cologne and she was the daughter of Germanicus and the wife of the Roman Emperor Claudius
9.
Cologne
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Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
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Media related to Victorinus at Wikimedia Commons
