1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Hooghly River
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The Hooghly River or the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly, called Ganga traditionally, is an approximately 260-kilometre-long distributary of the Ganges River in West Bengal, India. It splits from the Ganges as a canal in Murshidabad District at the Farakka Barrage, the town of Hugli-Chinsura, formerly Hooghly, is located on the river, in the Hooghly. The origins of the Hooghly name are uncertain, whether the city or the river was named first, the Farakka Barrage is a dam that diverts water from the Ganges into a canal near the town of Tildanga in Murshidabad district. This supplies the Hooghly with adequate water even in the dry season and it parallels the Ganges, past Dhulian, until just above Jahangirpur where the canal ends and the river takes its own course. Just south of Jahangirpur it leaves the Ganges area and flows south past Jiaganj Azimganj, Murshidabad, the river then flows south past Katwa, Navadwip and Kalna. At Kalna it originally formed the border between Nadia District and Hooghly District, and then further south between Hooghly District and North 24 Parganas District and it flows past Halisahar, Chinsurah, Serampore, and Kamarhati. Then just before entering the cities of Kolkata and Howrah. At Nurpur it enters an old channel of the Ganges and turns south to empty into the Bay of Bengal through the estuary of about 20 mi wide, two of its primary tributaries are Damodar and Rupnarayan. The tide runs rapidly on the Hooghly, and produces an example of the fluvial phenomenon known as a tidal bore. This consists of the head-wave of the tide, hemmed in where the estuary narrows suddenly into the river. It is felt as high up as Kolkata, and frequently destroys small boats, the difference from the lowest point of low-water in the dry season to the highest point of high-water in the rains is reported to be 20 ft 10 in. The greatest mean rise of tide, about 16 ft, takes place in March, April or May - with a declining range during the season to a mean of 10 ft. In its upper reaches the river is known as the Bhāgirathi. In 1974, the Farakka Barrage began diverting water into the Hooghly during the dry season so as to reduce the difficulties at Kolkatas port. Like the rest of the Ganges, the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly is considered sacred to Hindus, the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly river system is an essential lifeline for the people of West Bengal. It was through this river that the East India company sailed into Bengal and established their settlement, Calcutta. People from other such as the French, Dutch, Portuguese. The river provides a supply of water to the plain of West Bengal for irrigation
3.
Kolkata
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Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city
4.
West Bengal
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West Bengal is an Indian state, located in East India on the Bay of Bengal. It is Indias fourth-most populous state, with over 91 million inhabitants and it has a total area of 34,267 sq mi, making it similar in size to Serbia. A part of the ethno-linguistic Bengal region, it borders Bangladesh in the east and Nepal and it also has borders five Indian states, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata, the seventh-largest city in India, the geography of West Bengal includes the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in its extreme north, the Ganges delta, the Rarh region and the coastal Sundarbans. The main ethnic group are the Bengali people, with Bengali Hindus forming the demographic majority, Ancient Bengal was the site of several major janapadas, including Vanga, Radha, Pundra and Suhma. In the 2nd century BC, the region was conquered by the emperor Ashoka, in the 4th century AD, it was absorbed into the Gupta Empire. From the 13th century onward, the region was ruled by sultans, powerful Hindu states and Baro-Bhuyan landlords. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Between 1977 and 2011, the state was administered by the worlds longest elected Communist government, a major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to Indias net domestic product. It is noted for its activities and the presence of cultural and educational institutions. The states cultural heritage, besides varied folk traditions, ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel-laureate Rabindranath Tagore to scores of musicians, film-makers and artists. West Bengal is also distinct from most other Indian states in its appreciation and practice of playing football besides cricket. The origin of the name Bengal is unknown, one theory suggests that the word derives from Bang, a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000 BC. The word might have derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga. Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name, the early history is obscure. At the end of British Rule over the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region was partitioned in 1947 along religious lines into east and west, the east came to be known as East Bengal and the west came to known as West Bengal, which continued as an Indian state. In 2011, the Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the name of the state to Poschimbongo. This is the name of the state, literally meaning western Bengal in the native Bengali language
5.
Cable-stayed bridge
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A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers, from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables run directly from the tower to the deck. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and this is the range where cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier if the span were lengthened, while suspension bridge cabling would not be more economical if the span were shortened. Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th, early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, Cable-stayed bridges date back to 1595, where designs were found in Machinae Novae, a book by Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge, john A. Roebling took particular advantage of this to limit deformations due to railway loads in the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge. Eduardo Torroja designed an aqueduct at Tempul in 1926. Albert Caquots 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, the steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger is, therefore, more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge. Other key pioneers included Fabrizio de Miranda, Riccardo Morandi, early bridges from this period used very few stay cables, as in the Theodor Heuss Bridge. However, this involves substantial erection costs, and more modern structures tend to use many more cables to ensure greater economy, Cable-stayed bridges may appear to be similar to suspension bridges, but in fact, they are quite different in principle and in their construction. In suspension bridges, large main cables hang between the towers and are anchored at each end to the ground and this can be difficult to implement when ground conditions are poor. The main cables, which are free to move on bearings in the towers, before the deck is installed, the cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or rods connect to the bridge deck, as this is done, the tension in the cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on the cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages. Difference between types of bridges In the cable-stayed bridge, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures which transmit the loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is used to support the bridge deck near the towers. The mono design uses a cable from its towers and is one of the lesser-used examples of the class. In the harp or parallel design, the cables are nearly parallel so that the height of their attachment to the tower is proportional to the distance from the tower to their mounting on the deck
6.
Annual average daily traffic
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Annual average daily traffic, abbreviated AADT, is a measure used primarily in transportation planning and transportation engineering. Traditionally, it is the volume of vehicle traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT is a useful and simple measurement of how busy the road is, newer advances from traffic data providers are now providing AADT by side of the road, by day of week and by time of day. One of the most important uses of AADT is for determining funding for the maintenance, in the United States the amount of federal funding a state will receive is related to the total traffic measured across its Highway network. Each year on June 15, every state in the United States submits a Highway Performance Monitoring System HPMS report, the HPMS report contains various information regarding the road segments in the state based on a sample of the road segments. In the report, the AADT is converted to Vehicle Miles Traveled, VMT is the AADT multiplied by the length of the road segment. To determine the amount of traffic a state has, the AADT cannot be summed for all road segments since an AADT is a rate, the VMT is summed and is used as an indicator of the amount of traffic a state has. For federal-funding, formulas are applied to include the VMT and other highway statistics, to measure AADT on individual road segments, traffic data is collected either by an automated traffic counter or hiring an observer to record traffic. There are two different techniques of measuring the AADTs for road segments, one technique is called continuous count data collection method. This is where sensors are embedded into a road and traffic data is measured all 365 days. The AADT would be the sum of the traffic for the entire year divided by 365 days. There is a problem calculating the AADT with this method. The continuous count equipment is not operating for the full 365 days due to being shut down for maintenance or repair, because of this, seasonal or day-of-week biases might skew the calculated AADT. In 1992, AASHTO released the AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs, for every month and day-of-week, a Monthly Average Day of Week is calculated. Each day-of-weeks MADW is then calculated across months to calculate an Annual Average Day of Week, finally, the AADWs are averaged to calculate an AADT. The United States Federal Highway Administration has adopted this method as the method in the. While providing the most accurate AADT, installing and maintaining continuous count stations method is costly, most agencies are only able to monitor a very small percentage of the roadway using this method. Most AADTs are generated using data collection methods sometimes known as the coverage count data collection method
7.
Toll bridge
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A toll bridge is a bridge over which traffic may pass upon payment of a toll, or fee. The practice of collecting tolls on bridges harks back to the days of ferry crossings where people paid a fee to be ferried across stretches of water, as boats became impractical to carry large loads, ferry operators looked for new sources of revenue. Having built a bridge, they hoped to recoup their investment by charging tolls for people, animals, vehicles, and goods to cross it. The original London Bridge across the river Thames opened as a toll bridge, using interest on its capital assets, the trust now owns and runs all seven central London bridges at no cost to taxpayers or users. In the United States, private ownership of toll bridges peaked in the mid-19th century, in some instances, a quasi-governmental authority was formed, and toll revenue bonds were issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility. Peters and Kramer observed that. little research has been done to quantify the impact of collection on society as a whole. And therefore they published an analysis of the Total Societal Cost associated with toll collection as a means of taxation. TSC is the sum of administrative, compliance, fuel and pollution costs, in 2000 they estimated it to be $56,914,732, or 37. 3% of revenue collected. Nakamura and Kockelman show that tolls are by nature regressive, shifting the burden of taxation disproportionately to the poor and middle classes. Electronic toll collection, branded under names such as EZ-Pass, SunPass, IPass, FasTrak, Treo, GoodToGo, electronic tolling proposals that represented the shadow price of electronic toll collection may have misled decision makers. Consumers have additionally endured an increased administrative burden associated with paying toll bills, additionally, visitors to a region may incur e-toll tag fees imposed by their rental car company. The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980 identified and attempted to address a problem associated with the government collection of information. Approvals were to be secured by government agencies before promulgating a paper form, website, however, the act did not anticipate and thus address the consumer burden associated with funding infrastructure via electronic toll collection instead of through more traditional forms of taxation. In some instances, tolls have been removed after retirement of the toll revenue bonds issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility, sometimes citizens revolt against toll plazas, as was the case in Jacksonville, Florida. Tolls were in place on four bridges crossing the St. Johns River and these tolls paid for the respective bridges as well as many other highway projects. As Jacksonville continued to grow, the tolls created bottlenecks on the roadway, in 1988, Jacksonville voters chose to eliminate all the toll booths and replace the revenue with a ½ cent sales tax increase. In 1989, the booths were removed,36 years after the first toll booth went up. In Scotland, the Scottish Parliament purchased the Skye Bridge from its owners in late 2004, in 2004, the German government cancelled a contract with the Toll Collect syndicate after much negative publicity
8.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
9.
Howrah
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Howrah or Haora is an industrial city, a municipal corporation in the Howrah district, West Bengal, India. It is the headquarters of the district, and of the Howrah Sadar subdivision of the district, located on the west bank of the Hoogli River, it is a twin city to Kolkata. Howrah is the second smallest district after Kolkata, currently the state secretariat and the Chief Ministers Office in also located in Nabanna in Howrah. Howrah Station serves as a terminal for two railway zones of India, the Eastern Railway and the South Eastern Railway. There are six railway stations with the city, including the railway junction at Santragachhi. Dinabandhu Institution, an Institute of National Importance and a research institution, is also situated in Shibpur. Two national highways—NH2 and NH 6—are connected to Vidyasagar Setu via Kona Expressway, one endpoint of the Grand Trunk Road is at the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden here, where the Great Banyan tree stands. Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, over 150 years old, the name came from the word Haor—Bengali word for a fluvial swampy lake, which is sedimentologically a depression where water, mud and organic debris accumulate. The word itself was used in eastern part of Bengal. Venetian explorer Cesare Federici, who travelled in India during 1565–79, as per his description, this was the a location into which large ships could travel and perhaps a commercial port. This place is identifiable with the modern day neighbourhood of Bator, Bator was also mentioned in the Bengali poetry Manasamangal written by Bipradas Pipilai in 1495. The list of villages appeared in the Consultation Book of the Council dated 4 May 1714, the five villages on the west bank on Hooghly river were, Salica, Harirah, Cassundeah, Ramkrishnopoor, and Battar, all identifiable with localities of modern-day Howrah city. The deputation was successful except for five villages. By 1728, most of the present-day Howrah district was part of either of the two zamindaris, Burdwan or Muhammand Aminpur. After Battle of Plassey, as per the treaty signed with the Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim, on 11 October 1760, in 1787, the Hooghly district was formed, and till 1819, the whole of the present day Howrah district was added to it. The Howrah district was separated from the Hooghly district in 1843, by 1914 almost every major city in India was served by the Railways and the increased demand for its rolling stocks and repair works resulted in the establishment of railway workshop in Howrah. The light engineering industry grew up after 1914, Howrah is located at 22. 59°N88. 31°E /22.59,88.31. It has an elevation of 12 metres As of 2011 India census
10.
Gujarat
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Gujarat is a state in Western India, sometimes referred to as the Jewel of Western India. It has an area of 196,024 km2 with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the Arabian Sea and its capital city is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India, the state encompasses some sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the worlds first seaports, Gujarat was known to the ancient Greeks, and was familiar in other Western centres of civilisation through the end of the European Middle Ages. Modern-day Gujarat is derived from Sanskrit term Gurjaradesa, the Gurjar nation, parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat have been known as Gurjaratra or Gurjarabhumi for centuries before the Mughal period. Gujarat was one of the centres of the Indus Valley Civilization. It contains ancient metropolitan cities from the Indus Valley such as Lothal, Dholavira, the ancient city of Lothal was where Indias first port was established. The ancient city of Dholavira is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India, the most recent discovery was Gola Dhoro. Altogether, about 50 Indus Valley settlement ruins have been discovered in Gujarat, the ancient history of Gujarat was enriched by the commercial activities of its inhabitants. There is clear evidence of trade and commerce ties with Egypt, Bahrain. The early history of Gujarat reflects the grandeur of Chandragupta Maurya who conquered a number of earlier states in what is now Gujarat. Pushyagupta, a Vaishya, was appointed governor of Saurashtra by the Mauryan regime and he ruled Giringer and built a dam on the Sudarshan lake. Between the decline of Mauryan power and Saurashtra coming under the sway of the Samprati Mauryas of Ujjain, in the first half of the 1st century AD there is the story of a merchant of King Gondaphares landing in Gujarat with Apostle Thomas. The incident of the cup-bearer killed by a lion might indicate that the city described is in Gujarat. For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century AD, the weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the ruler Rudradaman I of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to the Aparanta region which bordered Punjab, in Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps, the Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta Empire with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya
11.
Howrah Bridge
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Howrah Bridge is a propped cantilever bridge with a suspended span over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India. Commissioned in 1943, the bridge was named the New Howrah Bridge. On 14 June 1965 it was renamed Rabindra Setu after the great Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore and it is still popularly known as the Howrah Bridge. The bridge is one of four on the Hooghly River and is a symbol of Kolkata. The other bridges are the Vidyasagar Setu, the Vivekananda Setu, the third-longest cantilever bridge at the time of its construction, the Howrah Bridge is currently the sixth-longest bridge of its type in the world. He reported on 29 March with large-scale drawings and estimates that, The foundations for a bridge at Calcutta would be at a considerable depth, the impediment to shipping would be considerable. A good place for the bridge was at Pulta Ghat about a dozen miles north of Calcutta where a bed of stiff clay existed at no great depth under the river bed, a suspended-girder bridge of five spans of 400 feet and two spans of 200 feet would be ideal. In view of the traffic across the Hooghly river, a committee was appointed in 1855-56 to review alternatives for constructing a bridge across it. The plan was shelved in 1859-60, to be revived in 1868, when it was decided that a bridge should be constructed, eventually a contract was signed with Sir Bradford Leslie to construct a pontoon bridge. Different parts were constructed in England and shipped to Calcutta, where they were assembled, the assembling period was fraught with problems. The bridge was damaged by the great cyclone on 20 March 1874. A steamer named Egeria broke from her moorings and collided head-on with the bridge, the bridge was completed in 1874, at a total cost of ₹2.2 million, and opened to traffic on 17 October of that year. The bridge was then 1528 ft. long and 62 ft. wide, initially the bridge was periodically unfastened to allow steamers and other marine vehicles to pass through. Before 1906, the used to be undone for the passage of vessels during daytime only. Since June of that year it started opening at night for all vessels except ocean steamers, from 19 August 1879, the bridge was illuminated by electric lamp-posts, powered by the dynamo at the Mullick Ghat Pumping Station. As the bridge could not handle the increasing load, the Port Commissioners started planning in 1905 for a new improved bridge. In 1906 the Port Commission appointed a committee headed by R. S, highet, Chief Engineer, East Indian Railway and W. B. MacCabe, Chief Engineer, Calcutta Corporation. It extended tenders to 23 firms for its design and construction, prize money of £3,000 was declared for the firm whose design would be accepted
12.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
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Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar CIE, born Ishwar Chandra Bandyopadhyay, was an Indian Bengali polymath and a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance. He was a philosopher, academic educator, writer, translator, printer, publisher, entrepreneur, reformer and his efforts to simplify and modernize Bengali prose were significant. He also rationalized and simplified the Bengali alphabet and type, which had remained unchanged since Charles Wilkins and he received the title Vidyasagar from Sanskrit College, Calcutta, due to his excellent performance in Sanskrit studies and philosophy. Noted Bengali mathematician Anil Kumar Gain founded Vidyasagar University, named in his honour, at the age of 6, he went to Calcutta and started living in Bhagabat Charans house in Burrabazar, where Thakurdas had already been staying for some years. Ishwar felt at ease amidst Bhagabats large family and settled down comfortably in no time and his quest for knowledge was so intense that he used to study under a street light as it was not possible for him to afford a gas lamp at home. He cleared all the examinations with excellence and in quick succession and he was rewarded with a number of scholarships for his academic performance. To support himself and the family, Ishwar Chandra also took a job of teaching at Jorashanko. As per the customs then Ishwar Chandra married at the age of fourteen, narayan Chandra Bandyopadhyaya was their only son. In the year 1839, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar successfully cleared his Law examination, in 1841, at the age of twenty one years, Ishwar Chandra joined Fort William College as head of the Sanskrit department. After five years, in 1846, Vidyasagar left Fort William College, in the first year of service, Ishwar Chandra recommended a number of changes to the existing education system. This report resulted in an altercation between Ishwar Chandra and College Secretary Rasomoy Dutta. In 1849, he again joined Sanskrit College, as a professor of literature, in 1851, Ishwar Chandra became the principal of Sanskrit College. In 1855, he was special inspector of schools with additional charges. But following the matter of Rasomoy Dutta, Vidyasagar resigned from Sanskrit College, Vidyasagar championed the uplift of the status of women in India, particularly in his native Bengal. Unlike some other reformers who sought to set up alternative societies or systems, with support from people like Akshay Kumar Dutta, Vidyasagar introduced the practice of widow remarriages to mainstream Hindu society. In earlier times, remarriages of widows would occur only among progressive members of the Brahmo Samaj. After such marriages, these girls would usually be left behind in their parental homes and these included a semi-starvation, hard domestic labour, and close restriction on their freedom to leave the house or be seen by strangers. Unable to tolerate the ill treatment, many of these girls would run away, in 1853 it was estimated that Calcutta had a population of 12,718 prostitutes and public women
13.
Toll road
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A toll road, also known as a turnpike or tollway, is a public or private roadway for which a fee is assessed for passage. It is a form of road pricing typically implemented to help recoup the cost of road construction, the amount of the toll usually varies by vehicle type, weight, or number of axles, with freight trucks often charged higher rates than cars. Tolls are collected at points known as toll booths, toll houses, plazas, stations, bars, some toll collection points are unmanned and the user deposits money in a machine which opens the gate once the correct toll has been paid. To cut costs and minimize time delay many tolls today are collected by some form of automatic or electronic toll collection equipment which communicates electronically with a toll payers transponder, Toll booths are usually still required for the occasional users who do not have a transponder. The tolls are often prepaid or collected automatically from a credit card service. Some toll roads have automated toll enforcement systems that take photos of drivers who do not pay the tolls and they typically get the toll bill delivered to them in the mail. Criticisms of toll roads include the time taken to stop and pay the toll, automated toll paying systems help minimize both of these. Others object to paying twice for the road, in fuel taxes. In addition to roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels are also used by public authorities to generate funds to repay the cost of building the structures. Some tolls are set aside to pay for maintenance or enhancement of infrastructure, or are applied as a general fund by local governments. This is sometimes limited or prohibited by government legislation. Also road congestion pricing schemes have been implemented in a number of urban areas as a transportation demand management tool to try to reduce traffic congestion. Toll roads have existed for at least the last 2,700 years, as tolls had to be paid by travellers using the Susa–Babylon highway under the regime of Ashurbanipal, aristotle and Pliny refer to tolls in Arabia and other parts of Asia. In India, before the 4th century BC, the Arthasastra notes the use of tolls, germanic tribes charged tolls to travellers across mountain passes. A 14th-century example is Castle Loevestein in the Netherlands, which was built at a point where two rivers meet. River tolls were charged on boats sailing along the river, in 14th-century England, some of the most heavily used roads were repaired with money raised from tolls by pavage grants. Widespread toll roads sometimes restricted traffic so much, by their high tolls, tolls were used in the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 20th century, road tolls were introduced in Europe to finance the construction of motorway networks and specific transport infrastructure such as bridges, Italy was the first European country to charge motorway tolls, on a 50 km motorway section near Milan in 1924
14.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
15.
Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
16.
Chennai
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Chennai /ˈtʃɛnnaɪ/, formerly known as Madras /məˈdrɑːs/ or /-ˈdræs/) is the capital of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal, it is one of the biggest cultural, economic, according to the 2011 Indian census, it is the sixth-largest city and fourth-most populous urban agglomeration in India. The city together with the adjoining regions constitute the Chennai Metropolitan Area, Chennai is among the most visited Indian cities by foreign tourists. It was ranked 43rd most visited city in the world for year 2015, the Quality of Living Survey rated Chennai as the safest city in India. Chennai attracts 45 percent of tourists visiting India, and 30 to 40 percent of domestic health tourists. As such, it is termed Indias health capital, as a growing metropolitan city in a developing country, Chennai confronts substantial pollution and other logistical and socio-economic problems. Chennai has the third-largest expatriate population in India at 35,000 in 2009,82,790 in 2011, tourism guide publisher Lonely Planet named Chennai as one of the top ten cities in the world to visit in 2015. Chennai is ranked as a city in the Global Cities Index and was ranked the best city in India by India Today in the 2014 annual Indian city survey. In 2015 Chennai was named the hottest city by the BBC, National Geographic ranked Chennais food as second best in the world, it was the only Indian city to feature in the list. Chennai was also named the ninth-best cosmopolitan city in the world by Lonely Planet, the Chennai Metropolitan Area is one of the largest city economies of India. Chennai is nicknamed The Detroit of India, with more than one-third of Indias automobile industry being based in the city, in January 2015, it was ranked third in terms of per capita GDP. Chennai has been selected as one of the 100 Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. The name Madras originated even before the British presence was established in India, the name Madras is said to have originated from a Portuguese phrase mae de Deus which means mother of god, due to Portuguese influence on the port city. According to some sources, Madras was derived from Madraspattinam, a north of Fort St George. However, it is whether the name was in use before the arrival of Europeans. The British military mapmakers believed Madras was originally Mundir-raj or Mundiraj, Madras might have also been derived from the word Madhuras meaning juice of honey or sugarcane in Sanskrit. The nativity of name Chennai, being of Telugu origin is clearly proved by the historians. The first official use of the name Chennai is said to be in a deed, dated 8 August 1639
17.
Indira Gandhi
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Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi was an Indian politician and central figure of the Indian National Congress party, and to date the only female Prime Minister of India. Indira Gandhi was the daughter of Indias first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, despite her surname Gandhi, she is not related to the family of nationalist leader Mahatma Gandhi. She served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and then again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, Gandhi served as her fathers personal assistant and hostess during his tenure as prime minister between 1947 and 1964. She was elected Congress President in 1959, upon her fathers death in 1964, Gandhi refused to enter the Congress party leadership contest and instead chose to become a cabinet minister in the government led by Lal Bahadur Shastri. As the Prime Minister of India, Gandhi was known for her political ruthlessness, Gandhi also presided over a controversial state of emergency from 1975 to 1977 during which she ruled by decree. Akin to Mahatma Gandhis fate, she was assassinated by nationalists in 1984. The assassins, Beant Singh and Satwant Singh, were both killed, in 1999, Indira was named Woman of the Millennium in a poll organised by the BBC. Indira Gandhi was born as Indira Nehru in a Kashmiri Pandit family on 19 November 1917 in Allahabad and her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a leading figure in Indias political struggle for independence from British rule, and became the first Prime Minister of the Union of India. She was the child, and grew up with her mother, Kamala Nehru, at the Anand Bhavan. She had a lonely and unhappy childhood and her father was often away, directing political activities or incarcerated, while her mother was frequently bed-ridden with illness, and later suffered an early death from tuberculosis. She had limited contact with her father, mostly through letters, Indira was mostly taught at home by tutors, and intermittently attended school until matriculation in 1934. It was during her interview that Rabindranath Tagore named her Priyadarshini, a year later, however, she had to leave university to attend to her ailing mother in Europe. While there, it was decided that Indira would continue her education at the University of Oxford, after her mother died, she briefly attended the Badminton School before enrolling at Somerville College in 1937 to study history. Indira had to take the entrance examination twice, having failed at her first attempt with a performance in Latin. At Oxford, she did well in history, political science and economics and she did, however, have an active part within the student life of the university, such as the Oxford Majlis Asian Society. During her time in Europe, Indira was plagued with ill-health and was attended by doctors. She had to make repeated trips to Switzerland to recover, disrupting her studies and she was being treated there in 1940, when the Nazi armies rapidly conquered Europe. Gandhi tried to return to England through Portugal but was stranded for nearly two months
18.
Indian rupee
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The Indian rupee, is the official currency of the Republic of India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise, though as of 2011,25 paise is no more a legal tender, the issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act,1934. The rupee is named after the coin, rupiya, first issued by Sultan Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century. In 2010, a new symbol ₹, was officially adopted and it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant र and the Latin capital letter R without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top are said to make an allusion to the tricolour Indian flag, the first series of coins with the new rupee symbol started in circulation on 8 July 2011. On 8 November 2016 the Government of India announced the demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, a newly redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016. The new redesigned series is expected to be enlarged with banknotes in the denominations of ₹1000, ₹100. The word rupee was derived from the Sanskrit word रूप्यकम् or rupaya, the modern Indian rupee has a direct lineage from the rupiya, the silver coin, issued by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. Rūpa means to form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, rūpya — wrought silver, however, in the region of Bengal, the term taka has always been used to refer to currency. In the 14th century, Ibn Battuta noticed that people in the Bengal Sultanate referred to gold, today, the currency of Bangladesh is officially known as taka. The word taka in Bengali is also used generically to mean any money, currency. Thus, colloquially, a person speaking in Bengali may use taka to refer to money regardless of what currency it is denominated in, thus, in the states of West Bengal and Tripura the Indian rupee is officially known টাকা. Whereas, in the states of Assam and Odisha, the Indian rupee is known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ṭaṅka, টকা in Assamese. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, the silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include, the Bank of Hindustan, the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar, historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of relative to gold
19.
Bengalis
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The Bengalis, also spelled as the Bangalees, are a major Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group. They are native to the region of Bengal in South Asia and they speak the Bengali language, the most easterly branch of the Indo-European language family. Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese, apart from Bangladesh and West Bengal, Bengali-majority populations also reside in Indias Tripura state, the Barak Valley in Assam state and the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The global Bengali diaspora has well-established communities in Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and they have four major religious subgroups, including Bengali Muslims, Bengali Hindus, Bengali Christians and Bengali Buddhists. Archaeologists have discovered remnants of a 4,000 years old Chalcolithic civilisation in the greater Bengal region, however evidence of much older Palaeolithic human habitations are found in the form of a Stone Implement and a Hand Axe in Rangamati and Feni districts of Bangladesh. The origin of the word Bangla ~ Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from a tribe called Bang that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE. Kingdoms of Anga, Vanga and Magadha were formed in and around Bengal and were first described in the Atharvaveda around 1000 BCE as well as in Hindu epic Mahabharata, from the 6th century BCE, Magadha expanded to include most of the Bihar and Bengal regions. It was one of the four kingdoms of India at the time of Buddha and was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land ruled by the king Xandrammes named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BCE, the word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd in reference to an area in Bengal. Later from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire, one of the first recorded independent kings of Bengal was Shashanka, reigning around the early 7th century. After a period of anarchy, Gopala came to power in 750, atisha was a renowned Bengali Buddhist teacher who was instrumental in revival of Buddhism in Tibet and also held the position of Abbot at the Vikramshila university. Tilopa was also from Bengal region, the Pala dynasty was later followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena Empire. Islam was introduced to Bengal in the century by Sufi missionaries. Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region, bakhtiar Khilji, a Turkic general of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. Consequently, the region was ruled by dynasties of sultans and feudal lords under the Bengal Sultanate for the few hundred years. Islam was introduced to the Sylhet region by the Muslim saint Shah Jalal in the early 14th century, Mughal general Man Singh conquered parts of Bengal including Dhaka during the time of Emperor Akbar. Few Rajput tribes from his army permanently settled around Dhaka and surrounding lands, later on, in the early 17th century, Islam Khan conquered all of Bengal. Other figures have been considered to be part of the Renaissance and he is considered one of the fathers of radio science, and is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction
20.
Howrah district
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Howrah district is a district of the West Bengal state in eastern India. It has thousands of years of heritage in the form of the great Bengali kingdom of Bhurshut. The district is named after its headquarters, the city of Howrah, the Howrah district lies between 22°48′ N and 22°12′ N latitudes and between 88°23′ E and 87°50′ E longitudes. The district is bounded by the Hooghly River and the North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas districts on the east, on the north by the Hooghly district, and on the south by Midnapore East district. Boundaries of the district are naturally determined by Rupnarayan River on west and south-west, on north side, the boundary is an artificial one except for Bally Canal on north-east and Damodar River on north-west. Annual normal rainfall is 1461 millimetre per year, annual maximum temperature varies between 32-39 °C, whereas minimum temperature varies between 8-10 °C. Howrah district has two subdivisions, Howrah Sadar and Uluberia, Howrah Sadar consists of Bally municipality and Howrah municipal corporation and five community development blocks, Bally–Jagacha, Domjur, Panchla, Sankrail and Jagatballavpur. Uluberia subdivision consists of Uluberia Municipality and nine CD blocks, Uluberia–I, Uluberia–II, Amta–I, Amta–II, Udaynarayanpur, Bagnan–I, Bagnan–II, Shyampur–I, Howrah district has 1 municipal corporation in Howrah,2 municipalities in Bally and Uluberia. Rest of the area under this district is divided in 14 community development blocks, each block consists of rural area divided into gram panchayats along with urban units like census towns. This district has 11 police stations,157 gram panchayats, and 50 census towns, khalisani in Uluberia - II block and Chak Srikrishna in Sankrail block were noted as urban outgrowths in census 2001. Jagatballavpur CD block consists of area with 14 gram panchayats and one census town. Uluberia, municipality Amta–I CD block consists of rural area only with 13 gram panchayats, Amta–II CD block consists of rural area only with 14 gram panchayats. Bagnan–I CD block consists of area with 10 gram panchayats. Bagnan–II CD block consists of area with 7 gram panchayats and one census town. Uluberia–I CD block consists of rural area only with 9 gram panchayats. The most important village is Bar-Mongrajpur under Hatgacha-1 G. P, shyampur-II CD block consists of rural area only with 8 gram panchayats. Udaynarayanpur CD block consists of rural area only with 11 gram panchayats, Sankrail and Uluberia North constituencies are reserved for Scheduled Castes candidates. Bally, Howrah North, Howrah Central, Howrah South, Shibpur, Domjur, Uluberia North, Uluberia South, Shyampur, Bagnan, Kalyanpur, Amta and Udaynarayanpur constituencies form the Uluberia. Along with five assembly constituencies from Hooghly district, Jagatballavpur and Panchla constituencies form the Serampore, Sankrail and Uluberia North constituencies will remain reserved for Scheduled Castes candidates
21.
Vivekananda Setu
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Vivekananda Setu is a bridge over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India. It links the city of Howrah, at Bally, to its city of Kolkata. Completed in December 1932, it is a steel bridge and was built to provide road. The erection and deep well sinking of the bridge was done by famous Kutchi-Mestri contractor and his nameplate can still be seen on each girder of the bridge. The construction of bridge started in year 1926 and was completed in year 1932, the fabrication of the bridge was done at works of Braithwate & Company, Calcutta. The Bally Bridge was named Willingdon Bridge after Viceroy of India, Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon, the first train that ran across the bridge was named Jagmal Raja Howrah Express by the British, acknowledging the feat of Rai Bahadur Jagmal Raja. The bridge cost over ₹1 crore in those years, the Bridge was built with eight spans laid at distance of 300 ft each. The length of bridge is almost half mile with 10 km approach roads on both sides, the foundation laid with well-sinking 100 ft down the river beds, girding, erection of abutments, arching was all done by Jagmal Raja. The bridge also has bridges over the river at different points, namely the Howrah Bridge. This bridge has recently handled a traffic of 24,000 vehicles. Vivekananda Setu had become weak as a result of ageing, and with heavy traffic, there was need for a second bridge. Nivedita Setu was constructed parallel to it and around 50 metres downstream and it was opened to traffic in 2007. The Vivekananda Setu allows traffic movement upstream while the Nivedita Bridge helps downstream transport, List of longest bridges in the world List of longest bridges above water in India
22.
Rabindranath Tagore
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Author of Gitanjali and its profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse, he became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. Sometimes referred to as the Bard of Bengal, Tagores poetic songs were viewed as spiritual and mercurial, however, his elegant prose, a Pirali Brahmin from Calcutta with ancestral gentry roots in Jessore, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old. At the age of sixteen, he released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha, by 1877 he graduated to his first short stories and dramas, published under his real name. As a humanist, universalist internationalist, and ardent anti-nationalist, he denounced the British Raj, Tagore modernised Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms and resisting linguistic strictures. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to topics political and personal, Gitanjali, Gora and Ghare-Baire are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed—or panned—for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and unnatural contemplation. His compositions were chosen by two nations as national anthems, Indias Jana Gana Mana and Bangladeshs Amar Shonar Bangla, the Sri Lankan national anthem was inspired by his work. The youngest of thirteen surviving children, Tagore was born on 7 May 1861 in the Jorasanko mansion in Calcutta to Debendranath Tagore, Tagore was raised mostly by servants, his mother had died in his early childhood and his father travelled widely. The Tagore family was at the forefront of the Bengal renaissance and they hosted the publication of literary magazines, theatre and recitals of Bengali and Western classical music featured there regularly. Tagores father invited several professional Dhrupad musicians to stay in the house, Tagores oldest brother Dwijendranath was a philosopher and poet. Another brother, Satyendranath, was the first Indian appointed to the elite, yet another brother, Jyotirindranath, was a musician, composer, and playwright. His sister Swarnakumari became a novelist, jyotirindranaths wife Kadambari Devi, slightly older than Tagore, was a dear friend and powerful influence. Her abrupt suicide in 1884, soon after he married, left him for years profoundly distraught, Tagore largely avoided classroom schooling and preferred to roam the manor or nearby Bolpur and Panihati, idylls which the family visited. His brother Hemendranath tutored and physically conditioned him—by having him swim the Ganges or trek through hills, by gymnastics and he learned drawing, anatomy, geography and history, literature, mathematics, Sanskrit, and English—his least favourite subject. Tagore loathed formal education—his scholarly travails at the local Presidency College spanned a single day, there Tagore read biographies, studied history, astronomy, modern science, and Sanskrit, and examined the classical poetry of Kālidāsa. Tagore returned to Jorosanko and completed a set of works by 1877. As a joke, he claimed that these were the lost works of a newly discovered 17th-century Vaiṣṇava poet Bhānusiṃha, regional experts accepted them as the lost works of Bhānusiṃha. He debuted in the genre in Bengali with Bhikharini. Published in the year, Sandhya Sangit includes the poem Nirjharer Swapnabhanga
23.
Nivedita Setu
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Nivedita Setu is a cable-stayed bridge over Hooghly River in Kolkata, West Bengal. It runs parallel to and around 50 m downstream of the old Vivekananda Setu opened in 1932, the bridge is named after Sister Nivedita, the social worker-disciple of Swami Vivekananda. Belghoria Expressway that connects the meeting point of NH2 with NH6 at Dankuni to NH34, NH35, Dum Dum Airport, the bridge is designed to carry 48,000 vehicles per day. Vivekananda Setu had become weak as a result of ageing and with heavy traffic even repairs became difficult, there was need for a second bridge. The bridge rests on deep-well foundations going down to the bed level. It carries six lanes for high speed traffic, the carriageway is supported by 254 pre-stressed concrete girders. Cables from 14m high pylons extend additional support, Nivedita Setu is the first bridge in the country that is a single profile cable-stayed bridge. By design, the height of the columns are lower than the tip of the Dakshineswar temple and this wonder of an architecture bridge is estimated to cost approximately Rs.6,50 crore. The construction of the started in April 2004, by the construction giant Larsen. The bridge is the Indias first multi-span, single-plane cable supported extra-dosed bridge, with pylons and seven continuous spans of 110 m. It is 29 m wide and will be able to support 6 lanes of traffic, Nivedita Setu has won an Award of Excellence from the American Segmental Bridge Institute, USA. As of 2011, the charges for using Nivedita Setu are, Rs.42 for light passenger vehicles, Rs.65 for buses. 183 for trucks and multi-axle vehicles, List of longest bridges in the world List of longest bridges above water in India Image of bridge Another image of bridge
24.
Sister Nivedita
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Bhagini Nivedita was a Scots-Irish social worker, author, teacher and a disciple of Swami Vivekananda. She spent her childhood and early days of her youth in Ireland, from her father, and her college professor, she learned many valuable lessons like – service to mankind is the true service to God. She worked as teacher and later also opened a school. She was committed to marry a Welsh youth who died soon after their engagement, Sister Nivedita met Swami Vivekananda in 1895 in London and traveled to Calcutta, India in 1898. Swami Vivekananda gave her the name Nivedita when he initiated her into the vow of Brahmacharya on 25 March 1898, in November 1898, she opened a girls school in Bagbazar area of Calcutta. She wanted to educate those girls who were deprived of basic education. During the plague epidemic in Calcutta in 1899 Nivedita nursed and took care of the poor patients, Nivedita had close associations with the newly established Ramakrishna Mission. She was very intimate with Sarada Devi, the consort of Ramakrishna and one of the major influences behind Ramakrishna Mission. She died on 13 October 1911 in Darjeeling and her epitaph reads, Here reposes Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India. Margaret Elizabeth Noble was born on 28 October 1867 in the town of Dungannon in County Tyrone, the Nobles were of Scottish descent, settled in Ireland for about five centuries. Her father, who was a priest, gave the valuable lesson that service to mankind is the service to God. When Margaret was one year old Samuel moved to Manchester, England, young Margaret at this time stayed with her maternal grandfather Hamilton in Northern Ireland. When she was four years old she returned to live with her father, margarets father Samuel died in 1877 when she was only ten years old Margaret was brought up by her maternal grandfather. Hamilton was one of the leaders of the freedom movement of Ireland. Margaret did her education from Church boarding school in London and she and her sister attended Halifax College, run by a member of Congregationalist Church. The headmistress of this college taught her about personal sacrifice and she extensively studied various subjects, including physics, arts, music, literature. She embraced teaching at the age of seventeen and she first worked in Keswick as a teacher of children. Subsequently, she established a school in Wimbledon and followed her own methods of teaching
25.
Schlaich Bergermann Partner
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The firm was founded in 1980 by Jörg Schlaich and Rudolf Bergermann. They both worked as engineers for the firm of Leonhard und Andrä in Stuttgart in the 1960s and 1970s. They were responsible for the design of the roof structure of the 1972 Olympic grounds in Munich. Since 2002, Knut Göppert, Andreas Keil, Sven Plieninger, also included is peer reviewing for structural integrity and structural analysis. The firm also has its own department for the development of technologies of solar power generation, the development and construction of a prototype solar up-draft power plant in Manzanares, Spain was achieved by the solar division of the office in 1982. Likewise, the Dish-Stirling modules for decentralized energy generation have been developed since the beginning of the 1980s, since 2000 the firm has taken part in the planning and construction of parabolic trough power plants. This technology along with the structures developed by sbp are currently being employed in a multitude of plants around the world. A significant point in the history of the firm is the Vidyasagar Setu, commonly known as the Second Hoogly Bridge, in Calcutta, India. Local requirements for the construction of the bridge stipulated the utilization of local, not weldable steel, thus huge cross-sections, including the pylon heads, were assembled using millions of rivets and thick plates. For the soccer world cup in Germany 2006, the Commerzbank-Arena Frankfurt am Main had to be renovated into a new and this necessitated the construction of a mobile roof structure that could be closed across the playing field. The soccer world cup 2010 in South Africa as well as the world cup 2014 in Brazil have also contributed to the firms growing resume of sport stadiums. The light, transparent roof over the Hamburg Museums courtyard bears on the structure as little as possible. For this gridshell structure the common kitchen sieve was the inspiration, in combination with a diagonal cable net, the grid transforms into an ideal shell. Clad with glass panes, the result is a lightweight, transparent roof, the glass panes lie directly on the grid beams, thereby merging the load-bearing structure and glass planes. This serves to eliminate the typically necessary secondary structure, the cable net facade is comparable to a tennis racket. The cable net roof is the transformation of the primarily single-plane loading of the wheel to vertical load transfer. One of the first modern cable net roofs is the Mercedes-Benz Arena in Stuttgart, further examples of this principle are some of the many soccer stadiums worldwide. Most of the cable net roofs are clad with a textile membrane, textiles allow for lightweight, transparent roofs and facades that fascinate through their variegated and unusual forms
26.
Vidyasagar Setu
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Vidyasagar Setu, also known as the Second Hooghly Bridge, is a toll bridge over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India, linking the cities of Kolkata and Howrah. With a total length of 823 metres, Vidyasagar Setu is the longest cable–stayed bridge in India and it was the second bridge to be built across the Hooghly River, the first, the Howrah Bridge 3.7 kilometres to the north, was completed in 1943. Named after the educationist reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, it cost ₹3.88 billion to build, the project was a joint effort between the public and private sectors, under the control of the Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners. Subsequently, the traffic reached a minimum of 45,000 vehicles. The original management of the revenue collection by HRBC was consequently criticized for corruption. Population and commercial activity grew rapidly after India gained independence in August 1947, the only link across the Hooghly River, the Howrah Bridge, between Howrah and Kolkata, was subject to much traffic congestion, with over 85,000 vehicles every day. This necessitated planning for a new bridge across the river so that it could connect to the cities of Mumbai, Delhi. The foundation stone for the bridge was laid by Indira Gandhi on 20 May 1972, the bridge took more than 22 years to complete and cost Indian Rupees 3.88 billion, but in seven of those years there was no construction activity. The bridge is named after the 19th-century Bengali educationist reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, work on the cable-stayed bridge started with the construction of the well curb on the Calcutta bank end on 3 July 1979. Kona Expressway and Vidyasagar Setu experienced an rise in the volume of traffic over a couple of years. Over 100,000 vehicles take the expressway to reach Calcutta via Vidyasagar Setu, the bridge was designed by Schlaich Bergermann & Partner, and checked by Freeman Fox & Partners and Bharat Bhari Udyog Nigam Limited. Construction was carried out by the consortium of The Braithwaite Burn, the Hooghly River Bridge Commission was responsible for the commissioning operations of the bridge. Construction began on 3 July 1979, and the bridge was commissioned on 10 October 1992 by the Hooghly River Bridge Commission, Vidyasagar Setu is a cable-stayed bridge, with 121 cables in a fan arrangement, built using steel pylons 127.62 metres high. With a total length of 823 metres, Vidyasagar Setu is the longest cable–stayed bridge in India, the deck is made of composite steel-reinforced concrete with two carriageways. The total width of the bridge is 35 metres, with 3 lanes in each direction, the deck over the main span is 457.20 metres long. The two side spans are supported by wire cables and are 182.88 metres long. Vidyasagar Setu is a toll bridge and it has capacity to handle more than 85,000 vehicles in a day. The design of the bridge differs slightly from other bridges, which are of live load composite construction, the difference is in the dead load design concept adopted for this bridge and concreting of the side spans done with support provided by the intermediate trestle
27.
Prinsep Ghat
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Prinsep Ghats is a ghat built in 1841 during the British Raj, along the Kolkata bank of the Hooghly River in India. The Palladian porch in the memory of the eminent Anglo-Indian scholar and antiquary James Prinsep was designed by W. Fitzgerald, located between the Water Gate and the St Georges Gate of the Fort William, the monument to Prinsep is rich in Greek and Gothic inlays. It was restored by the public works department in November 2001 and has since been well-maintained. In its initial years, all royal British entourages used the Prinsep Ghat jetty for embarkation and disembarkation, Prinsep Ghat is one of the oldest recreational spots of Kolkata. People visit it in the evenings on weekends to go boating on the river, stroll along the bank, one stall selling ice-cream and fast food has been there for more than 40 years. A 2-kilometre stretch of the riverfront from Princep Ghat to Babughat was inaugurated on 24 May 2012. It has illuminated and landscaped gardens and pathways, fountains, one of the songs in the Bollywood film Parineeta was shot here on the ghats. Prinsep Ghat also has a station named after it. The station is part of the Kolkata Circular Railway which is maintained by Eastern Railway, there is a jetty nearby called the Man-O-War jetty that belongs to the Kolkata Port Trust and commemorates the role played by the port in the Second World War. The jetty is used by the Indian Navy
28.
Tower
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A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant margin. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, Towers are specifically distinguished from buildings in that they are not built to be habitable but to serve other functions. Towers can be stand alone structures or be supported by adjacent buildings or can be a feature on top of a structure or building. Old English torr is from Latin turris via Old French tor, the Latin term together with Greek τύρσις was loaned from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean language, connected with the Illyrian toponym Βου-δοργίς. The oldest known may be the stone tower in walls of Neolithic Jericho. Some of the earliest towers were ziggurats, which existed in Sumerian architecture since the 4th millennium BC, the most famous ziggurats include the Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, built the 3rd millennium BC, and the Etemenanki, one of the most famous examples of Babylonian architecture. The latter was built in Babylon during the 2nd millennium BC and was considered the tallest tower of the ancient world, some of the earliest surviving examples are the broch structures in northern Scotland, which are conical towerhouses. These and other examples from Phoenician and Roman cultures emphasised the use of a tower in fortification, for example, the name of the Moroccan city of Mogador, founded in the first millennium BC, is derived from the Phoenician word for watchtower. The Romans utilised octagonal towers as elements of Diocletians Palace in Croatia, which monument dates to approximately 300 AD, while the Servian Walls, the Chinese used towers as integrated elements of the Great Wall of China in 210 BC during the Qin Dynasty. Towers were also an important element of castles, other well known towers include the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa, Italy built from 1173 until 1372 and the Two Towers in Bologna, Italy built from 1109 until 1119. The Himalayan Towers are stone towers located chiefly in Tibet built approximately 14th to 15th century, up to a certain height, a tower can be made with the supporting structure with parallel sides. However, above a height, the compressive load of the material is exceeded. This can be avoided if the support structure tapers up the building. A second limit is that of buckling—the structure requires sufficient stiffness to avoid breaking under the loads it faces, many very tall towers have their support structures at the periphery of the building, which greatly increases the overall stiffness. A third limit is dynamic, a tower is subject to varying winds, vortex shedding and these are often dealt with through a combination of simple strength and stiffness, as well as in some cases tuned mass dampers to damp out movements. Varying or tapering the outer aspect of the tower with height avoids vibrations due to vortex shedding occurring along the building simultaneously. Although not correctly called towers many modern skyscraper are often called towers, in the United Kingdom, tall domestic buildings are referred to as tower blocks. In the United States, the original World Trade Center had the nickname the Twin Towers, the tower throughout history has provided its users with an advantage in surveying defensive positions and obtaining a better view of the surrounding areas, including battlefields
29.
Portal frame
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The connections between the columns and the rafters are designed to be moment-resistant, i. e. they can carry bending forces. This means that the size of the rafters can be reduced or the span can be increased for the same size rafters and this makes portal frames a very efficient construction technique to use for wide span buildings. Portal frame construction is typically seen in warehouses, barns and other places where large, open spaces are required at low cost. A typical configuration might be there is office space built against one wall of a warehouse. The lightweight cladding would be carried on sheeting rails spanning between the columns of the portal frames, portal frames can be defined as two-dimensional rigid frames that have the basic characteristics of a rigid joint between column and beam. The main objective of this form of design is to reduce bending moment in the beam, the transfer of stresses from the beam to the column results in rotational movement at the foundation, which can be overcome by the introduction of a pin/hinge joint. For warehouses and industrial buildings, sloping roof made of purlins, for assembly halls, portals with R. C slab roof cast monolithically is used. This is the pack of cards effect, vertical loading results in the walls being pushed outwards. If the foundation cannot resist horizontal push, outward movement will occur, wind subjects the frame to uplift forces. Overturning forces on the sides and ends of the building, drag forces on the roof and sides. These destabilizing forces are resisted essentially by the weight of the building and in this regard, the foundations are regarded as the buildings anchors
30.
Megatonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
31.
Indian Institute of Science
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Indian Institute of Science is a public university for scientific research and higher education located in Bangalore, India. Established in 1909 with active support from Jamsetji Tata and H. H, Sir Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV, the Maharaja of Mysore. It is also known as the Tata Institute. It acquired the status of a Deemed University in 1958, IISc is widely regarded as Indias best university. It has been ranked at number 11 and 18 worldwide when considering the criteria of Citations per Faculty in 2014 and 2015 respectively, IISc has become 1st Indian University to be ranked in Worlds top 10 in the small universities category. IISc has been ranked number 1 and 4 in the BRICS, IISc has also been ranked 6th in the criteria of research by the Times Higher Education Rankings for the BRICS & Emerging Economies Rankings 2016. IISc has been ranked 20 worldwide in the Global Employability University Ranking 2015 rankings, IISc ranks at number 1 in the NIRF University Rankings. IISc has made significant contributions to life sciences, advanced computing, space, after an accidental meeting between Jamsedji N. I very much recall at this moment your views on the growth of the spirit in India. I recall these ideas in connection with my scheme of Research Institute of Science for India, impressed by Vivekanandas views on science and leadership abilities, Tata wanted him to guide his campaign. The committee presented a proposal to Lord Curzon on 31 December 1898. Sir William Ramsay, a Nobel Laureate, was called on to propose a place for such an institution who suggested Bangalore as the best location. The land and other facilities for the institution were donated by H. H, Sir Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV, the Maharaja of Mysore, and Tata himself. The Maharaja donated about 371 acres of land, Tata gave several buildings towards the creation of IISc. The constitution of the Institute was approved by the Viceroy, Lord Minto, within two months, the Department of Organic Chemistry was opened. With the establishment of the University Grants Commission in 1956, the Institute came under its purview as a deemed university. At the time of the inception of IISc in 1909, Morris Travers, Sir William Ramsays co-worker in the discovery of the noble gases, for Travers, this was a natural continuation of his work on the Institute, since he had played a role in its founding. The first Indian Director was the Nobel Laureate Sir C. V, Raman was the Indian Science-based Nobel Laureate
32.
Bangalore
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Bangalore /bæŋɡəˈlɔːr/, officially known as Bengaluru, is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of about 8.42 million and a population of about 8.52 million, making it the third most populous city. It is located in southern India on the Deccan Plateau and its elevation is over 900 m above sea level, the highest of Indias major cities. In 1638, the Marāthās conquered and ruled Bangalore for almost 50 years, after which the Mughals captured and it was captured by the British after victory in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, who returned administrative control of the city to the Maharaja of Mysore. The old city developed in the dominions of the Maharaja of Mysore and was capital of the Princely State of Mysore. In 1809, the British shifted their cantonment to Bangalore, outside the old city, and a grew up around it. Following Indias independence in 1947, Bangalore became the capital of Mysore State, the two urban settlements of Bangalore – city and cantonment – which had developed as independent entities merged into a single urban centre in 1949. The existing Kannada name, Bengalūru, was declared the name of the city in 2006. Bangalore is sometimes referred to as the Silicon Valley of India because of its role as the leading information technology exporter. Indian technological organisations ISRO, Infosys, Wipro and HAL are headquartered in the city, a demographically diverse city, Bangalore is the second fastest-growing major metropolis in India. Numerous state-owned aerospace and defence organisations, such as Bharat Electronics, Hindustan Aeronautics, the city also houses the Kannada film industry. The name Bangalore represents a version of the Kannada language name. It is the name of a village near kodegehalli and was copied by Kempegowda to the city of Bangalore, Bangalore was built on a venue earlier called as Shivanasamudram in the 16th century. The earliest reference to the name Bengalūru was found in a ninth-century Western Ganga Dynasty stone inscription on a vīra gallu, in this inscription found in Begur, Bengalūrū is referred to as a place in which a battle was fought in 890 CE. It states that the place was part of the Ganga Kingdom until 1004 and was known as Bengaval-uru, an apocryphal story recounts that the 12th century Hoysala king Veera Ballala II, while on a hunting expedition, lost his way in the forest. Tired and hungry, he came across an old woman who served him boiled beans. The grateful king named the place benda-kaal-uru, which evolved into Bengalūru. On 11 December 2005, the Government of Karnataka announced that it had accepted a proposal by Jnanpith Award winner U. R. Ananthamurthy to rename Bangalore to Bengalūru, on 27 September 2006, the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike passed a resolution to implement the proposed name change
33.
Bearing (mechanical)
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A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction, Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads applied to the parts. Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical systems, the simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is often used to reduce friction, a wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and performance. The term bearing is derived from the verb to bear, a bearing being an element that allows one part to bear another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness, other bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications are very precise devices, the invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or bearing, an object being moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the invention of the wheel. Though it is claimed that the Egyptians used roller bearings in the form of tree trunks under sleds. They are depicted in their own drawings in the tomb of Djehutihotep as moving massive stone blocks on sledges with liquid-lubricated runners which would constitute a plain bearing, there are also Egyptian drawings of bearings used with hand drills. The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bearing is a ball bearing supporting a rotating table from the remains of the Roman Nemi ships in Lake Nemi. The wrecks were dated to 40 BC, leonardo da Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a helicopter around the year 1500. This is the first recorded use of bearings in an aerospace design, however, Agostino Ramelli is the first to have published sketches of roller and thrust bearings. An issue with ball and roller bearings is that the balls or rollers rub against each other causing additional friction which can be reduced by enclosing the balls or rollers within a cage, the captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described by Galileo in the 17th century. The first practical caged-roller bearing was invented in the mid-1740s by horologist John Harrison for his H3 marine timekeeper and this uses the bearing for a very limited oscillating motion but Harrison also used a similar bearing in a truly rotary application in a contemporaneous regulator clock. The first modern recorded patent on ball bearings was awarded to Philip Vaughan and his was the first modern ball-bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly. Bearings played a role in the nascent Industrial Revolution, allowing the new industrial machinery to operate efficiently. For example, they saw use for holding wheel and axle to greatly reduce friction over that of dragging an object by making the act over a shorter distance as the wheel turned. The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood closely followed by bronze, over their history bearings have been made of many materials including ceramic, sapphire, glass, steel, bronze, other metals and plastic which are all used today
34.
Maurer AG
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Maurer AG is a steel construction company and roller coaster manufacturer. Founded in Munich, Germany in 1876, the company has many styles of steel buildings, ranging from bridges, industrial buildings. While known for building various wild mouse coasters, Maurer Söhne has been branching out into spinning, looping, the company also produces a free-fall tower ride. On December 15,2014, the changed its name from Maurer Söhne GmbH & Co. In 1993, Maurer took over the amusement ride division of a fellow German firm, BHS constructed four Schwarzkopf-designed roller coasters, working with Sansei Yusoki and Zierer in the process. Maurers first ride was a looping roller coaster called Venus GP that opened at Space World in 1996. Since then they have produced almost 50 roller coasters including spinning, launched, racing, one of the first types of roller coaster that Maurer manufactured was a wild mouse. The design, known as Wilde Maus Classic, was first installed as Kopermijn at Drievliet Family Park in 1996, at the end of 2010, the Wilde Maus Classic design has been replicated at 13 locations around the world. In 2000, the S-Coaster was introduced by Maurer, the S-Coaster is Maurers spinning roller coaster design. It is the most popular design that Maurer has ever produced with over 21 installations worldwide, Maurers X-Coaster comes in a variety of different designs, X-Car, X-Train and SkyLoop. Under the X-Car category Maurer manufactures rides with launches, vertical lifts, an X-Train X-Coaster is one which features 4-across seating. Under the SkyLoop category Maurer has a variety of models including XT150, XT450, launched, most recently, in 2010, Maurer introduced the R-Coaster. The R-Coaster is a type of racing roller coaster which features several sets of Linear Synchronous Motors on two parallel tracks, the first, and currently only, R-Coaster is Fiorano GT Challenge at Ferrari World in Abu Dhabi. Maurer German Wheels is a subsidiary of Maurer Söhne and it manufactures the R80XL giant Ferris wheel under licence from Bussink Design
35.
Lightning arrester
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A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge travels along the line to the arrester. In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure, preventing damage to electronic instruments within, smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the Earth. These prevent the flow of the power or signal currents to ground. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike, lightning-produced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances or even produce death. A potential target for a strike, such as a television antenna, is attached to the terminal labeled A in the photograph. Terminal E is attached to a long rod buried in the ground, ordinarily no current will flow between the antenna and the ground because there is extremely high resistance between B and C, and also between C and D. The voltage of a strike, however, is many times higher than that needed to move electrons through the two air gaps. The result is that electrons go through the lightning arrester rather than traveling on to the television set, a lightning arrester may be a spark gap or may have a block of a semiconducting material such as silicon carbide or zinc oxide. Thyrite was once a name for the silicon carbide used in arresters. Other designs of lightning arresters use a tube connected between the protected conductor and ground, or voltage-activated solid-state switches called varistors or MOVs. Lightning arresters built for power substation use are immense devices, consisting of a tube several feet long and several inches in diameter. A safety port on the side of the device vents the occasional internal explosion without shattering the porcelain cylinder, lightning arresters are rated by the peak current they can withstand, the amount of energy they can absorb, and the breakover voltage that they require to begin conduction
36.
Elevator
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An elevator or lift is a type of vertical transportation that moves people or goods between floors of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, in agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of conveyor device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or silos. Several types exist, such as the chain and bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor using the principle of Archimedes screw, or the chain, languages other than English may have loanwords based on either elevator or lift. Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new multistory buildings. The earliest known reference to an elevator is in the works of the Roman architect Vitruvius, some sources from later historical periods mention elevators as cabs on a hemp rope powered by hand or by animals. In 1000, the Book of Secrets by al-Muradi in Islamic Spain described the use of a lifting device. In the 17th century the prototypes of elevators were located in the buildings of England. Louis XV of France had a flying chair built for one of his mistresses at the Chateau de Versailles in 1743. Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems based on hoists or winders, the invention of a system based on the screw drive was perhaps the most important step in elevator technology since ancient times, leading to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first screw drive elevator was built by Ivan Kulibin and installed in Winter Palace in 1793, several years later another of Kulibins elevators was installed in Arkhangelskoye near Moscow. The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of raw materials including coal, the technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the passenger and freight elevators in use today. Starting in the mines, by the mid-19th century elevators were operated with steam power and were used for moving goods in bulk in mines and factories. It elevated paying customers to a height in the center of London. Early, crude steam-driven elevators were refined in the decade, – in 1835 an innovative elevator called the Teagle was developed by the company Frost. The elevator was belt-driven and used a counterweight for extra power, the hydraulic crane was invented by Sir William Armstrong in 1846, primarily for use at the Tyneside docks for loading cargo. These quickly supplanted the steam driven elevators, exploiting Pascals law. A water pump supplied a variable level of pressure to a plunger encased inside a vertical cylinder. Counterweights and balances were used to increase the lifting power of the apparatus
37.
Howrah Junction railway station
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Howrah Junction railway station is the largest railway complex in India with maximum number of platforms in the entire railway system of India,23 platforms. It is one of the four intercity railway stations serving the city of Kolkata, the terminal station is located on the west bank of the Hooghly River, linked to Kolkata by Howrah Bridge. With 23 platforms, it has the highest train-handling capacity of any station in India. Total 293 passenger trains Start/End/PassThrough Howrah railway station, total 1220 Stations are directly connected to Howrah railway station via these 293 passenger trains. Initial plans for the first Howrah railway station were submitted by George Turnbull the Chief Engineer of the East Indian Railway Company on 17 June 1851, in May 1852, the detailed station plans were the major work of him and his team of engineers. In October four tenders for building the station were received varying from 190,000 to 274,526 INR against an estimate of 250,000 INR, due to a great increase of traffic, a new station building was proposed in 1901. The new station was designed by the British architect Halsey Ricardo and it was brought into service on 1 December 1905. This building is the current Howrah station building, the station had 15 platform tracks. It was expanded in the 1980s with the addition of 8 platform tracks in an area to the south of the station previously had a parcels terminal. At the same time a new Yatri Niwas was built south of the head house. There are currently 23 platforms in Howrah Station, platforms 1-15 are located in the old complex also referred to as Terminal-1, while 17-23 are in the new complex. Terminal-1 serves the local and long-distance trains of Eastern Railway as well as trains of South Eastern Railway. Terminal-2 serves the long trains of South Eastern Railway. A narrow gauge line connects Bardhaman and Katwa and is served by DMU trains. There is a plan to extend the train service from Bardhaman to Mankar and Guskara, by electrifying the Khana–Guskara existing stretch. The Bardhaman–Mankar stretch is now served by electric loco hauled trains, the South Eastern Railway serves local trains to Amta, Mecheda, Panskura, Haldia, Tamluk, Haldia, Kanthi, Medinipur and Kharagpur, and mail/express trains to Central, West and South India. The Tamluk–Kanthi stretch is currently electrified and now EMU runs up to Digha, there is a plan to extend the suburban train service from Kharagpur to Jhargram, Hijli, Belda and Narayangarh. Both stretches are now served by electric loco hauled trains, trains from this station serve the Kolkata urban area via the Kolkata suburban railway, the state of West Bengal, and most major cities of India
38.
Light-emitting diode
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
39.
Electronic toll collection
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Electronic toll collection aims to eliminate the delay on toll roads by collecting tolls electronically. In 1959, Nobel Economics Prize winner William Vickrey was the first to propose a system of electronic tolling for the Washington Metropolitan Area and he proposed that each car would be equipped with a transponder. In the 1960s and 1970s, free flow tolling was tested with fixed transponders at the undersides of the vehicles and readers, norway has been the worlds pioneer in the widespread implementation of this technology. ETC was first introduced in Bergen, in 1986, operating together with traditional tollbooths, in 1991, Trondheim introduced the worlds first use of completely unaided full-speed electronic tolling. Norway now has 25 toll roads operating with electronic fee collection, in 1995, Portugal became the first country to apply a single, universal system to all tolls in the country, the Via Verde, which can also be used in parking lots and gas stations. The United States is another country with widespread use of ETC in several states, cashless tolling is when cash tolls are not collected on the roadway. Electronic toll collection becomes the primary option for payment, with payment by mail as a secondary option, open road tolling is a type of electronic toll collection without the use of toll booths. The major advantage to ORT is that users are able to drive through the plaza at highway speeds without having to slow down to pay the toll. In some urban settings, automated gates are in use in electronic-toll lanes, with 5 mph legal limits on speed, currently over 80% of Illinois 1.4 million daily drivers use an I-PASS. The system sends a notice and fine to cars that pass through without having an account or paying a toll. Unionized toll collectors can also be problematic, toll plazas are typically wider than the rest of the highway, reducing the need for them makes it possible to fit toll roads into tight corridors. Despite these limitations, however, it is important to recognize that throughput increases if delay at the gate is reduced. The greater the throughput of any toll lane, the fewer lanes required, specifically, the toll-collecting authorities have incentives to resist pressure to limit the fraction of electronic lanes in order to limit the length of manual-lane lines. In the short term, the greater the fraction of automated lanes, an example is the United States E-ZPass tag, which is accepted on toll roads, bridges and tunnels in fifteen states from Illinois to Maine. In Australia, there are a number or organisations that provide tags that can be used on toll roads and they include Roads and Maritime Services, Roam and E-Toll. A toll is debited to the account with their tag provider. A similar device in France, called Liber-T for light vehicles, sem Parar/Via-Fácil also allows users to enter and exit more than 100 parking lots. There are also other systems, such as via expressa, onda livre and auto expresso, in Pakistan, the National Database and Registration Authority is implementing an electronic toll collection system on motorways using RFID
40.
Monsoon
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Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature
41.
National Informatics Centre
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The National Informatics Centre is the premier science & technology organisation of Indias Union Government in informatics services and information and communication technology applications. The NIC is a part of the Indian Ministry of Electronics, almost all Indian-government websites are developed and managed by NIC. NIC offers telecommunications-networking services including Ku band VSATs, wireless networks and local-area networks with gateways for Internet-. It is the infrastructure and e-governance support to Indias central government and state governments, union-territory administrations, administrative divisions. The NIC assists in implementing information-technology projects, in collaboration with central and state governments, in the areas of, NIC is a part of the Indian Ministry of Electronics & Information Technologys Department of Electronics & Information Technology and is headquartered in New Delhi. It has offices in all 29 state capitals and 7 union-territory headquarters, at New Delhi Headquarters, Mean Head a large number of Application Divisions exist which provide total Informatics Support to the Ministries and Departments of the Central Government. To cater to the ICT needs at the level, the NIC has also opened offices in almost all district collectorates. NIC Extends Technical Coordianation and IT support to District Administration and it also provide support to grass root level administration. The NIC offers a host of services including, Computer-aided design Geographical-Information system Domain-Name Registration for gov. in, the current Chief Editor is Neeta Verma, Director General of NIC. The publication is available at Informatics Website. On 2 July 2014, the Google Security team became aware of fake Google certificates issued by the National Informatics Centre of India, Google immediately notified the Indian NIC and Indian Controller of Certifying Authorities as well as Microsoft. Microsoft revoked the NICs certificate and published Security Advisory 2982792, the four certificates provided included three for Google domains and one for Yahoo domains. However, we are aware of misissued certificates not included in that set of four. Bhoomi HALRIS SCOSTA My Gov National Knowledge Network National Informatics Centre National Knowledge Network National Informatics Centre on Facebook
42.
The Times of India
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The Times of India is an Indian English-language daily newspaper. It is the fourth-largest newspaper in India by circulation and largest selling English-language daily in the according to Audit Bureau of Circulations. It is the oldest English-language newspaper in India still in circulation, in 1991, the BBC ranked The Times of India among the worlds six best newspapers. It is owned and published by Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. which is owned by the Sahu Jain family. In 2014 however, The Times of India was ranked 174th among Indias most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report 2014, the Times of India issued its first edition 3 November 1838 as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce. In 1850, it began to publish daily editions, in 1860, editor Robert Knight bought the Indian shareholders interests, merged with rival Bombay Standard, and started Indias first news agency. It wired Times dispatches to papers across the country and became the Indian agent for Reuters news service, in 1861, he changed the name from the Bombay Times and Standard to The Times of India. In the 19th century, this company employed more than 800 people and had a sizeable circulation in India. In 1946, Bennett Coleman & Co, Ltd was sold to sugar magnate Ramkrishna Dalmia of the then-famous industrial family, the Dalmiyas, for Rs 20 million, as India was becoming independent and the British owners were leaving. In the court case followed, Ramkrishna Dalmia was sentenced to two years in Tihar Jail after having been convicted of embezzlement and fraud. But for most of the term he managed to spend in hospital. Upon his release, his son-in-law, Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain, to whom he had entrusted the running of Bennett, in the early 1960s, Shanti Prasad Jain was imprisoned on charges of selling newsprint on the black market. Based on the pleading, Justice directed the Government to assume control of the newspaper which resulted in replacing half of the directors, curiously, the court appointed D K Kunte as Chairman of the Board. Kunte had no business experience and was also an Opposition member of the Lok Sabha. In 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Government transferred ownership of the back to Ashok Kumar Jain. The move was a critique of Prime Minister Indira Gandhis 21-month state of emergency, in late 2006, Times Group acquired Vijayanand Printers Limited. VPL previously published two Kannada newspapers, Vijay Karnataka and Usha Kiran, and an English daily, Vijay Times, Vijay Karnataka was the leader in the Kannada newspaper segment then. The paper launched a Chennai edition,12 April 2008 and it launched a Kolhapur edition, February 2013
43.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
