1.
Caelian Hill
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The Caelian Hill is one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome, Italy. Under reign of Tullus Hostilius, the population of Alba Longa was forcibly resettled on the Caelian Hill. In Republican-era Rome the Caelian Hill was a residential district. Archaeological work under the Baths of Caracalla have uncovered the remains of lavish villas complete with murals, the Caelian is also the site of the Basilica of Santi Giovanni e Paolo and the ancient basilica of Santo Stefano Rotondo, known for its centralized, circular plan. A significant area of the hill is taken up by the villa, livy, Book One Samuel Ball Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Caelian Hill
Caelian Hill
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The Caelian Hill from the south
Caelian Hill
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Schematic map of Rome showing the seven hills and Servian wall
2.
Aventine Hill
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The Aventine Hill is one of the Seven Hills on which ancient Rome was built. It belongs to Ripa, the rione, or ward. The Aventine Hill is the southernmost of Romes seven hills and it has two distinct heights, one greater to the northwest and one lesser to the southeast, divided by a steep cleft that provides the base for an ancient roadway between the heights. During the Republican era, the two hills may have recognized as a single entity. Most Roman sources trace the name of the hill to a legendary king Aventinus, Servius identifies two kings of that name, one ancient Italic, and one Alban, both said to have been buried on the hill in remote antiquity. Servius believes that the hill was named after the ancient Italic king Aventinus, the Aventine was a significant site in Roman mythology. In Virgils Aeneid, a cave on the Aventines rocky slope next the river is home to the monstrous Cacus, killed by Hercules for stealing Geryons cattle. In Romes founding myth, the divinely fathered twins Romulus and Remus hold a contest of augury, whose outcome determines the right to found, name and lead a new city, and to determine its site. In most versions of the story, Remus sets up his tent on the Aventine. Each sees a number of birds that signify divine approval. Romulus goes on to found the city of Rome at the site of his successful augury, an earlier variant, found in Ennius and some later sources, has Romulus perform his augury on one of the Aventine Hills. Remus performs his elsewhere, perhaps on the height, the lesser of the Aventines two hills, which has been tentatively identified with Ennius Mons Murcus. The less fortunate Remus, who lost not only the contest but later, his life, remained on the Aventine, according to Roman tradition, the Aventine was not included within Romes original foundation, and lay outside the citys ancient sacred boundary. The Roman historian Livy reports that Ancus Marcius, Romes fourth king, defeated the Latins of Politorium, the Roman geographer Strabo credits Ancus with the building of a city wall to incorporate the Aventine. Others credit the same wall to Romes sixth king, Servius Tullius, the remains known as the Servian Wall used stone quarried at Veii, which was not conquered by Rome until c.393 BC, so the Aventine might have been part-walled, or an extramural suburb. The Aventine appears to have functioned as some kind of staging post for the legitimate ingress of foreign peoples, during the late regal era, Servius Tullius built a temple to Diana on the Aventine, as a Roman focus for the new-founded Latin League. The Aventines outlying position, its association with Latins and plebeians. The temple overlooked the Circus Maximus and the Temple of Vesta and it became an important repository for plebeian and senatorial records
Aventine Hill
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Aventine Hill panorama
Aventine Hill
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Schematic map of Rome showing the
seven hills and
Servian Wall.
Aventine Hill
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Basilica
Santa Sabina
3.
Celian Hill
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The Caelian Hill is one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome, Italy. Under reign of Tullus Hostilius, the population of Alba Longa was forcibly resettled on the Caelian Hill. In Republican-era Rome the Caelian Hill was a residential district. Archaeological work under the Baths of Caracalla have uncovered the remains of lavish villas complete with murals, the Caelian is also the site of the Basilica of Santi Giovanni e Paolo and the ancient basilica of Santo Stefano Rotondo, known for its centralized, circular plan. A significant area of the hill is taken up by the villa, livy, Book One Samuel Ball Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Caelian Hill
Celian Hill
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The Caelian Hill from the south
Celian Hill
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Schematic map of Rome showing the seven hills and Servian wall
4.
Santa Maria in Domnica
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The current Cardinal Deacon of the Titulus S. Mariae in Domnica is William Joseph Levada. The appellation in Domnica has been differently explained, one interpretation is the derivation from dominicum, and by extension church. Another interpretation is that it refers to the name of Cyriaca, a third interpretation is that the name derives from the Latin phrase in dominica. The basilica was built in ancient times, close to the barracks of the Fifth Cohort of the Roman Vigiles on the Caelian Hill, the basilica is mentioned in the records of a synod of Pope Symmachus in AD499. In 678, it was one of seven churches assigned to deacons by Pope Agatho, the basilica was rebuilt from 818-22 by Pope Paschal I, and included mosaic decoration. Pope Paschal I is credited with Romes early 9th century age of renovation, the Medici family extensively modified the interior in the 16th century, because some of them were the cardinal holders of the archdiaconate through much of that century. In 1513, Cardinal Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici, shortly before he became Pope Leo X, in conjunction with Andrea Sansovino added the portico with Tuscan columns. He was followed by Giulio di Giuliano de Medici, the future Pope Clement VII from 1513-7, Giovanni de Medici became cardinal-deacon at the age of 17 in 1560, but died in 1562. He was followed by his brother Ferdinando I de Medici, who also became Grand Duke of Tuscany, the facade of the basilica is in the Renaissance style, and has a porch with five arches separated by travertine pilasters, with two square and one round window. The tympanum has the coat of arms of Pope Innocent VIII in the center, the inconspicuous bell tower houses a bell from 1288. The design of the facade has been attributed to Andrea Sansovino, the wall above the windows was frescoed by Perin del Vaga, based on designs of Giulio Romano. The nave has frescos by Lazzaro Baldi, the coffered ceiling has the Medici coat of arms in the center, with symbolic representations of Noah’s Ark and Solomon’s Temple. The triumphal arch is flanked by two porphyry columns, the mosaics of the apse from the 9th century depict Christ with two angels, and the twelve Apostles, with Moses and Elias depicted underneath. In the semi-dome, Pope Paschal kissing the foot of the Blessed Virgin Mary, vested as a Byzantine noblewoman, seated on a throne with the Christ Child, and surrounded by a multitude of angels. Armellini, Mariano, Le chiese di Roma dal secolo IV al XIX Thayer, Bill, S. Maria in Domnica, Gazetteer Richard Krautheimer, the early Christian basilicas of Rome, pp.309 ff. Guglielmo Matthiae, S. Maria in Domnica, london, A & C Black,1994. Alia Englen, Caelius I, Santa Maria in Domnica, San Tommaso in Formis e il Clivus Scauri, erik Thunø, Materializing the Invisible in Early Medieval Art, The Mosaic of Santa Maria in Domnica in Rome, Seeing the Invisible. Michael G. Sundell, Mosaics in the Eternal City, pp.43 ff, caroline Goodson, The Rome of Pope Paschal I, Papal Power, Urban Renovation, Church Rebuilding and Relic Translation, 817-24
Santa Maria in Domnica
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Santa Maria in Domnica, facade
Santa Maria in Domnica
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9th century apse mosaic commissioned by Pope Paschal I
5.
Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Rome
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The Basilica of Saints John and Paul on the Caelian Hill is an ancient basilica church in Rome, located on the Caelian Hill. The church was built in 398, by will of the senator Pammachius, the church was thus called the Titulus Pammachii and is recorded as such in the acts of the synod held by Pope Symmachus in 499. It is home to the Passionists and is the place of St. Paul of the Cross. Additionally, it is the church of the first Friday in Lent. The inside has three naves, with pillars joined to the original columns, the altar is built over a bath, which holds the remains of the two martyrs. The sacristy features a canvas by Antoniazzo Romano of the Madonna and Child with Saints John the Evangelist and John the Baptist, the basilica is connected with the cardinalatial Titulus Ss. Among previous Cardinal Priests of this title are three who became Pope, Pope Honorius III, Pope Adrian VI and Pope Pius XII. Since Francis Spellman became the new Cardinal Priest of the titulus in 1946, ioannis et Pauli until his death on March 5,2015. The title is now held by Cardinal Josef De Kesel, the Archbishop of Mechelin-Bruxelles, during excavations performed in the 19th century, a series of Ancient Roman rooms were discovered under the nave of the church. Some of these date back to the first and fourth centuries AD. According to the writer Charlotte Anne Eaton, these rooms were dens that were part of a vivarium in which animals were kept before being used in entertainments held at the Colosseum. A low vaulted passage connected this vivarium with the Colosseum and he found twenty decorated rooms belonging to at least five different buildings dated between the first and the fourth century AD. These five buildings comprise one of the best conserved Roman era residential building still in existence today. The original frescoes can still be seen, with scenes of the martyrdom, the houses are accessed outside the church on the Clivus Scauri. A confessio was also built in the fourth century AD in a passageway behind the Clivus Scauri, the walls of the confessio were frescoed with Christian themes. Mariano Armellini, Le Chiese Di Roma, dalle loro origini sino al secolo XVI, germano Di San Stanislao, La Casa Celimontana Des SS. Stanislao DellAddolorata, La Basilica Celimontana dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo, gioacchino Alberto De Sanctis, I Santi Giovanni e Paolo, martiri celimontani. Bianca Maria Margarucci Italiani, Il titolo di Pammachio, Santi Giovanni e Paolo, alia Englen, Case romane e Antiquarium, sotto la Basilica dei SS
Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Rome
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Large view of the basilica.
Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Rome
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A fresco in the Roman rooms.
6.
Baths of Caracalla
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The Baths of Caracalla in Rome, Italy, were the second largest Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between AD212 and 217, during the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla. They would have had to install over 2,000 t of material every day for six years in order to complete it in this time. Records show that the idea for the baths were drawn up by Septimius Severus and this would allow for a longer construction timeframe. Today they are a tourist attraction, the baths remained in use until the 6th century when the complex was taken by the Ostrogoths during the Gothic War, at which time the hydraulic installations were destroyed. The bath was free and open to the public, the earthquake of 847 destroyed much of the building, along with many other Roman structures. The building was heated by a hypocaust, a system of burning coal and it was in use up to the 19th century. The Aqua Antoniniana aqueduct, a branch of the earlier Aqua Marcia and it was most likely reconstructed by Garbrecht and Manderscheid to its current place. At the 1960 Summer Olympics, the hosted the gymnastics events. The baths were the archaeological site in Rome damaged by an earthquake near LAquila in 2009. They were again damaged, though minor, in August 2016 by an earthquake in central Italy, the baths were originally ornamented with high quality sculptures. One of the statues is the colossal 4 m statue of Asclepius. The Caracalla bath complex of buildings was more a leisure centre than just a series of baths, the baths were the second to have a public library within the complex. Like other public libraries in Rome, there were two separate and equal sized rooms or buildings, one for Greek language texts and one for Latin language texts. The baths consisted of a central frigidarium measuring 55.7 by 24 m under three groin vaults 32.9 m high, a double pool tepidarium, and a caldarium 35 m in diameter, the north end of the bath building contained a natatio or swimming pool. The natatio was roofless with bronze mirrors mounted overhead to direct sunlight into the pool area, the entire bath building was on a raised platform 6 m high to allow for storage and furnaces under the building. The libraries were located in exedrae on the east and west sides of the bath complex, the entire north wall of the complex was devoted to shops. The reservoirs on the wall of the complex were fed with water from the Marcian Aqueduct. The mithraeum was approximately 23 m long and 10 m wide with a cross-vaulted ceiling, the bath complex covered approximately 25 ha
Baths of Caracalla
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Baths of Caracalla
Baths of Caracalla
Baths of Caracalla
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One of the statues that adorned the baths was the
Farnese Hercules.
Baths of Caracalla
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A section of the complex mosaic floor tiling found in the baths
7.
Socrates
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Socrates was a classical Greek philosopher credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He is a figure known chiefly through the accounts of classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon. Platos dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity, though it is unclear the degree to which Socrates himself is hidden behind his best disciple, nothing written by Socrates remains extant. As a result, information about him and his philosophies depends upon secondary sources, furthermore, close comparison between the contents of these sources reveals contradictions, thus creating concerns about the possibility of knowing in-depth the real Socrates. This issue is known as the Socratic problem, or the Socratic question, to understand Socrates and his thought, one must turn primarily to the works of Plato, whose dialogues are thought the most informative source about Socrates life and philosophy, and also Xenophon. These writings are the Sokratikoi logoi, or Socratic dialogues, which consist of reports of conversations apparently involving Socrates, as for discovering the real-life Socrates, the difficulty is that ancient sources are mostly philosophical or dramatic texts, apart from Xenophon. There are no straightforward histories, contemporary with Socrates, that dealt with his own time, a corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan. For instance, those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament, historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various evidence from the extant texts in order to attempt an accurate and consistent account of Socrates life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, even if consistent, amid all the disagreement resulting from differences within sources, two factors emerge from all sources pertaining to Socrates. It would seem, therefore, that he was ugly, also, Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of debate over which Socrates it is whom Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure. As British philosopher Martin Cohen has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers an idol, a Saint, a prophet of the Sun-God, a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic. It is also clear from other writings and historical artefacts, that Socrates was not simply a character, nor an invention, the testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes work, is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Platos work. The problem with discerning Socrates philosophical views stems from the perception of contradictions in statements made by the Socrates in the different dialogues of Plato and these contradictions produce doubt as to the actual philosophical doctrines of Socrates, within his milieu and as recorded by other individuals. Aristotle, in his Magna Moralia, refers to Socrates in words which make it patent that the virtue is knowledge was held by Socrates. Within the Metaphysics, he states Socrates was occupied with the search for moral virtues, however, in The Clouds, Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon. Also, in Platos Apology and Symposium, as well as in Xenophons accounts, more specifically, in the Apology, Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a teacher. Two fragments are extant of the writings by Timon of Phlius pertaining to Socrates, although Timon is known to have written to ridicule, details about the life of Socrates can be derived from three contemporary sources, the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of Aristophanes
Socrates
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A bust of Socrates in the Louvre
Socrates
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Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by
Jean-Baptiste Regnault (1791)
Socrates
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Socrates and
Alcibiades, by
Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg
8.
Seneca the Younger
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Seneca the Younger, fully Lucius Annaeus Seneca and also known simply as Seneca, was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and—in one work—humorist of the Silver Age of Latin literature. As a tragedian, he is best-known for his Medea and Thyestes and he was a tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero. He was forced to take his own life for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, however, some sources state that he may have been innocent. His father was Seneca the Elder, his brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus. Seneca was born in Cordoba in Hispania, and raised in Rome, griffin also infers from the ancient sources that Seneca was born in either 8,4, or 1 BC. She thinks he was born between 4 and 1 BC and was a resident in Rome by AD5, Seneca says that he was carried to Rome in the arms of his mothers stepsister. Griffin says that, allowing for rhetorical exaggeration, means it is fair to conclude that Seneca was in Rome as a small boy. Be that as it may, it is clear that he was in Rome at an early stage in his life. Caligula and Fabius were critics of his works, and Columella, Pliny, Tacitus, from AD54 to 62, Seneca acted as Neros advisor, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus. One byproduct of his influence was that Seneca was appointed consul in 56. Senecas influence was said to have especially strong in the first year. Tacitus and Dio suggest that Neros early rule, during which time he listened to Seneca, however, the ancient sources suggest, over time, Seneca and Burrus lost their influence over the emperor. In 59 they had agreed to Agrippinas murder, and afterward. This may have contributed as well to his own downfall, following Burrus death in 62, Seneca became the subject of criticism by what Tacitus describes as Neros more disreputable advisers. Charges included allegations of excessive wealth, the grandeur of his property, Seneca requested an audience with Nero in which he sought permission to retire from public duties, pleading age and infirmity. The two then parted on apparently warm terms, Seneca subsequently adopted a quiet lifestyle on his country estates, concentrating on his studies and seldom visiting Rome. In AD65, Seneca was caught up in the aftermath of the Pisonian conspiracy, although it is unlikely that Seneca conspired, Nero ordered him to kill himself. Seneca followed tradition by severing several veins in order to bleed to death, a generation after the Julio-Claudian emperors, Tacitus wrote an account of the suicide, which in view of his Republican sympathies is perhaps somewhat romanticized
Seneca the Younger
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Ancient bust of Seneca, part of the
Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca (
Antikensammlung Berlin)
Seneca the Younger
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This Baroque marble imaginary portrait bust of Seneca, by an anonymous sculptor of the 17th century (
Museo del Prado).
Seneca the Younger
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Manuel Domínguez Sánchez, The suicide of Seneca (1871),
Museo del Prado
Seneca the Younger
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Plato, Seneca, and
Aristotle in a medieval manuscript illustration (c. 1325–35)
9.
Pergamonmuseum
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The Pergamon Museum is situated on the Museum Island in Berlin. The building was designed by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann and was constructed over a period of twenty years, the museum is subdivided into the antiquity collection, the Middle East museum, and the museum of Islamic art. It is visited by approximately 1,135,000 people every year, making it the most visited art museum in Germany, Alfred Messel began a design for the large three-wing building in 1906. After his death in 1909 his friend Ludwig Hoffman took charge of the project and construction began in 1910, continuing during the First World War, the completed building was opened In 1930. The Pergamon Museum was severely damaged during the air attacks on Berlin at the end of the Second World War, many of the display objects had been stored in safe places, and some of the large exhibits were walled in for protection. In 1945, the Red Army collected all of the museum items, either as war booty or, ostensibly, to rescue them from looting. Not until 1958 were most of the returned to East Germany. Significant parts of the remain in Russia. Some are currently stored in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow and the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, the return of these items has been arranged in a treaty between Germany and Russia but, as of June 2003, is blocked by Russian restitution laws. It first became accessible to the public in 1830, when the Altes Museum was opened, the collection expanded greatly with the excavations in Olympia, Samos, Pergamon, Miletus, Priene, Magnesia, Cyprus and Didyma. This collection is divided between the Pergamon Museum and the Altes Museum, as Germany was divided following the Second World War, so was the collection. The Pergamon Museum was reopened in 1959 in East Berlin, while what remained in West Berlin was displayed in Schloss Charlottenburg, when the Bode Museum was opened in 1904, a section for Islamic art was created and later included in the Pergamon Museum. It was a gift from the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, parts of the eastern portion of the facade and the ruins of the structure of which it formed a part remain in Jordan. Another unique exhibition is the Aleppo room and this area of the museum features a reception room from a brokers home in Aleppo, Syria, that was commissioned during the Ottoman Period. The Islamic Art Museum also regularly hosts exhibitions of modern art from the Islamic world, such as the 2008 Turkish Delight. In 2008 part of the Keir Collection of Edmund de Unger, formerly housed in his home in Ham, the Middle East Museum exhibition displays objects found by German archeologists and others from the areas of Assyrian, Sumerian and Babylonian culture. Additionally there are buildings, reliefs and lesser cultural objects. The main display is the Ishtar Gate and the Processional Way of Babylon together with the throne room facade of Nebuchadnezzar II, the Vorderasiatisches Museum also displays the Meissner fragment from the Epic of Gilgamesh
Pergamonmuseum
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Pergamon Museum
Pergamonmuseum
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Pergamon Altar
Pergamonmuseum
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Ishtar Gate
Pergamonmuseum
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Aleppo Room
10.
Numa Pompilius
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Numa Pompilius was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Romes most important religious, according to Plutarch, Numa was the youngest of Pomponiuss four sons, born on the day of Romes founding. He lived a life of discipline and banished all luxury from his home. Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines and a colleague of Romulus, gave in marriage his daughter, Tatia. After 13 years of marriage, Tatia died, precipitating Numas retirement to the countryside, according to Livy, Numa resided at Cures immediately before being elected king. Livy and Plutarch refer to the story that Numa was instructed in philosophy by Pythagoras, Plutarch reports that some authors credited him with only a single daughter, Pompilia. Pompilias mother is identified as Numas first wife Tatia or his second wife Lucretia. She is said to have married the future first pontifex maximus Numa Marcius, still other writers, writes Plutarch, believed these were fictional genealogies to enhance the status of these families. After the death of Romulus, there was an interregnum of one year in which the power was exercised by members of the Senate in rotation for five days in a row. In 715 BC, after much bickering between the factions of Romulus and Tatius, a compromise was reached, and the Sabine Numa was elected by the senate as the next king, according to Plutarch, Numa was a cunning and calculating person. At first he refused the offer and his father and Sabine kinsmen, including his teacher and the father of Numas son-in law, Marcus, along with an embassy of two senators from Rome, banded together to persuade him to accept. In the account of Plutarch and Livy, Numa, after being summoned by the Senate from Cures, was offered the tokens of power amid an enthusiastic reception by the people of Rome. He requested, however, that an augur should divine the opinion of the gods on the prospect of his kingship before he accepted, Jupiter was consulted and the omens were favourable. Thus approved by the Roman and Sabine people as well as the heavens, according to Plutarch, Numas first act was to disband the personal guard of 300 so-called Celeres with which Romulus permanently surrounded himself. The gesture is variously interpreted as self-protection in the face of their questionable loyalty, based on Roman chronology, Numa died of old age in 673 BC. He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, Numa was traditionally celebrated by the Romans for his wisdom and piety. According to Livy, Numa claimed that he held consultations with Egeria on the proper manner of instituting sacred rites for the city. Numa was said to have authored several sacred books in which he had written down divine teachings, mostly from Egeria, the other books dealt with philosophy
Numa Pompilius
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Numa Pompilius, as imagined on a Roman coin minted by
Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso during the reign of Emperor
Augustus. Piso himself claimed descent from the king.
11.
Egeria (mythology)
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Her name is used as an eponym for a female advisor or counselor. Egeria may predate Roman myth, she could have been of Italic origin in the sacred forest of Aricia in Latium, her immemorial site, at Aricia there was also a Manius Egerius, a male counterpart of Egeria. Described sometime as a nymph, she is usually regarded as a water nymph and somehow her cult also involved some link with childbirth. But most of all, Egeria gave wisdom and prophecy in return for libations of water or milk at her sacred groves and this quality has been made especially popular through the tale of her relationship with Numa Pompilius. According to mythology she counseled and guided the King Numa Pompilius in the establishment of the framework of laws. Numa is reputed to have written down the teachings of Egeria in sacred books that he had buried with him, when a chance accident brought them back to light some 500 years later, the Senate deemed them inappropriate for disclosure to the people, and ordered their destruction. What made them inappropriate was some matter of nature with political bearing that apparently has not been handed down by Valerius Antias. Dionysius of Halicarnassus hints that they were kept as a very close secret by the Pontifices. She is also gifted with oracular capabilities, in another episode she helps Numa in a battle of wits with Jupiter himself, whereby Numa sought to gain a protective ritual against lightning strokes and thunder. The precise level of her relationship to Numa has been described diversely, by Juvenals day that tradition was treated more critically. Juvenal called her Numas Amica in a sceptical phrase, Numa Pompilius died in 673 BC of old age. According to Ovids Metamorphoses, with Numas death Egeria melted into tears of sorrow, thus becoming a spring, a spring and a grove once sacred to Egeria stand close to a gate of Rome, the Porta Capena. Its waters were dedicated to the use of the Vestals. The primeval spring, one of dozens of springs flow into the river Almone, was made to feed large pools. Juvenal regretted an earlier phase of architectural elaboration, Nymph of the Spring, more honour’d hadst thou been, If, free from art, an edge of living green, Thy bubbling fount had circumscribed alone, And marble ne’er profaned the native stone. In Nathaniel Lees English Restoration tragedy Lucius Junius Brutus, Egeria appears in a vision to Brutus son Titus, in Oscar Wildes The Importance of Being Earnest, the priest Chasuble refers to Cecilys tutor Miss Prism as Egeria. In Smithsonian Nov 2016 Vol47, Number 7, John Adams writes to his son Charles, encyclopædia Britannica 1911, Egeria Roma Sotterranea, Il ninfeo di Egeria, Ruins of Egerias Nymphaeum Park of the Caffarella
Egeria (mythology)
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The nymph Egeria dictating the laws of Rome to
Numa Pompilius, by
Ulpiano Checa.
Egeria (mythology)
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A 16th-century drawing of Egeria
Egeria (mythology)
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Egeria mourns
Numa (1669) by
Claude Lorrain
Egeria (mythology)
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Apse of the Ninfeo d'Egeria,
Parco Cafarella, Rome
12.
Vigiles
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The Vigiles or more properly the Vigiles Urbani or Cohortes Vigilum were the firefighters and police of Ancient Rome. The Triumviri Nocturni were the first men, being privately owned slaves, organized into a group that combated the common problems of fire and conflagrations in Rome. The privately operated system became ineffective, so in the interest of keeping himself and Rome safe, Augustus modelled the new firefighters after the fire brigade of Alexandria, Egypt. The Vigiles were also known by their nickname Spartoli or little bucket fellows which was given to them because of the buckets they carried water in, in AD6, Augustus levied a 4% tax on the sale of slaves and used the proceeds to set up the new force. They were commanded by the praefectus vigilum, who was of equestrian rank, each cohort was divided into seven centuries, each of 70–80 men commanded by a centurion. Each cohort patrolled two of the fourteen administrative regiones. The cohorts were doubled in size in AD205, the Vigiles also acted as a night watch, keeping an eye out for burglars and hunting down runaway slaves, and were on occasion used to maintain order in the streets. Vigiles were stationed at the cities of Ostia and Portus. A vexillatio of four centuries was detached from Rome for four months at a time, the Vigiles appear to have lost their status as an independent unit and come under the authority of the Praetorian prefects sometime in the early 3rd century. In the beginning, the corps had difficulty recruiting men, in an effort to entice men to enlist the Lex Visellia was passed in 24 AD, granting full citizenship and a bonus cash stipend to Vigiles after six years of service. By the 2nd century, citizens were allowed to enlist. The Vigiles were accommodated in barracks and patrolled the streets, especially at night, every householder was obliged to keep equipment for fighting fires, and the men themselves were equipped with pumps, buckets, hooks, picks, mattocks and axes. They also used ballistae for knocking down burning houses and creating firebreaks and they even had their own medical support, with four doctors attached to each cohort, and their own chaplains. A siphonarius operated a pump and an aquarius supervised the supply of water, the ordinary firefighters were called milites. Every cohort was equipped with standard firefighting equipment, the sipho or fire engine was pulled by horses and consisted of a large double action pump that was partially submerged in a reservoir of water. The Vigiles designated as aquarii needed to have a knowledge of where water was located. Attempts were made to smother the fire by covering it with patchwork quilts soaked with water, there is even evidence that chemical firefighting methods were used by throwing a vinegar based substance called acetum into fires. In many cases the best way to prevent the spread of flames was to tear down the building with hooks
Vigiles
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Graffiti from wardroom of 7th Cohort
Vigiles
13.
Trajan
–
Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born in the city of Italica in the province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans non-patrician family was of Italian, Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in 89 Trajan supported Domitian against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus, in September 96, Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, culminating in a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard, Nerva was compelled to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and he died on 27 January 98 and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident. Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea and his conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly, as the new province possessed many valuable gold mines. However, its position north of the Danube made it susceptible to attack on three sides, and it was later abandoned by Emperor Aurelian. Trajans war against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of the capital Ctesiphon and his campaigns expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. In late 117, while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell ill and he was deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under Trajans Column. He was succeeded by his adopted son Hadrian, as an emperor, Trajans reputation has endured – he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the Senate with the wish felicior Augusto, among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan. As far as ancient literary sources are concerned, an extant continuous account of Trajans reign does not exist, only fragments remain of the Getiká, a book by Trajans personal physician Titos Statilios Kriton. The Parthiká, a 17-volume account of the Parthian Wars written by Arrian, has met a similar fate, book 68 in Cassius Dios Roman History, which survives mostly as Byzantine abridgments and epitomes, is the main source for the political history of Trajans rule. Besides this, Pliny the Youngers Panegyricus and Dio of Prusas orations are the best surviving contemporary sources and it is certain that much of text of the letters that appear in this collection over Trajans signature was written and/or edited by Trajans Imperial secretary, his ab epistulis. Therefore, discussion of Trajan and his rule in modern historiography cannot avoid speculation, as well as recourse to sources such as archaeology. Marcus Ulpius Traianus was born on 18 September 53 AD in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans birthplace of Italica was founded as a Roman military colony in 206 BC, though it is unknown when the Ulpii arrived there. Trajan was the son of Marcia, a Roman noblewoman and sister-in-law of the second Flavian Emperor Titus, and Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Marcus Ulpius Traianus the elder served Vespasian in the First Jewish-Roman War, commanding the Legio X Fretensis. Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death and his elder sister was Ulpia Marciana, and his niece was Salonina Matidia. The patria of the Ulpii was Italica, in Spanish Baetica, as a young man, he rose through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in some of the most contested parts of the Empires frontier
Trajan
–
Marble bust of Trajan.
Trajan
–
Denarius of Trajan, minted in Rome between 101–102 AD
Trajan
–
Bust of Trajan in 108 AD, in the
Museum of Art History in Vienna, Austria
Trajan
–
Trajan's Column, Rome
14.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
–
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, also known as Antonio da San Gallo, was an Italian architect active during the Renaissance, mainly in Rome and the Papal States. Sangallo was born Antonio Cordiani in Florence, the son of Bartolomeo Piccioni and his grandfather Francesco Giamberti was a woodworker, and his uncles Giuliano and Antonio da Sangallo were noted architects of the time. Vasari writes that the young Sangallo followed his uncles to Rome in order to pursue a career in architecture, he ended up taking the name ″Sangallo″ in their tracks. As an assistant to Bramante, Sangallo prepared a number of sketches due to the disability of his master, due to his success, Bramante gave Sangallo a number of projects to complete with no more than an outline of the design and motifs. Eventually, Sangallo was put in charge of the Passetto di Borgo between the Papal apartments and the Castel SantAngelo and that particular project was left unfinished, but it left Sangallo with a working reputation as an architect. Now living in Rome, Sangallo quickly received a commission for the church of Santa Maria di Loreto in 1507. His design called for a square first story and a second story built in travertine and brick. Sangallo also drew the attention of the Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, from whom he received a number of commissions, first and foremost of these is the Farnese Palace on the Piazza Farnese, although it was not completed until after his death. Sangallo also received a number of contracts from the Farnese family. For instance, he designed a palace and the Church of Santa Maria Maddalena in the Farnese town of Gradoli and he also designed fortifications for Capo di Monte and Caprarola, the latter eventually became a country estate, the Villa Farnese. In addition to the Farnese family, Sangallo had a number of patrons in Rome and he designed the Palazzo Baldassini near the Basilica of SantAgostino for Melchiore Baldassini, he designed a tomb for the Cardinal Jaume Serra i Cau in San Giacomo degli Spagnoli. Peters Basilica by Pope Leo X. Sangallo was hired extensively by Leo X, not only as an architect, some time later, Sangallo was hired to build the foundation for the church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini on the bank of the Tiber. Jacopo Sansovinos design called for the church to extend into the river, Sangallo successfully completed the foundation, although at such great expense that there was no longer enough money to build the church. Thus the model that Sangallo designed for the church was not built, another project was the Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto. The church had not been particularly well, with cracking vaults. Sangallo was also hired to do work on the Vatican loggias. Sangallo was also a military architect, working on the fortifications of numerous cities such as Parma, Piacenza, Ancona. In Orvieto, he was tasked by Pope Clement VII with building a well, called Saint Patricks Well
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
–
The church of Santa Maria di Loreto near the
Trajan's Market in
Rome, considered Sangallo's masterwork.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
–
View of St. Patrick's Well in
Orvieto.
15.
Sala Regia (Vatican)
–
The Sala Regia is a state hall in the Apostolic Palace, in Vatican City. Although not intended as such, this room is really an antechamber to the Sistine Chapel. To the left of the entrance formerly stood the papal throne, the hall was begun under Pope Paul III by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and was completed in 1573. The elegant barrel vault is graced by the very impressive plaster decorations of Perino del Vaga, the stucco ornaments over the doors are by Daniele da Volterra. The walls were decorated by Livio Agresti, Giorgio Vasari and Taddeo Zuccari, the hall was originally used for the reception of princes and royal ambassadors, hence its name. Index of Vatican City-related articles Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
Sala Regia (Vatican)
–
John Kerry in the Sala Regia (2014). At the end of the hall is the entrance to the
Cappella Paolina.
16.
Vatican Museums
–
The Vatican Museums are the museums of the Vatican City and are located within the citys boundaries. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century. The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling decorated by Michelangelo and the Stanze di Raffaello decorated by Raphael, are on the route through the Vatican Museums. In 2013, they were visited by 6 million people, which combined makes it the 6th most visited art museum in the world, there are 54 galleries, or sale, in total, with the Sistine Chapel, notably, being the very last sala within the Museum. It is one of the largest museums in the world, in 2017, the Museums official website and social media presence was completely redone, in accord with current standards and appearances for modern websites. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were working at the Vatican, on their recommendation, the pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The pope put the sculpture of Laocoön and his sons on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery, the Museum Christianum was founded by Benedict XIV, and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854. The Museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public, on 1 January 2017 Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007. The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pope Pius XI ordered construction of a proper building, the new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932. The museum has paintings including, Giottos Stefaneschi Triptych Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Opere di Misericordia Raphaels Madonna of Foligno, Oddi Altarpiece, the group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. The museum takes its name from two popes, Clement XIV and Pius VI, the pope who brought the museum to completion, Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIIIs Belvedere palace and started the refurbishment work. Pope Clement XIV founded the Pio-Clementino museum in 1771, and originally it contained the Renaissance, the museum and collection were enlarged by Clements successor Pius VI. Today, the museum works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are, Greek Cross Gallery, with the porphyri sarcophagi of Constance and Saint Helen, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great. Sala Rotonda, shaped like a miniature Pantheon, the room has impressive ancient mosaics on the floors, Gallery of the Statues, as its name implies, holds various important statues, including Sleeping Ariadne and the bust of Menander. It also contains the Barberini Candelabra, Gallery of the Busts, Many ancient busts are displayed. Cabinet of the Masks, The name comes from the mosaic on the floor of the gallery, found in Villa Adriana, along the walls, several famous statues are shown including the Three Graces. One wove the thread of life, second nurtured it, third cut it. The center piece is Belvedere Torso, revered by Michelangelo and other Renaissance men, sala degli Animali, So named because of the many ancient statues of animals
Vatican Museums
–
Sculptures above the entrance of museums
Vatican Museums
–
Spiral stairs of the Vatican Museums, designed by Giuseppe Momo in 1932.
Vatican Museums
–
The New Wing, Braccio Nuovo built by Raphael Stern
Vatican Museums
–
The
Prima Porta Augustus
17.
Scudo (coin)
–
The scudo was the name for a number of coins used in Italy until the 19th century. The name, like that of the French écu and the Spanish, from the 16th century, the name was used in Italy for large silver coins. Sizes varied depending on the issuing country, first scudo dargento was issued in 1551 by Charles V in Milan. Under Maria Theresa and Joseph II the scudo dargento had a weight of 23.10 g, in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, the Lombardy-Venetia scudo was equivalent to the Conventionsthaler and was subdivided into six lire. Before the Napoleonic Wars, the lira was subdivided into 20 soldi, later, the lira was made up of 100 centesimi. When Austria-Hungary decimalized in 1857, the scudo was replaced by the florin at a rate of 2 florin =1 scudo, coins of ½ and 1 soldo were issued, equal to ½ and 1 kreuzer, for use in Lombardy and Venetia. In the Papal States, the Papal States scudo was the currency until 1866 and it was divided into 100 baiocchi, each of 5 quattrini. It was replaced by the lira, equal to the Italian lira, the Duchy of Modena and Reggio also issued scudi, worth four lire or one third of a tallero. In Malta under the Order of St John, the Maltese scudo circulated from the 16th century until the Order was expelled in 1798, the currency remained the official currency of Malta until 1825 and the last coins were removed from circulation in 1886. The Sovereign Military Order of Malta has issued coins denominated in scudi since 1961, manuale del collezionista di monete italiane
Scudo (coin)
–
Papal States, Quadruple Scudo d'Oro (1689) depicting
Pope Alexander VIII (obv) and Saints
Peter and
Paul (rev)
Scudo (coin)
–
100 Scudi note issued in the 19th century
18.
Giacomo Del Duca
–
Giacomo Del Duca was an Italian sculptor and architect during the late-Renaissance or Mannerist period. He also modified Michelangelos plans for buildings in the Capitoline Hill, one of the most famous, also known as Jacobo Siciliano or Jacopo Del Duca, Giacomo del Duca was born in Cefalù, Palermo, Sicily, Italy. He helped design the church of Santa Maria in Trivio and he also helped sculpt the tomb of Elena Savelli in San Giovanni in Laterano. In 1588, Del Duca returned to Sicily, and settled in Messina, where he completed a number of late mannerist structures, such as San Giovanni dei Gerolamini and the Loggia dei Mercanti. Jacopo del Duca is a character in Manuel Mujica Láinezs Bomarzo, a novel about the Orsini family and its sacred grove of monsters
Giacomo Del Duca
–
Chapel of the Sacrament, Messina, by Giacomo del Duca
19.
Michelangelo
–
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. Considered to be the greatest living artist during his lifetime, he has since described as one of the greatest artists of all time. A number of Michelangelos works of painting, sculpture, and architecture rank among the most famous in existence and he sculpted two of his best-known works, the Pietà and David, before the age of thirty. As an architect, Michelangelo pioneered the Mannerist style at the Laurentian Library, at the age of 74, he succeeded Antonio da Sangallo the Younger as the architect of St. Peters Basilica. Michelangelo transformed the plan so that the end was finished to his design, as was the dome, with some modification. Michelangelo was unique as the first Western artist whose biography was published while he was alive, in his lifetime he was often called Il Divino. One of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his terribilità, the attempts by subsequent artists to imitate Michelangelos impassioned and highly personal style resulted in Mannerism, the next major movement in Western art after the High Renaissance. Michelangelo was born on 6 March 1475 in Caprese near Arezzo, at the time of Michelangelos birth, his father was the Judicial administrator of the small town of Caprese and local administrator of Chiusi. Michelangelos mother was Francesca di Neri del Miniato di Siena, the Buonarrotis claimed to descend from the Countess Mathilde of Canossa, this claim remains unproven, but Michelangelo himself believed it. Several months after Michelangelos birth, the returned to Florence. There Michelangelo gained his love for marble, as Giorgio Vasari quotes him, If there is good in me. Along with the milk of my nurse I received the knack of handling chisel and hammer, as a young boy, Michelangelo was sent to Florence to study grammar under the Humanist Francesco da Urbino. The young artist, however, showed no interest in his schooling, preferring to copy paintings from churches, the city of Florence was at that time the greatest centre of the arts and learning in Italy. Art was sponsored by the Signoria, by the merchant guilds and by patrons such as the Medici. The Renaissance, a renewal of Classical scholarship and the arts, had its first flowering in Florence, the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti had laboured for fifty years to create the bronze doors of the Baptistry, which Michelangelo was to describe as The Gates of Paradise. The exterior niches of the Church of Orsanmichele contained a gallery of works by the most acclaimed sculptors of Florence – Donatello, Ghiberti, Andrea del Verrocchio, and Nanni di Banco. The interiors of the churches were covered with frescos, begun by Giotto. During Michelangelos childhood, a team of painters had been called from Florence to the Vatican, among them was Domenico Ghirlandaio, a master in fresco painting, perspective, figure drawing, and portraiture who had the largest workshop in Florence at that period
Michelangelo
–
Portrait of Michelangelo by
Daniele da Volterra
Michelangelo
–
The
Madonna of the Stairs (1490–92), Michelangelo's earliest known work
Michelangelo
–
Michelangelo's
Pietà, St Peter's Basilica (1498–99)
Michelangelo
–
The
Statue of David, completed by Michelangelo in 1504, is one of the most renowned works of the Renaissance.
20.
Flavian dynasty
–
The Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 AD and 96 AD, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian, and his two sons Titus and Domitian. The Flavians rose to power during the war of 69. After Galba and Otho died in succession, Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. His claim to the throne was challenged by legions stationed in the Eastern provinces. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favour of the Flavian forces, the following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic, the reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash, one year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70, in addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus. The Flavians initiated economic and cultural reforms, under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empires finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. Flavian rule came to an end on September 18,96 and he was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Vespasians grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesars civil war and his military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia ). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II. Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium and they had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus and Titus Flavius Domitianus, and a daughter, Domitilla. Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor, thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, as a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitians upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula, by all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received an education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political
Flavian dynasty
–
The Flavian family, depicted on The Triumph of Titus, by
Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema
Flavian dynasty
–
Bust of Vespasian,
Pushkin Museum, Moscow
Flavian dynasty
–
Emperor
Vitellius (
Louvre)
Flavian dynasty
–
The most enduring landmark of the Flavian dynasty was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the
Colosseum (in Italian Colosseo). Its construction was begun by Vespasian, and ultimately finished by Titus and Domitian, financed from the spoils of the
destruction of the Second Jerusalem Temple.
21.
Amazon statue types
–
Pliny the Elder records five bronze statues of Amazons in the Artemision of Ephesus. These types, each represented by numerous Roman copies and heads, are identified with three of Plinys five sculptors, a type derived from Phradmon has not been identified. Of these, however, only the identification of the Mattei type as deriving from Phidiass original is undisputed, the German scholar R. Bolnach has written a thorough form-analysis for the Sciarra/Polycletus and Sosikles/Kresilas pairings. Dietrich von Bothmer dismissed the Plinian anecdote as an etiological embroidery invented to account for the five statues of wounded Amazons of varying styles, a fifth type was excavated at the theater of Ephesus in 1898 but did not enter the discussion until the 1950s. All five types show a female with a similar head and face. Their differences are most obvious when the three sculptures, or casts therof, are displayed together, as at the Casts Gallery at the Cambridge Classics Faculty, the pose, with one arm resting on the head, is comparable to that of the Apollo Lykeios. The prototype was discovered in 1770, as a marble Roman copy of a bronze original,2. 11m high, and of the Augustan era, this type is derived from Phidiass original. It is now on display in the Gallerie delle Statue of the Pio-Clementine Museum in the Vatican. The figure looks down, with her right arm parrying and her arm by her side with a quiver under it. Another copy of this type is at the Capitoline Museum,1.94 m high, this copy dates to the era of Tiberius and is derived from Polyclituss or Kresilass original. Her nose, right arm from the deltoid muscle downwards, the left forearm below the elbow and this type is known principally from the 2.02 m high 2nd century AD marble copy, deriving from Polyclituss or Kresilass original. It was discovered in 1733, went into the collection of Cardinal Giuseppe Albani, the figure has her left arm across her body below her breasts, and her right hand raised and open-palmed, as she looks down towards the wound in her right-hand side. The tip of nose, lower lip, left forearm, and it was copied as a complete statue, as a bust or as a herm, both in stone in the same size as the original and in miniature in bronze. A possible fourth is the Lansdowne Amazon, said to have found in Tor Colombara by Gavin Hamilton. Later at Lansdowne House, it is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, half of the nose, the right arm from middle of the biceps to wrist, the tip of the thumb, and other details have been restored since discovery. Adolf Furtwängler attributed a much-restored Wounded Amazon at the Villa Doria Pamphilj, Rome, to the Ephesus group, sestieri, who identified the sculpture instead as a classicising Roman work, and a representation of Diana. A fifth Amazon type was unearthed at the theatre of Ephesus in 1898 but languished unpublished. The wounded Amazon of Kresilas The three Amazons Smith Christopher Smith, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol.104, No.1 book review Ernest Gardner, A Head in the Possession of Philip Nelson, Esq
Amazon statue types
–
Head of the Sosicles Amazon types, found in the
Gardens of Maecenas, 1874 (Capitoline Museums)
Amazon statue types
–
Mattei Amazon, Vatican Museum
Amazon statue types
–
Wounded Amazon, "Lansdowne type", said to be after Polyclitus (Cast in Pushkin Museum)
Amazon statue types
–
Wounded Amazon, Roman copy signed by Sosikles
22.
Louvre
–
The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II, remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace, in 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed Musée Napoléon, the collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic, whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den, in the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris to a monastery. This territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, the Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed, however, on 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. Under Louis XVI, the museum idea became policy. The comte dAngiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the French Museum, many proposals were offered for the Louvres renovation into a museum, however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution, during the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences, on 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property
Louvre
–
the Richelieu wing (2005)
Louvre
–
The only portion of the medieval Louvre still visible
Louvre
–
Antonio Canova 's
Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss was commissioned in 1787, donated in 1824.
Louvre
–
The
Venus de Milo was added to the Louvre's collection during the reign of
Louis XVIII.
23.
Augustus
–
Augustus was the founder of the Roman Principate and considered the first Roman emperor, controlling the Roman Empire from 27 BC until his death in AD14. He was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia and his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesars will as his adopted son and heir, then known as Octavianus. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar, following their victory at the Battle of Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators. The Triumvate was eventually torn apart by the ambitions of its members. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, in reality, however, he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command, and it took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule. He rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis, the resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire. The reign of Augustus initiated an era of peace known as the Pax Romana. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, expanding into Germania, beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. Augustus died in AD14 at the age of 75 and he probably died from natural causes, although there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son Tiberius, Augustus was known by many names throughout his life, At birth, he was named Gaius Octavius after his biological father. Historians typically refer to him simply as Octavius between his birth in 63 until his adoption by Julius Caesar in 44 BC, upon his adoption, he took Caesars name and became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in accordance with Roman adoption naming standards. He quickly dropped Octavianus from his name, and his contemporaries referred to him as Caesar during this period, historians. In 27 BC, following his defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra and it is the events of 27 BC from which he obtained his traditional name of Augustus, which historians use in reference to him from 27 BC until his death in AD14. While his paternal family was from the town of Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres from Rome and he was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his fathers victory at Thurii over a band of slaves. Due to the nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his fathers home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius only mentions his fathers equestrian family briefly in his memoirs and his paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War
Augustus
–
The statue known as the
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century
Augustus
–
The Death of Caesar, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by
Marcus Junius Brutus and
Gaius Cassius Longinus.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore.
Augustus
–
A statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated ca. 30 BC
Augustus
–
Bust of Augustus in
Musei Capitolini, Rome
24.
Manuel de Godoy
–
Manuel Godoy y Álvarez de Faria was Prime Minister of Spain from 1792 to 1797 and from 1801 to 1808. He received many titles including Prince of the Peace by which he is widely known and he came to power at a young age as the favorite of the King and Queen. Despite disaster after disaster, he maintained power via corruption, many Spanish leaders blamed Godoy for the disastrous war with Britain that cut off Spains Empire and ruined its finances. Godoy was born in Badajoz, the youngest child of noble and his father was José de Godoy y Sánchez de los Ríos, de Cáceres y Méndez or José de Godoy y Sánchez de los Ríos Cáceres Morillo y Rodríguez. This noble family always had Knights, Commanders and even Masters in the Order of Santiago, the House of Godoy came from the House of the same name in Galicia, to which belonged Pedro Ruíz de Godoy, son of Rodrigo Alfonso. This Knight married Teresa, daughter of Juan Muñiz, and through her their descendants surnamed themselves Muñiz de Godoy, Don Pedro Muñiz de Godoy was a Knight and distinguished himself in the reign of King Henry II of Castile, of whom he was an intimate. Many of his descendants, connected to the Extremeñas families, were senior officials, in 1784, at the age of 17, Godoy moved to Madrid where he entered the royal bodyguard. When he went to Madrid, his singing and guitar playing set him apart and led him to the Palace, in 1788, he met the heir to the Spanish throne, who later that year acceded as King Charles IV. Godoy quickly became a favourite of Charles IV and of his wife, on 30 December 1788, he was given the office of Cadete supernumerario in the royal palace and in May 1789, he was promoted to the rank of colonel. In November 1789, he was named a knight of the Order of Santiago and in August 1790, Godoys frequent promotions were signs of his increasing influence over the King and Queen. In 1791, Prime Minister Floridablanca accused Godoy of an relationship with the Queen. In January 1792, Floridablanca fell from office on account of Spains relationship with the emerging French Republic and his successor Aranda fell from office the following November, and Queen Maria Louisa arranged for Godoy to be Prime Minister. Godoys appointment seems to have accomplished with the full acceptance of King Charles IV who, lacking talent for governing, was happy to employ a competent. In 1792, Godoy was made Duke of la Alcudia with grandeeship, another year later, he was made Captain General and Duke of Sueca, Marquis of Alvarez, and Lord of Soto de Roma. He was also made the 15th Minister for Foreign Affairs of Spain on 15 November 1792, Godoy continued Spains neutral policy towards the French Republic. In 1793, he failed to save King Louis XVI from the guillotine, Spains protest against Louis execution and its joining the alliance against the French Republic unleashed the War of the Pyrenees. The French armies managed to advance into the Basque districts in Spain by the west, in July 1795, Godoy negotiated the Peace of Basel with France, by which Spains frontier was restored, but its portion of the island of Hispaniola was ceded to the French. Although Godoy was widely criticized for the treaty, he received after its conclusion the title of Prince of the Peace, in August 1796, Godoy negotiated and signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso with France, which required that Spain declare war on Great Britain
Manuel de Godoy
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Manuel de Godoy, Príncipe de la Paz, portrait by
Goya.
Manuel de Godoy
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Portrait of Carnicero (1801-1803) by
Antonio Carnicero
Manuel de Godoy
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Annual mutiny re-enactment festival / Motin de Aranjuez 2006
Manuel de Godoy
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Manuel de Godoy's Palace in Calle del Principe, Aranjuez (today Sagrada Familia school
25.
Charles IV of Spain
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Charles IV was King of Spain from 14 December 1788, until his abdication on 19 March 1808. Charles was the son of Charles III and his wife. He was born in Naples, while his father was King of Naples and his elder brother, Don Felipe, was passed over for both thrones, due to his learning disabilities and epilepsy. In Naples and Sicily, Charles was referred to as the Prince of Taranto and he was called El Cazador, due to his preference for sport and hunting, rather than dealing with affairs of the state. Charles was considered by many to have been amiable, but simple-minded, in 1788, Charles III died and Charles IV succeeded to the throne. He intended to maintain the policies of his father, and retained his prime minister, the Count of Floridablanca, in office. Even though he had a belief in the sanctity of his office. The affairs of government were left to his wife, Maria Luisa, in 1792, political and personal enemies ousted Floridablanca from office, replacing him with Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda. Humboldts Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain was a key publication from his five-year travels, Godoy continued Arandas policy of neutrality towards France, but after Spain protested the execution of Louis XVI of France, the deposed king, in 1793, France declared war on Spain. After the declaration, Portugal and Spain signed a treaty of protection against France. In 1795 France forced Godoy to enter into an alliance, Spain remained an ally of France and supported the Continental Blockade until the British naval victory at Trafalgar, when Spain became allied with Britain. However, after Napoleons victory over Prussia in 1807, Godoy again steered Spain back onto the French side and this switching of alliances devalued Charles position as a trustworthy ally, increasing Godoys unpopularity, and strengthening the fernandistas, who favoured an alliance with the United Kingdom. Economic troubles, rumours about a relationship between the Queen and Godoy, and the Kings ineptitude, caused the monarchy to decline in prestige among the population. Anxious to take over from his father, and jealous of the prime minister, riots, and a popular revolt at the winter palace Aranjuez, in 1808 forced the king to abdicate on 19 March, in favor of his son. Ferdinand took the throne as Ferdinand VII, but was mistrusted by Napoleon, the ousted King, having appealed to Napoleon for help in regaining his throne, was summoned before Napoleon in Bayonne, along with his son, in April 1808. Napoleon forced both Charles and his son to abdicate, declared the Bourbon dynasty of Spain deposed, and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King Joseph I of Spain. Following Napoleons deposing of the Bourbon dynasty, the ex-King, his wife, after the collapse of the regime installed by Napoleon, Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne. The former Charles IV drifted about Europe until 1812, when he settled in Rome
Charles IV of Spain
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Portrait of Charles IV by
Goya
Charles IV of Spain
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Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV of Spain
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Carlos Clemente Infante of Spain
Charles IV of Spain
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Carlota Joaquina Queen of Portugal and the Algarves
26.
Princess Marianne of the Netherlands
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Born in Berlin, she was the youngest child and second daughter of King William I of the Netherlands by his wife Wilhelmine of Prussia. Her elder sister, Pauline, had died in 1806, long before her birth and her two older brothers were the future King William II and Prince Frederik of the Netherlands. In The Hague on 14 September 1830, Marianne married her first cousin Prince Albert, the union produced five children, Charlotte, married on 18 May 1850 with the later Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. He was either stillborn or lived only a few hours, Albert, married Princess Marie of Saxe-Altenburg. Alexandrine, married on 9 December 1865 to Wilhelm of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1845 she left her unfaithful husband and began to live with her lover and former coachman Johannes van Rossum. On 28 March 1849, Marianne and Albert of Prussia were formally divorced, seven months later in Cefalù, Sicily, she gave birth to her only child with van Rossum, a son, called Johannes Willem van Reinhartshausen. After this, the courts of The Hague and Berlin broke all contact with her, Marianne, Johannes and their son spent the following years in Italy and from 1853 at Weißwasser Castle near Jauernig. In 1855 Marianne bought Schloss Reinhartshausen in Erbach, Rheingau, an unusually progressive woman and cultural visionary, she made the Schloss Reinhartshausen a cultural center of the Rhine. Marianne reconstructed part of the Schloss as a museum to house her collection of 600 paintings, the museum is known today as the Festsäle. The Schloss was always vibrant with many guests and Marianne encouraged young artists providing them accommodation, of her treasures,180 paintings,110 drawings including watercolors and gouaches, as well as various sculptures can be found there today. On Christmas Day of 1861, her son Johannes Wilhelm died of pneumonia in Reinhartshausen at age twelve, to honor him, Marianne donated 60.000 Gulden to the Erbacher locals for a piece of land on which a church was to be constructed. The church was completed and Johannes buried under its altar, the church, named after Johannes, is today’s Protestant church in Erbach. Twelve years later, on 10 May 1873, Johannes van Rossum, Mariannes partner for almost thirty years and he was buried next to his son. Marianne survived him by ten years and died in the Schloss Reinhartshausen in Erbach twenty days after her seventy-third birthday and she was buried near Johannes van Rossum and their son. Her eldest son, Prince Albert of Prussia, inherited her estate, in 1940, her grandson, Prince Frederick Heinrich of Prussia -Alberts son- owned the property. Today the Schloss Reinhartshausen is a 5-stars hotel
Princess Marianne of the Netherlands
–
Princess Albert of Prussia, née Princess of the Netherlands
Princess Marianne of the Netherlands
–
Johannes Wilhelm von Reinhartshausen, the son of Princess Marianne and Johannes van Rossum.
Princess Marianne of the Netherlands
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Princess Marianne of the Netherlands in later years (ca. 1880).
27.
William I of the Netherlands
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William I was a Prince of Orange and the first King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg. In Germany, he was ruler of the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda from 1803 until 1806 and of the Principality of Orange-Nassau in the year 1806, in 1813 he proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the United Netherlands. He proclaimed himself King of the Netherlands and Duke of Luxembourg on 16 March 1815, in the same year on 9 June William I became also the Grand Duke of Luxembourg and after 1839 he was furthermore the Duke of Limburg. After his abdication in 1840 he styled himself King William Frederick, King William Is parents were the last stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange of the Dutch Republic, and his wife Wilhelmina of Prussia. Until 1806, William was formally known as William VI, Prince of Orange-Nassau, in Berlin on 1 October 1791, William married his first cousin Wilhelmina, born in Potsdam. She was the daughter of King Frederick William II of Prussia, after Wilhelmina died in 1837, William married Countess Henriette dOultremont de Wégimont, created Countess of Nassau, on 17 February 1841, also in Berlin. Like his younger brother Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau he was tutored by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and they were both tutored in the military arts by general Prince Frederick Stamford. After the Patriot revolt had been suppressed in 1787, he in 1788-89 attended the academy in Brunswick which was considered an excellent military school. In 1790 he visited a number of foreign courts like the one in Nassau and the Prussian capital Berlin, William subsequently studied briefly at the University of Leiden. As such he commanded the troops took part in the Flanders Campaign of 1793-95. He took part in the battles of Veurne, Menin, and Wervik in 1793, the siege of Landrecies, which surrendered to him. In May 1794 he had replaced general Kaunitz as commander of the combined Austro-Dutch forces on the instigation of Emperor Francis II who apparently had an opinion of him. But the French armies proved too strong, and the allied leadership too inept, the French first entered Dutch Brabant which they dominated after the Battle of Boxtel. When in the winter of 1794-95 the rivers in the Rhine delta froze over, the French breached the southern Hollandic Water Line, in many places Dutch revolutionaries took over the local government. After the Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam on 18 January 1795 the stadtholder decided to flee to Britain, the next day the Batavian Republic was proclaimed. However, the neutral Prussian government forbade this, in 1799, William landed in the current North Holland as part of an Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland. The local Dutch population, however, was not pleased with the arrival of the prince, one local Orangist was even executed. The hoped-for popular uprising failed to materialise, after several minor battles the Hereditary Prince was forced to leave the country again after the Convention of Alkmaar
William I of the Netherlands
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King William I of the Netherlands in Coronation Robes by
Joseph Paelinck, ca. 1818–1819
William I of the Netherlands
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Portrait of William (1775)
William I of the Netherlands
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Young William and his brother
Frederick in 1790
William I of the Netherlands
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William Frederick, Prince of Orange in c. 1805–1810
28.
Bauffremont
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Bauffremont is a French family which derived its name from a village in the Vosges, outside of Orléans, now spelt Beaufremont. The family traces itself to Liébaud, sire de Bauffremont, in 1090 and they are descended from the female line of the Courtenay. In consequence of an alliance with the house of Vergy, the Bauffremonts established themselves in Burgundy, in 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of Charny, married Marie, a legitimized daughter of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. In 1527 the family acquired by marriage the properties of the Vienne-Listenois family, nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson Henri, all played important parts in the states-general of 1576,1588 and 1614, and their speeches have been published. On June 8,1757 Louis de Bauffremont was made a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, on August 21, the last male member of the French Courtenays committed suicide in 1727. However his sister married Louis de Bauffremont, and their descendants assumed the title of Prince de Courtenay. Alexandre Emmanuel Louis de Bauffremont - Courtenay, son of Louis served under the Bourbons and he fled France during the French Revolution and settled in the United States. He later returned to France and was made a Count of the French Empire by Napoleon, Louis XVIII made him a peer of France in 1817, and duke in 1818. His sister Princess Claude de Bauffremont-Courtenay was honorary superintendent of the houses of education of the Legion of Honour, the cadet members of the house use the titles, prince de Bauffremont, prince de Marnay. LInstitut de la Maison de Bourbon Hubert Cuny and Nicole Dreneau, Le Gotha français and this article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain
Bauffremont
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Coat of Arms of Antoine de Bauffremont
29.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
First World War
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
First World War
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
First World War
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This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
First World War
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Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
