1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
3.
Departments of Colombia
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Colombia is a unitary republic formed by thirty-two departments and a Capital District. Each department has a Governor and a Department Assembly, elected by popular vote for a four-year period, the governor cannot be re-elected in consecutive periods. Departments are country subdivisions and are granted a degree of autonomy. Departments are formed by a grouping of municipalities, Municipal government is headed by mayor and administered by a Municipal Council, both of which are elected for four-year periods. Each one of the departments of Colombia in the map below links to a corresponding article, current governors serving four-year terms from 2015 to 2019 are also shown, along with their respective political party or coalition. Estimate for Cundinamarca includes the capital, Bogotá. The indigenous territories are at the level of administrative division in Colombia. Indigenous territories are created by agreement between the government and indigenous communities, also indigenous territories may achieve local autonomy if they meet the requirements of the law. Article 329 of the 1991 constitution recognizes the collective ownership of indigenous territories. Decree 2164 of 1995 interprets Law 160 of 1994, providing, among other things, indigenous territories in Colombia are mostly in the departments of Amazonas, Cauca, La Guajira, Guaviare and Vaupés. When it was first established in 1819, República de la Gran Colombia had three departments, in 1824 the Distrito del Centro was divided into five departments, and further divided into seventeen provices. One department, Istmo Department, consisting of two later became Panama. With the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1826 by the Revolution of the Morrocoyes, in 1832 the provinces of Vélez and Barbacoas were created, and in 1835 those of Buenaventura and Pasto were added. In 1843 those of Cauca, Mompós and Túquerres were created, at this time the cantons and parish districts were created, which provided the basis for the present-day municipalities. However, the new constitution of 1853 introduced federalism, which lead to the consolidation of provinces into states,1861 saw the creation of the final federal state of Tolima. The Colombian Constitution of 1886 converted the states of Colombia into departments, with the state presidents renamed as governors
4.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
5.
Tunja
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Tunja is a city on the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes, in the region known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense,130 km northeast of Bogotá. In 2012 it had an population of 181,407 inhabitants. It is the capital of Boyacá department and the Central Boyacá Province, Tunja is an important educational centre of known universities. The city hosts the most remaining Muisca architecture, Hunzahúa Well, Goranchacha Temple, Tunja is a tourist destination, especially for religious colonial architecture, with the Casa Fundador Gonzalo Suárez Rendón as oldest remnant. It is a stop on the Pan American Highway which connects Tunja to Bogotá and Santa Marta and eventually to the northern, Tunja has a population of approximately 180,000 inhabitants and is located in central Colombia. The city centre is at an elevation of 2,820 metres above sea level, tunjas climate is influenced by its location and altitude. At almost 3000 m it is one of the cities in Colombia. As a result, the city features a subtropical climate with little variation in temperature throughout the year. The earliest evidence of population on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense has been dated to approximately 12.000 years ago. Homus Tequendama inhabited the area by 6375 BCE, archeologists have found human skeletons including arm bones in the area. Many archaeological discoveries were found in the area of the present-day city, during the 1st millennium a. d. the territory was inhabited by the Muisca, who spoke Chibcha and emigrated from Central America through Panama to the Andean Region. The Muisca developed their own religion, calendar and mythology, according to those myths, it was the brutal cacique and prophet Goranchacha who moved the capital for the northern Muisca from Ramiriquí to Tunja, then called Hunza. An era when frequent battles among cacicazgos took place, peace was proposed for the region, Hunzahúa, who came from Ramiriqui, was elected. The capital of his confederation was named Hunza, Hunzahúa took the title of zaque, and reign over the lands from the Chicamocha to Fusagasugá and from the Llanos de San Juan to Panche and Muzo frontiers, including Vélez territory. This helped to unify the Muisca, especially with respect to their language and religion, Saguamanchica, with 50,000 soldiers, decided on a massive attack on zaque Michuá, crossing Guatavita and Chocontá, after which the Battle of Chocontá is named. Michuá dealt with him, supported by an army which doubled Saguamanchica, a new zaque, Quemuenchatocha, was installed, during the tense truce between Bacatá and Hunza. In 1514, Quemuenchatocha found out about the expansionist intentions of the new zipa Nemequene and he asked the caciques of Gámeza, Sugamuxi, Tundama and Sáchica to help him to reinforce his army. A battle was fought in Ventaquemada and, when Nemequene was about to become the victor, he was fatally wounded, iraca retracted his support and Quemuenchatocha got a truce whose terms would end when the Spanish arrived
6.
El Infiernito
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El Infiernito, is a pre-Columbian archaeoastronomical site located on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the outskirts of Villa de Leyva, Boyacá, Colombia. It is composed of several earthworks surrounding a setting of menhirs, the site was a center of religious ceremonies and spiritual purification rites, and also served as a rudimentary astronomical observatory. The area was known by this name long before the discovery of the archaeological site, spanish Conquistadors called it infiernito, or little hell, because they thought it was diabolical and labeled it as a site of Pagan worship. The first description of the site was made in 1847 by the Colombian army geographer Joaquin Acosta, the lithic pieces are carved in pink sandstone, many of them in columnar shapes with an incised ring. Archaeological excavations have collected a number of samples of wood charcoal which have been useful for radiocarbon dating. The second one shows mainly remains of maize oblations, in the third stratum, several pieces of burned carved rocks and lithic flakes, in the remains of a large bonfire, are gathered around a large monolith in the south sacred field. The first formal excavations at the site were led by anthropologist Eliecer Silva Celis in 1981. The burial mounds were found to have heavily affected by grave robbery. The central column described by Joaquin Acosta in 1850, which allowed the measuring of the suns astronomical alignment during the equinoxes, was missing. The summer solstice sun will be seen from the columns rising above the sacred Lake Iguaque, other lithic monuments of the Muisca culture exist in Sutamarchán, Tunja, Ramiriquí, Tibaná and Paz de Río among other locations. Archaeoastronomy Muisca astronomy, calendar Lake Iguaque, Villa de Leyva, Carl Henrik Langebaek, Eliécer Silva Celis Langebaek Rueda, archaeoastronomy in the Muisca Territory, 272–276. 409, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, parque Arqueológico El Infiernito Cooper, Jago, and Carl Henrik Langebaek. The Lost Kingdoms of South America - Episode 3 - Lands of Gold - El Infiernito
7.
Muisca
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The Muisca are the Chibcha-speaking people that formed the Muisca Confederation of the central Andean highlands of present-day Colombias Eastern Range, in particular the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. As one out of four advanced civilizations of the Americas, they were encountered by the Spanish Empire in 1537 and it bordered the territories of the Panche and Pijao tribes. At the time of the conquest, the area had a large population, estimates vary from half a million to up to three million inhabitants. The Muisca spoke muysccubun, a dialect of Chibcha, also called Muysca and Mosca, the economy was based on agriculture, salt mining, metalworking and manufacturing. Today the Muisca population has almost died out, although in the municipalities and districts Cota, Chía, Tenjo, Suba, Engativá, Tocancipá, Gachancipá, a census by the Ministry of Interior Affairs in 2005 provided a total of 14,051 Muisca persons in Colombia. Excavations in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense show evidence of activity since the Archaic stage at the beginning of the Holocene era. Colombia has one of the most ancient archaeological sites of the Americas, El Abra, human skeletons were found that date to 5000 BCE. Analysis demonstrated that the people were members of the El Abra Culture, scholars agree that the group identified as Muisca migrated to the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the Formative stage, as shown by evidence found at Aguazuque and Soacha. Like the other cultures of America, the Muiscas were in a transition between being hunter-gatherers and becoming sedentary farmers. Around 1500 BCE, groups of agrarians with ceramic traditions came to the region from the lowlands and they had permanent housing and stationary camps, and worked the salty water to extract salt. In Zipacón there is evidence of agriculture and ceramics, the most ancient settlement of the highlands dates to 1270 BCE. Between 500 BCE and 800 BCE, a wave of migrants came to the highlands. Their presence is identified by multicolor ceramics, housing, and farms and these groups were still in residence upon the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. They left abundant traces of their occupation that have been studied since the 16th century and it is possible that the Muisca integrated with more ancient inhabitants, but the Muisca were the ones who molded the cultural profile and the social and political organization. Their language, a dialect of Chibcha, was similar to those peoples of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Zipa Saguamanchica was in a constant war against aggressive tribes such as the Sutagao, and especially the Panche, the Caribs were also a permanent threat as rivals of the zaque of Hunza, especially for the possession of the salt mines of Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa. The Muisca people were organized in a confederation that was a union of states that each retained sovereignty. The confederation was not a kingdom, as there was no monarch, nor was it an empire
8.
New Kingdom of Granada
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The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549, ultimately the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom, in 1514, the Spanish first permanently settled in the area. With Santa Marta and Cartagena, Spanish control of the coast was established, starting in 1536, the conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada explored the extensive highlands of the interior of the region, by following the Magdalena River into the Andean cordillera. After Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada left for Spain in May 1539, belalcázars victory placed the region under the Viceroyalty of Peru, which was being organized at the time. Charles V ordered the establishment of an audiencia, a type of court that combined executive and judicial authority. The Royal Audiencia was created by a decree of July 17,1549. It was given authority over the provinces of Santa Marta, Río de San Juan, Popayán, the Audiencia was charged primarily with dispensing justice, but it was also to oversee the running of government and the settlement of the territory. It held its first session on April 7,1550, in a mansion on the Plaza Mayor at the site today houses the Colombian Palace of Justice. Initially all of the justices held executive power, with these two offices the president oversaw the civilian government and held the command over the kingdoms military forces. The president was loosely dependent upon the Viceroy of Peru at Lima in administrative, the jurisdictional boundaries of the Audiencia encompassed the territory of the kingdom. One further change came as part of the Bourbon Reforms of the eighteenth century, because of the slowness in communications between Lima and Bogotá, the Bourbons decided to establish an independent Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. The governor-president of Bogotá became the viceroy of the new entity, with military and executive oversight over the neighboring Presidency of Quito, the Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada Cook, Karoline P. Religious Identity, Race and Status in New Granada, Race and Blood in the Iberian World,3,81. Fisher, John R. Allan J. Keuthe, and Anthony McFarlane, Reform and Insurrection in Bourbon New Granada and Peru. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press,1990, ISBN 978-0-8071-1654-8 Graff, Gary W. Spanish Parishes in Colonial New Granada, Their Role in Town-Building on the Spanish-American Frontier. The Political Economy of Smuggling, regional economies in early Bourbon New Granada Kuethe. Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773–1808, gainesville, University Presses of Florida,1978
9.
Antonio Ricaurte
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Antonio Ricaurte was a patriot of the Independence of Colombia and Venezuela and captain of Bolívars army. He is remembered as the martyr of the Battle of San Mateo, Antonio Ricaurte was born into a family with a military tradition. He participated in the acts of July 20,1810, in Bogotá, as a rebel against the colonial regime, for his bold performance. The commanders of the revolution entrusted him with the mission of keeping watch over the Viceroy Antonio Amat y Borbón at the Accounts Tribunal, when the patriot militias were organized, Ricaurte was incorporated to the infantry battalion of the National Guard, with the rank of lieutenant. He fought the battle of Alto de la Virgen in Ventaquemada, subsequently, on January 9,1813, he participated in the battle of San Victorino in Santafé, which gave the triumph to the centralists. In 1813 he was recruited in the army of New Granada under the then brigadier Simón Bolívar, to fight for the liberty of Venezuela, in this first Liberating Army, he fought at the battles of La Grita, Carache, Niquitao, and Taguanes among others. In 1814 a series of battles between patriots and royalists took place in a region called Valles de Aragua, in what is now Venezuela. The main house of the San Mateo estate, property of Simón Bolívar, was placed under the custody of Ricaurte and a small troop of fifty soldiers. During the momentary disorder which followed the explosion, Bolívar seized the opportunity and launched an attack to control of the main house. The Battle of San Mateo ended with the triumph of the patriots army. It was later estimated the royalists lost more than ten times as many soldiers as the patriots during the battle, Antonio Ricaurte was a fervent freemason and to date the Lodge of Zulia State, Venezuela, is named in his honor. Ricaurte Municipality in Cojedes is named for him, captain Ricaurtes heroic action is also remembered in the last verse of Colombias National Anthem, FUNDACIÓN POLAR. ROMERO MARTÍNEZ, VINICIO. Y Ricaurte se inmoló en San Mateo
10.
Rights of Man
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Rights of Man, a book by Thomas Paine, including 31 articles, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard the natural rights of its people. Using these points as a base it defends the French Revolution against Edmund Burkes attack in Reflections on the Revolution in France and it was published in two parts in March 1791 and February 1792. Paine was a strong supporter of the French Revolution that began in 1789. Paines Rights of Man was printed by Joseph Johnson for publication on 21 February 1791, J. S. Jordan stepped in and published it on 16 March. The 90, 000-word book appeared on 13 March, three weeks later than scheduled and it sold as many as one million copies and was, eagerly read by reformers, Protestant dissenters, democrats, London craftsman, and the skilled factory-hands of the new industrial north. It operates by a contrary effect—that of taking rights away, Rights are inherently in all the inhabitants, but charters, by annulling those rights, in the majority, leave the right, by exclusion, in the hands of a few. The books acumen derives from the Age of Enlightenment, especially from the Second Treatise of Government, principally, Rights of Man opposes the idea of hereditary government—the belief that dictatorial government is necessary, because of mans corrupt, essential nature. Rights of Man denounces Burkes assertion of the nobilitys inherent hereditary wisdom, Paine refutes Burkes definition of Government as a contrivance of human wisdom. Paine puts forward two arguments against this view, firstly, he argues that Every age and generation must be as free to act for itself in all cases as the age and generations which preceded it. Secondly, Paine counters that the institution of monarchy should not be traced from 1688, but from 1066. Thomas Paines intellectual influence is perceptible in the two great political revolutions of the eighteenth century, thus, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen can be encapsulated so, Men are born, and always continue, free and equal in respect of their rights. These capsulations are akin to the self-evident truths concept that the U. S and it was quickly reprinted and widely circulated, with copies being read aloud in inns and coffee houses, so that by May some 50,000 copies were said to be in circulation. Of the 300 or more pamphlets which the revolution controversy spawned, Rights of Man was the first to seriously damage Burkes case, Thomas Paine was not the only advocate of the rights of man or the only author of a work titled Rights of Man. The working-class radical, Thomas Spence, is among the first, in England and his 1775 lecture, usually titled The Rights of Man, and his later The Rights of Infants, offer a proto-geoist take on political philosophy mirroring Paines work Agrarian Justice. Paines acquaintance Mary Wollstonecraft, whom he met via their common publisher and her work was in print in December 1790, and was well reviewed. She extended the arguments in the book for which she is best remembered, Paines visionary two-part call for republicanism and social welfare was generations ahead of its time when published in 1791
11.
Conquistador
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Conquistadors /kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz/ is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and they colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa, human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa. The spread of diseases, including smallpox, flu and typhus. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports, by the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one-fifth of Spains total budget. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms and their units would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans and they not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards, Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian, many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592, german-born Nikolaus Federmann, Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The origin of people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband, women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada, Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children, European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, Kings army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers
12.
Lake Iguaque
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Lake Iguaque is a lake located in the Boyacá Department of Colombia. The lake and the area was declared a Flora and Fauna Sanctuary in 1977. Lake Iguaque is located northeast of Villa de Leyva and is part of the SFF Iguaque, the predominant ecosystem is the páramo, with presence of frailejón plant, ferns, lichens and puyas. The average temperature is 12 °C, the route of access to the natural reservation is, Bogotá – Tunja /Tunja – Villa de Leyva. The visitor center Furachiogua offers accommodation for up to 48 persons, Lake Iguaque was considered a sacred place for the Muisca. According to legend, mankind was originated in the Iguaque lake, when the boy grew, she married him and their children populated the Earth. They are considered the ancestors of the human race, finally Bachué and her husband and son disappeared unto the lake in the shape of snakes. The in 2006 described sweat bee Neocorynura muiscae was found in the sanctuary near the lake, Muisca religion, Bachué Lake Guatavita, Lake Tota, Siecha Lakes Tourism at Lake Iguaque
13.
Waterfall
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A waterfall is a place where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of drops in the course of a stream or river. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the edge of an iceberg or ice shelf. Waterfalls are commonly formed in the course of a river. At these times the channel is narrow and deep. When the river courses over resistant bedrock, erosion happens slowly, as the watercourse increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it plucks material from the riverbed. Whirlpools created in the turbulence as well as sand and stones carried by the increase the erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream, often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one, eventually, the outcropping, more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. Waterfalls normally form in an area due to erosion. After a long period of being formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed, a river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a fault line. Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a trough, where a stream or river flowing into a glacier continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this phenomenon, another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other. Waterfalls can be grouped into ten classes based on the average volume of water present on the fall using a logarithmic scale. Class 10 waterfalls include Niagara Falls, Paulo Afonso Falls and Khone Falls, young Wrote Waterfalls, form and process this work made waterfalls a much more serious topic for research for modern Geoscientists. Ledge waterfall, Water descends vertically over a cliff, maintaining partial contact with the bedrock. Block/Sheet. Classical, Ledge waterfalls where fall height is equal to stream width. Curtain, Ledge waterfalls which descend over a larger than the width of falling water stream
14.
Cretaceous
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The Cretaceous is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period 145 million years ago to the beginning of the Paleogene Period 66 Mya. It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era, the Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation Kreide. The Cretaceous was a period with a warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas. These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites and rudists, during this time, new groups of mammals and birds, as well as flowering plants, appeared. The Cretaceous ended with a mass extinction, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, the name Cretaceous was derived from Latin creta, meaning chalk. The Cretaceous is divided into Early and Late Cretaceous epochs, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous series, in older literature the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series, Neocomian, Gallic and Senonian. A subdivision in eleven stages, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide, in many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use. As with other geologic periods, the rock beds of the Cretaceous are well identified. No great extinction or burst of diversity separates the Cretaceous from the Jurassic and this layer has been dated at 66.043 Ma. A140 Ma age for the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary instead of the usually accepted 145 Ma was proposed in 2014 based on a study of Vaca Muerta Formation in Neuquén Basin. Víctor Ramos, one of the authors of the study proposing the 140 Ma boundary age sees the study as a first step toward formally changing the age in the International Union of Geological Sciences, due to the high sea level there was extensive space for such sedimentation. Because of the young age and great thickness of the system. Chalk is a type characteristic for the Cretaceous. It consists of coccoliths, microscopically small calcite skeletons of coccolithophores, the group is found in England, northern France, the low countries, northern Germany, Denmark and in the subsurface of the southern part of the North Sea. Chalk is not easily consolidated and the Chalk Group still consists of sediments in many places. The group also has other limestones and arenites, among the fossils it contains are sea urchins, belemnites, ammonites and sea reptiles such as Mosasaurus. In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of competent limestone beds or incompetent marls
15.
Kronosaurus
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Kronosaurus is an extinct genus of short-necked pliosaur. With an estimated length of 9-10.5 m, it was among the largest pliosaurs and it lived in the Early Cretaceous Period. Fossil material has been recovered from Queensland in Australia, and Colombia, like other pliosaurs, Kronosaurus was a marine reptile. It had a head, a short neck, a stiff body propelled by four flippers. The posterior flippers were larger than the anterior, Kronosaurus was carnivorous, and had many long, sharp, conical teeth. A feature of the genus Kronosaurus is the first three teeth are enlarged to fangs. Current estimates put Kronosaurus at around 9–10.5 meters in length, in 2009, K. queenslandicus was estimated to weigh up to 11,000 kilograms. All Sauropterygians had a modified pectoral girdle that supported a powerful swimming stroke, Kronosaurus and other plesiosaurs/pliosaurs had a similarly adapted pelvic girdle, allowing them to push hard against the water with all four flippers. Between its two limb girdles was a mesh of gastralia that provided additional strength and support. The strength of the limb girdles, combined evidence of large, powerful swimming muscles, indicates that Kronosaurus was likely a fast. Kronosaurus queenslandicus has four pairs of premaxillary teeth, two pairs of the lower jaw caniniforms occlude between the last pair of premaxillary teeth and first pair of maxillary teeth in a diastema. The enlargement of two pairs of lower jaw teeth in K. queenslandicus may be related to the absence of a fifth pair of premaxillary teeth. Oliver Hampe described Kronosaurus boyacensis as having five pairs of premaxillary teeth, in addition to apparently having a different premaxillary tooth count, K. boyacensis differs from K. queenslandicus in postcranial features and possibly tooth ornamentation. Body-length estimates, largely based on the 1959 Harvard reconstruction, had put the total length of Kronosaurus at 12.8 meters.5 meters. Kronosaurus teeth exceed 7 cm in length, however, they lack carinae and the distinct trihedral of Pliosaurus and Liopleurodon teeth. The combination of size, conical shape and lack of cutting edges allows for easy identification of Kronosaurus teeth in Cretaceous deposits from Australia. In 1899, Andrew Crombie of Hughenden discovered a scrap of bone containing six conical teeth, twenty-five years later, then-director Heber Longman formally described the specimen as the holotype of a new species, Kronosaurus queenslandicus. More Kronosaurus material, including a skull, was discovered in 1929
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Ichthyosaur
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Ichthyosaurs belong to the order known as Ichthyosauria or Ichthyopterygia. In the Late Cretaceous, ichthyosaurs became extinct for unknown reasons, science became aware of the existence of ichthyosaurs during the early nineteenth century when the first complete skeletons were found in England. In 1834, the order Ichthyosauria was named, later that century, many excellently preserved ichthyosaur fossils were discovered in Germany, including soft tissue remains. Since the late century, there has been a revived interest in the group leading to an increased number of named ichthyosaurs from all continents. Ichthyosaur species varied from one to sixteen metres in length. Ichthyosaurs resembled both modern fish and dolphins and their limbs had been fully transformed into flippers, which sometimes contained a very large number of digits and phalanges. At least some species possessed a dorsal fin and their heads were pointed, the jaws often equipped with conical teeth to catch smaller prey. Some species had larger bladed teeth to attack large animals, the eyes were very large, probably for deep diving. The neck was short and later species had a stiff trunk. These also had a vertical tail fin, used for a powerful propulsive stroke. The vertebral column, made of simplified disc-like vertebrae, continued into the lobe of the tail fin. Ichthyosaurs were air-breathing, bore live young, and were probably warm-blooded, the first known illustrations of ichthyosaur bones, vertebrae and limb elements were published by the Welshman Edward Lhuyd in his Lithophylacii Brittannici Ichnographia of 1699. Lhuyd thought that they represented fish remains, in 1708, the Swiss naturalist Johann Jakob Scheuchzer described two ichthyosaur vertebrae assuming they belonged to a man drowned in the Universal Deluge. In 1766, a jaw with teeth was found at Weston near Bath. In 1783, this piece was exhibited by the Society for Promoting Natural History as those of a crocodilian, in 1779, ichthyosaur bones were illustrated in John Walcotts Descriptions and Figures of Petrifications. Towards the end of the century, British fossil collections quickly increased in size. Those of the naturalists Ashton Lever and John Hunter were acquired in their totality by museums, later, it was established that they contained dozens of ichthyosaur bones and teeth. The bones had typically been labelled as belonging to fish, dolphins or crocodiles, the demand by collectors led to more intense commercial digging activities
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Platypterygius
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Platypterygius is an ichthyosaur of the family Ophthalmosauridae. It is most closely related to the genera Caypullisaurus and Brachypterygius, Platypterygius reached a length of about 7 m. It had a snout and a powerful finned tail. There are more digits in the front flippers than is usual in ichthyosaurs, they are bound in rows, giving a broad. This unusual characteristic gives the genus its name, meaning flat wing, furthermore, some of the wrist bones have disappeared entirely. CAT scans on a juvenile specimen strongly suggest that Platypterygius was deaf, fossils are known from Australia, Russia, United States of America, Colombia, southern Patagonia, Western Europe and possibly New Zealand. Both adults and juveniles have been unearthed, including newborns and pregnant females which indicate that, like other ichthyosaurs, the remains from Australia were originally called Ichthyosaurus australis. They are from the Toolebuc Formation and Allaru Mudstone of Flinders River and other localities in north central Queensland, in 1990 Wade erected the species name P. longmani to include all remains previously referred to I. australis. The cladogram below follows the topology from a 2010 analysis by Patrick S. Druckenmiller, P. australis has been found with remains of sea turtles and birds in its guts. Several species attributed to this genus do indeed appear to be apex predators, Dinosaurs of Australia and New Zealand, UNSW Press, Australia 1998 Danns Dinosaurs Platypterygius
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Brachiosauridae
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Brachiosauridae is a family of herbivorous, quadrupedal sauropod dinosaurs. Brachiosaurids had long necks that enabled them to access the leaves of trees that other sauropods would have been unable to access. In addition, they possessed thick spoon-shaped teeth which helped them to consume tough plants more efficiently than other sauropods and they have also been characterized by a few unique unambiguous synapomorphies, dorsal vertebrae with rod-like transverse processes and an ischium with an abbreviate pubic peduncle. Brachiosaurus is one of the members of the Brachiosauridae family. They thrived in the regions which are now North and South America, Africa, Europe and they first appear in the fossil record in the Middle/Late Jurassic Period and disappear in the late Early Cretaceous Period. The broad distribution of Brachiosauridae in both northern and southern continents suggests that the group originated prior to the breakup of Pangaea, in the Early Cretaceous the distribution of the family is dramatically reduced. It is still unclear whether this reduction is due to local extinctions or to the nature of the Early Cretaceous fossil record. Brachiosauridae has been defined as all titanosauriforms that are closely related to Brachiosaurus than to Saltasaurus. It is one of the three families that belongs to the Titanosauriformes clade of dinosaurs, which also includes Euhelopdidae. The Brachiosauridae family is composed of quadrupedal dinosaurs that are extremely large, the giant animals of this family can be distinguished from other taxon by their broad, thick and spoon-shaped teeth. The maxillary teeth were twisted apically, and the shape of teeth were optimal for biting off resistant vegetation. While brachiosaurids didnt perform significant food processing in their mouths, their teeth enabled them to slice through food instead of having to pull it off of tree branches. Evidence for this precision shearing consists of apical wear facets on the teeth, in addition, the characteristic long necks of brachiosaurids are distinct from those of other long-necked dinosaur taxa. They possessed a narrow neck composed of 12–13 extremely long cervical bones that was laterally inflexible and this meant that brachiosaurids could angle their necks up and lift their heads, enabling them to graze from treetops up to a height of about 14 meters. Other sauropods lacked this dorsoventral flexibility and thus their necks stretched outwards in front of them instead of upwards, however, the giant size and long necks of brachiosaurids meant that they required tremendous pressure to bring oxygenated blood to their brains. It has been proposed that they possessed a four-chambered double pump heart, with one pump for oxygenated, as in all macronarians, the forelimbs of brachiosaurids are long relative to the hindlimbs, but this trait is more pronounced in brachiosaurids. The forelimbs were very slender and the bone of the forelimb was elongated. These adaptations overall increased the length of the forelimbs, likely resulting in an uneven gait
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Pliosauroidea
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Pliosauroidea is an extinct clade of marine reptiles. Pliosauroids, also known as pliosaurs, are known from the Jurassic. The pliosauroids were short-necked plesiosaurs with large heads and massive toothed jaws and these swimming reptiles were not dinosaurs, but distant cousins of modern turtles. The distinguishing characteristics are a short neck and a head, with larger hind flippers compared to the fore flippers. They were carnivorous and their long and powerful jaws carried many sharp, pliosaurs range from 4 to 15 metres and more in length. Their prey may have included fish, sharks, ichthyosaurs, dinosaurs, the largest known species are Kronosaurus and Pliosaurus macromerus, other well known genera include Rhomaleosaurus, Peloneustes, and Macroplata. Fossil specimens have been found in Africa, Australia, China, Europe, North America, many very early primitive pliosauroids were very like plesiosauroids in appearance and, indeed, used to be included in the family Plesiosauridae. Pliosauroidea was named by Welles in 1943 and it is adapted from the name of the genus Pliosaurus, which is derived from Greek, πλειων meaning more/closely and σαυρος meaning lizard, it therefore means more saurian. The name Pliosaurus was coined in 1841 by Richard Owen, who believed that it represented a link between plesiosauroids and crocodilians, particularly due to their crocodile-like teeth. The taxonomy presented here is based on the plesiosaur cladistic analysis proposed by Hilary F. Ketchum. Bishanopliosaurus Eurycleidus Macroplata Maresaurus Rhomaleosaurus Meyerasaurus Sthenarosaurus, pliosauridae and Rhomaleosauridae are stem-based taxons too. Pliosauridae is defined as all taxa more related to Pliosaurus brachydeirus than to Leptocleidus superstes. Rhomaleosauridae is defined as all taxa more related to Meyerasaurus victor than to Leptocleidus superstes. The cladogram below follows a 2011 analysis by paleontologists Hilary F. Ketchum and Roger B. J. Benson, in 2002, the discovery of a very large pliosauroid was announced in Mexico. This pliosauroid came to be known as the Monster of Aramberri, the size of this specimen has been estimated to be about 49 feet long and it had a 10-foot long skull. Consequently, although reported as such, it does not belong to the genus Liopleurodon. The remains of animal, consisting of a partial vertebral column, were dated to the Kimmeridgian of the La Caja Formation. The fossils were found earlier, in 1985, by a geology student and were at first erroneously attributed to a theropod dinosaur by Hahnel
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Brachauchenius
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Brachauchenius is an extinct genus of pliosaurid that lived in North America during the Late Cretaceous. The type species, Brachauchenius lucasi, lived in the Western Inland Sea of North America around 93. 5-89.3 million years ago, during the Turonian stage of the Cretaceous. An older specimen from the Barremian of Colombia was considered as part of this genus, however, subsequent analysis of this Colombian specimen shows that it was enough distinctive to warrant a new genus and species, named as Stenorhynchosaurus munozi. The first known specimen was collected by Charles Hazelius Sternberg from Ottawa County and it had a skull length of about 90 cm. The species was named by Samuel W. Williston, Brachauchenius represents the last known occurrence of a pliosaur in North America. A larger specimen was collected by George Fryer Sternberg in 1952 from the Fairport Chalk of Russell County, Kansas, schumacher and Everhart reported on the age and locality of both Kansas specimens. This pliosaur grew to around 10 meters in length and this specimen was reassigned to its own genus and species, Megacephalosaurus eulerti. List of plesiosaur genera Timeline of plesiosaur research Oceans of Kansas Paleontology Brachauchenius article including size comparison to a human
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Love in the Time of Cholera
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Love in the Time of Cholera is a novel by Colombian author Gabriel García Márquez first published in Spanish in 1985. Alfred A. Knopf published an English translation in 1988, the main characters of the novel are Florentino Ariza and Fermina Daza. Florentino and Fermina fall in love in their youth, a secret relationship blossoms between the two with the help of Ferminas Aunt Escolástica. However, once Ferminas father, Lorenzo Daza, finds out about the two, he forces his daughter to stop seeing Florentino immediately, when she refuses, he and his daughter move in with his deceased wifes family in another city. Regardless of the distance, Fermina and Florentino continue to communicate via telegraph, a young and accomplished national hero, Dr. Juvenal Urbino, meets Fermina and begins to court her. Despite her initial dislike of Urbino, Fermina gives in to her fathers persuasion and the security and wealth Urbino offers, Urbino is a medical doctor devoted to science, modernity, and order and progress. He is committed to the eradication of cholera and to the promotion of public works and he is a rational man whose life is organized precisely and who greatly values his importance and reputation in society. He is a herald of progress and modernization, even after Ferminas engagement and marriage, Florentino swore to stay faithful and wait for her. However, his promiscuity gets the better of him, even with all the women he is with, he makes sure that Fermina will never find out. Meanwhile, Fermina and Urbino grow old together, going through years and unhappy ones. At an elderly age, Urbino attempts to get his pet parrot out of his tree, only to fall off the ladder he was standing on. After the funeral, Florentino proclaims his love for Fermina once again, hesitant at first because of the advances he made to a newly made widow, Fermina eventually gives him a second chance. They attempt a life together, having lived two lives separately for over five decades, Urbinos function in the novel is to contrast with Florentino Ariza and his archaic and boldly romantic love. Urbino proves in the end not to have been a faithful husband. By the end of the book, Fermina comes to recognize Florentinos wisdom and maturity, Lorenzo Daza – Fermina Dazas father, a mule driver, he despised Florentino and forced him to stop meeting Fermina. He is revealed to have involved in some illicit businesses to build his fortune. Jeremiah de Saint-Amour – The man whose suicide is introduced as the opening to the novel, Aunt Escolástica – The woman who attempts to aid Fermina in her early romance with Florentino by delivering their letters for them. She is ultimately sent away by Lorenzo Daza for this, miss Barbara Lynch – The woman with whom Urbino confesses having had an affair, the only one during his long marriage
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Cobra Verde
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Cobra Verde is a 1987 German drama film directed by Werner Herzog and starring Klaus Kinski. It was based upon Bruce Chatwins 1980 novel, The Viceroy of Ouidah, the film depicts the life of a fictional slave trader. It was filmed on location in Brazil, Colombia and Ghana, francisco Manoel da Silva is a debauched Brazilian rancher who reluctantly goes to work at a gold mining company after his ranch is ruined by drought. When he discovers that he is being exploited, he murders his boss. He becomes the notorious Cobra Verde, the most vicious bandit of the sertão, in his travels, da Silva encounters and subdues an escaped slave, an act that impresses wealthy sugar baron Don Octávio Coutinho. Don Coutinho, unaware that he is dealing with the legendary bandit, as punishment, rather than kill him or have him prosecuted, Don Coutinho decides to send da Silva on the impossible mission of re-opening the slave trade with Western Africa. The bandit is aware he is likely to be killed in Africa and he travels by sea to Dahomey, West Africa, where he must negotiate with the fearsome King Bossa Ahadee of Dahomey. Amazingly, da Silva succeeds in convincing the King to exchange slaves for new rifles and he takes over Elmina Castle and takes Taparica, sole survivor of the previous expedition, for a partner. They begin operating the slave trade across the Atlantic to Brazil, soon, however, the fickle king has them captured and brought before him. The King accuses da Silva of various crimes that he has no knowledge of, including poisoning the Kings greyhound, and sentences him to death. He and Taparica are rescued the night prior to da Silvas decapitation by the Kings nephew, the ambitious bandit trains an enormous army of native women, and leads them on a raid to successfully overthrow King Bossa. Against all expectations, the trade is successfully maintained under the new King. Despite the adversity, da Silva is glad that finally a change has come, the exhausted bandit tries desperately to take a boat to water, but despite his best efforts, he is unable to accomplish the task. He collapses next to the ship as the tide slowly laps in, the film ends with the hauntingly symbolic image of an African man stricken with polio walking along the shore, and a group of young native women laughingly chant over the credits. The film was shot in Ghana, Brazil and Colombia, Herzog showed Kinski photographs of the places where he would like to work. Kinski was interested in landscapes in Colombia, but Herzog did not agree. Herzog finally decided on Villa de Leyva and Valle del Cauca, Kinski said then, Herzog does not know that I give life to the dead scenery. Cobra Verde was the last film that Werner Herzog would make with Klaus Kinski and their now-legendary personality conflict peaked during the film
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Werner Herzog
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Werner Herzog is a German screenwriter, film director, author, actor, and opera director. Herzog is considered one of the greatest figures of the New German Cinema, along with Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Margarethe von Trotta, Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Schröter, and Wim Wenders. Herzogs films often feature heroes with impossible dreams, people with unique talents in obscure fields, French filmmaker François Truffaut once called Herzog the most important film director alive. American film critic Roger Ebert said that Herzog has never created a film that is compromised, shameful, made for pragmatic reasons. He was named one of the 100 most influential people on the planet by Time magazine in 2009, Herzog was born Werner Stipetić in Munich, to Elizabeth Stipetić, an Austrian of Croatian descent, and Dietrich Herzog, who was German. When Werner was two old, his mother took refuge in the remote Bavarian village of Sachrang, after the house next to theirs was destroyed during a bombing raid in World War II. In Sachrang, Herzog grew up without running water, a flushing toilet and he never saw films, and did not even know of the existence of cinema until a traveling projectionist came by the one-room schoolhouse in Sachrang. When Herzog was 12, he and his moved back to Munich. His father had abandoned the early in his youth. Werner later adopted his fathers surname Herzog, which he thought sounded more impressive for a filmmaker, the same year, Herzog was told to sing in front of his class at school, and he adamantly refused, and was almost expelled. Until he was age eighteen, Herzog listened to no music, sang no songs and he later said that he would easily give ten years from his life to be able to play the cello. At an early age, he experienced a phase in which he converted to Catholicism. He started to embark on long journeys, some of them on foot, in the commentary for Aguirre, the Wrath of God, he says, I dont consider it theft. I had some sort of right for a camera, a tool to work with. He won a scholarship to Duquesne University and lasted only a few days, after graduating from high school, he was intrigued by the Congo after its independence, but only reached the south of the Sudan where he fell seriously ill. While already making films, he had a stint at Munich University. He earned money by participating in preproduction of a documentary for NASA with KQED, summoned to the immigration office because of a violation of his visa status, he chose to flee to Mexico. Before leaving school, he bought a house in the UK, there he learned to speak English
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Soap opera
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A soap opera, soap, or soapie, is a serial drama on television or radio that examines the lives of many characters, usually focusing on emotional relationships to the point of melodrama. The term soap opera originated from such dramas being typically sponsored by soap manufacturers in the past, the first serial considered to be a soap opera was Painted Dreams, which debuted on October 20,1930 on Chicago radio station WGN. The first nationally broadcast radio soap opera was Clara, Lu, and Em, a crucial element that defines the soap opera is the open-ended serial nature of the narrative, with stories spanning several episodes. One of the features that makes a television program a soap opera. While Spanish language telenovelas are sometimes called soap operas, telenovelas have conflicts that get resolved, but with soap operas each episode ends with a promise that the storyline is to be continued in another episode. You spend more time even with the characters, the apparent villains grow less apparently villainous. Soap opera storylines run concurrently, intersect and lead into further developments, each episode may feature some of the shows current storylines, but not always all of them. Soap operas rarely bring all the current storylines to a conclusion at the same time, when one storyline ends, there are several other story threads at differing stages of development. Soap opera episodes typically end on some sort of cliffhanger, evening soap operas and those that air at a rate of one episode per week are more likely to feature the entire cast in each episode, and to represent all current storylines in each episode. Evening soap operas and serials that run for only part of the year tend to bring things to a dramatic end-of-season cliffhanger, the article explained that at that time, many prime time series lost money, while daytime serials earned profits several times more than their production costs. Fitting in with these characteristics, most soap operas follow the lives of a group of characters who live or work in a particular place, the storylines follow the day-to-day activities and personal relationships of these characters. These elements may be found across the gamut of soap operas, Due to the prominence of English-language television, most soap-operas are completely English. In many soap operas, in particular daytime serials in the US, Soap operas from the United Kingdom and Australia tend to focus on more everyday characters and situations, and are frequently set in working class environments. Many of the soaps produced in two countries explore social realist storylines such as family discord, marriage breakdown or financial problems. This diverges from US soap operas where such comedy is rare, UK soap operas frequently make a claim to presenting reality or purport to have a realistic style. Romance, secret relationships, extramarital affairs, and genuine hate have been the basis for many soap opera storylines, in US daytime serials, the most popular soap opera characters, and the most popular storylines, often involved a romance of the sort presented in paperback romance novels. Crimes such as kidnapping, rape, and even murder may go unpunished if the perpetrator is to be retained in the ongoing story, Australian and UK soap operas also feature a significant proportion of romance storylines. In Russia, most popular serials explore the romantic quality of criminal and/or oligarch life, in soap opera storylines, previously unknown children, siblings and twins of established characters often emerge to upset and reinvigorate the set of relationships examined by the series
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Zorro
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Zorro is the secret identity of Don Diego de la Vega, a fictional character created in 1919 by pulp writer Johnston McCulley. He is a Californio nobleman living in Los Angeles during the era of Mexican rule, not only is he too cunning and foxlike for the bumbling authorities to catch, but he also delights in publicly humiliating them. The character has featured in numerous books, films, television series. Tiburcio Vásquez, Juan Nepomuceno Cortina and Joaquin Murrieta are cited as inspirations for Zorro, Zorro debuted in McCulleys 1919 story The Curse of Capistrano, serialized in five parts in the pulp magazine All-Story Weekly. At the denouement, Zorros true identity is revealed to all, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford, on their honeymoon, selected the story as the inaugural picture for their new studio, United Artists, beginning the characters cinematic tradition. The story was adapted as the film The Mark of Zorro, McCulleys story was rereleased by publisher Grosset & Dunlap under the same title, to tie in with the film. In response to public demand fueled by the film, McCulley wrote more than sixty more Zorro stories, the last, The Mask of Zorro, was published posthumously in 1959. These stories ignore Zorros public revelation of his identity, McCulley died in 1958, just as the Disney-produced Zorro television show was becoming popular. In The Curse of Capistrano, Don Diego Vega becomes Señor Zorro in the pueblo of Los Angeles in California to avenge the helpless, to punish cruel politicians and he is the title character, as he is dubbed the Curse of Capistrano. The story involves him romancing Lolita Pulido, an impoverished noblewoman, while Lolita is unimpressed with Diego, who pretends to be a passionless fop, she is attracted to the dashing Zorro. In later stories, McCulley introduces characters such as pirates and Native Americans, in McCulleys later stories, Diegos surname became de la Vega. In fact, the writer was wildly inconsistent, the first magazine serial ended with the villain dead and Diego publicly exposed as Zorro, but in the sequel the villain was alive, and the next entry had the double identity still secret. Several Zorro productions have expanded on the characters exploits, many of the continuations feature a younger character taking up the mantle of Zorro. Although McCulleys stories were set in Los Angeles during the era of Mexican rule and this is, of course, a sham. This portrayal, with variations, is followed in most Zorro media. In this show, everyone knows Diego would love to do what Zorro does, the Family Channels Zorro takes this concept further. While Diego pretends to be inept with a sword, the rest of his facade is actually exaggerating his real interests, Diego is actually well versed and interested in art, poetry, literature, and science. His facade is pretending to be interested in only these things, Zorro also has a well-equipped laboratory in his hidden cave in this version of the story
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Paleobiology Database
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The Paleobiology Database is an online resource for information on the distribution and classification of fossil animals, plants, and microorganisms. The Paleobiology Database originated in the NCEAS-funded Phanerozoic Marine Paleofaunal Database initiative, from 2000 to 2015, PBDB received funding from the National Science Foundation. PBDB also received support form the Australian Research Council, from 2000 to 2010 it was housed at the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, a cross-disciplinary research center within the University of California, Santa Barbara. It is currently housed at University of Wisconsin-Madison and overseen by a committee of major data contributors
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Cucaita
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Cucaita is a municipality in the Central Boyacá Province, part of Boyacá Department, Colombia. The urban centre is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense at a distance of 20 kilometres from the department capital Tunja, Cucaita borders Sora in the north, Tunja in the east and south and Samacá in the south and west. The name Cucaita is derived from Chibcha and means either Seminary enclosure or Shade of the farming fields, the area of Cucaita in the times before the Spanish conquest was inhabited by the Muisca, organised in their loose Muisca Confederation. Cucaita was ruled by the zaque of nearby Hunza, modern Cucaita was founded on August 12,1556 by friar Juan de Los Barrios. Main economical activities of Cucaita are agriculture, livestock farming and minor carbon mining, rafael Antonio Niño, former professional cyclist Colombian ministry of culture, Cucaita,450 years old
Colombia
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