1.
World Heritage Site
–
A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
World Heritage Site
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Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
World Heritage Site
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Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
World Heritage Site
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Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
World Heritage Site
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Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
Fortified church
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A fortified church is a church that is built to play a defensive role in times of war. Such churches were designed to incorporate military features, such as thick walls, battlements. Others, such as the Cathedral of Ávila were incorporated into the town wall, monastic communities, such as Lérins Abbey, are often surrounded by a wall, and some churches, such as St Arbogast in Muttenz, Switzerland, have an outer wall as well. Churches with additional external defences such as walls and wall towers are often referred to more specifically as fortress churches or Kirchenburgen. Fortified churches were built in places controlled by colonial empires. Although a large number of fortified churches in a variety of styles existed in the lands of Belarus only a handful have survived until the present, the most famous include Christian Orthodox churches in Muravanka and Synkovichi, as well as Catholic fortified churches in Kamai and Ishkold. In addition to Christian churches Belarus also has the ruins of several fortified synagogues, about 65 fortified churches are found in the Thiérache region of France. There are several fortified churches that have preserved, especially in the German states of Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria. Wolfgang in Rothenburg and the church of Wenkbach. A rare surviving example of a church used for defensive purposes is the Church of St. Andrew in Kraków, one of the oldest. Grodzka street, it was built by a medieval Polish statesman Palatine Sieciech in 1079–1098, St. Andrew was the only Romanesque church in Kraków to withstand the Mongol attack of 1241. Along the lower part of the section of its façade are small openings that served as defensive windows during military siege. A number of fortified churches, monasteries and cathedrals survive in Portugal. These buildings were either in Romanesque or Gothic styles. Romanesque examples are the Lisbon Cathedral and the Old Cathedral of Coimbra, Gothic examples are the Church of Leça do Balio and the Guarda Cathedral. South-eastern Transylvania region in Romania has one of the highest numbers of existing fortified churches from the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries, there are medieval fortified churches near the Anglo-Scottish border, where defence was an important consideration until the seventeenth century when the two states were united in personal union. All Saints Church, Boltongate in Cumbria is an example, also in Cumbria, St Michaels Church, Burgh by Sands has a defensive tower, and originally had two. Defensive towers can also be found on the England–Wales border, for instance, St Michaels Church, saint Catherines Monastery Tangyud Monastery Video Fortified churches in Transylvania
Fortified church
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Fortified church in
Muttenz,
Switzerland
Fortified church
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Castle-church of
Rudelle,
France
Fortified church
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St. Andrew's Church,
Kraków,
Poland
Fortified church
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All Saints Church, Boltongate, England
4.
Transylvania
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Transylvania is a historical region located in what is today the central part of Romania. Bound on the east and south by its borders, the Carpathian mountain range. The term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the regions of Crișana, Maramureș. The region of Transylvania is known for the beauty of its Carpathian landscape. It also contains major cities such as Cluj-Napoca, Brașov, Sibiu, in the English-speaking world it has been commonly associated with vampires, due to the influence of Bram Stokers famous novel Dracula and its many film adaptations. Transylvania was first referred to in a Medieval Latin document in 1075 as ultra silvam, Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means on the other side of the woods. Hungarian historians claim that the Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania, later Transylvania, was a translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve. That also was used as an name in German überwald. The German name Siebenbürgen means seven fortresses, after the seven Transylvanian Saxons cities in the region and this is also the origin of the regions name in many other languages, such as the Bulgarian Седмиградско, Polish Siedmiogród and the Ukrainian Семигород. The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the 12th-century Gesta Hungarorum as Erdeuleu or Erdő-elve, the word Erdő means forest in Hungarian, and the word Elve denotes a region in connection with this, similarly to the Hungarian name for Muntenia. Erdel, Erdil, Erdehstan, the Turkish equivalents, or the Romanian Ardeal were borrowed from this form as well, the first known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as Ardeliu. Transylvania has been dominated by different peoples and countries throughout its history. It was once the nucleus of the Kingdom of Dacia, in 106 AD the Roman Empire conquered the territory, systematically exploiting its resources. After the Roman legions withdrew in 271 AD, it was overrun by a succession of tribes, bringing it under the control of the Carpi, Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars. From 9th to 11th century Bulgarians ruled Transylvania, there is an ongoing scholarly debate over the ethnicity of Transylvanias population before the Hungarian conquest. The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century, according to Gesta Hungarorum, Transylvania was ruled by the Vlach voivode Gelou before the Hungarians arrived. The Kingdom of Hungary established a control over Transylvania in 1003. Between 1003 and 1526, Transylvania was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary, after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of János Szapolyai
Transylvania
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Apuseni Mountains near
Arieșeni,
Alba County
Transylvania
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Romanian Orthodox wooden church in Geogel, Alba County
Transylvania
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Sirnea in
Brașov County
Transylvania
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Saxon fortified church of
Biertan, part of
a UNESCO World Heritage Site
5.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
Romania
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Neacșu's letter from 1521, the oldest surviving document written in
Romanian.
Romania
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Flag
Romania
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Writ issued on 14 October 1465 by
Radu cel Frumos, from his residence in
Bucharest, indicating
Ottoman victory.
Romania
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A 1917 British map showing territories with majority Romanian populations.
6.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
UNESCO
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UNESCO offices in
Brasília
UNESCO
–
UNESCO
UNESCO
–
UNESCO Institute for Water Education in
Delft
UNESCO
–
The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.
7.
Transylvanian Saxons
–
The Transylvanian Saxons are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania from the 12th century onwards. The colonization of Transylvania by Germans was begun by King Géza II of Hungary, for decades, the main task of the German settlers was to defend the southeastern border of the Kingdom of Hungary. The colonization continued until the end of the 13th century, the Transylvanian Saxon population has decreased since World War II. Transylvanian Saxons started leaving Transylvania during and after World War II, settling first in Austria, the process of emigration continued during Communist rule in Romania, and even into the collapse of the Ceaușescu regime in 1989 when approximately half a million fled to homeland Germany. The great majority of Transylvanian Saxons now live in Germany, a sizable Transylvanian Saxon population also resides today in the United States, notably in Idaho, Ohio and Colorado and in Southern Ontario, Canada. Relatively few still live in Romania, where at the last official census around 37,000 Germans were registered, most colonists to this area came from Luxembourg and the Moselle River region. A settlement in northeastern Transylvania was centered on the town of Nösen, the surrounding area became known as the Nösnerland. Continued immigration from the Empire expanded the area of the Saxons further to the east, settlers from the Hermannstadt region spread into the Hârtibaciu River valley and to the foot of the Cibin and Sebeș mountains. The latter region, centered on the city of Mühlbach was known as the Unterwald, to the north of Hermannstadt was settled the Weinland e. g. Nympz near Mediasch. The term Saxon was applied to all Germans of the regions because the first German settlers who came to the Hungarian kingdom were poor miners or convicted groups from Saxony. In 1211 King Andrew II of Hungary invited the Teutonic Knights to settle, to guard the mountain passes of the Carpathians against the Cumans, the Knights constructed numerous castles and towns, including the major city of Kronstadt. Alarmed by the Knights rapidly expanding power, in 1225 Andrew II expelled the Order, although the knights had left Transylvania, the Saxon colonists remained, and the king allowed them to retain the rights and obligations included within the Diploma Andreanum of 1224. This document conferred upon the German population of the territory between Draas and Broos both administrative and religious autonomy and obligations towards the kings of Hungary, the territory that was colonized by Germans covered an area of about 30,000 km². During the reign of King Charles I of Hungary, the Saxons were organized in the Saxon Chairs, along with the Teutonic Order, other religious organizations important to the development of German communities were the Cistercian abbeys of Igrisch in the Banat region and Cârța in Fogarasch. The earliest religious organization of the Saxons was the Provostship of Szeben/Hermannstadt, in its early years, it included the territories of Hermannstadt, Leschkirch, and Groß-Schenk, the areas that were colonized the earliest by ethnic Germans in the region. e. The national church of Transylvanian Saxons, birthälm, with its fortified church, was the see of the Lutheran Evangelical Bishop in Transylvania between 1572 and 1867. The Mongol invasion of 1241–42 devastated much of the Kingdom of Hungary, although the Saxons did their best to resist, many settlements were destroyed. In the aftermath of the invasion, many Transylvanian towns were fortified with stone castles, in the Middle Ages, about 300 villages were defended by Kirchenburgen, or fortified churches with massive walls
Transylvanian Saxons
–
Saxon settlements in Transylvania.
Transylvanian Saxons
–
The
Lutheran Cathedral in Sibiu (Hermannstadt)
Transylvanian Saxons
–
The Lutheran church and school in Transylvania (1904)
Transylvanian Saxons
–
Saxon
fortified church in Cincșor (Kleinschenk)
8.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
9.
Biertan
–
Biertan is a commune in central Romania, in the north of the Sibiu County,80 km north of Sibiu and 29 km east of Mediaş. Biertan is one of the most important Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Biertan fortified church was the see of the Lutheran Evangelical Bishop in Transylvania between 1572 and 1867. The commune is composed of three villages, Biertan, Copșa Mare and Richiș, each of which has a fortified church, the village settlement quickly developed into an important market town and by 1510 Biertan supported a population of about 5,000 people. Between 1468 and the 16th century a fortified church was constructed and developed. After the medieval period the town declined in importance with the rise of neighbouring Sighișoara, Sibiu, in the census of 1930 Biertan had 2331 inhabitants, of whom 1228 were Transylvanian Saxons. During World War II many men were conscripted into the Romanian army, after the war many Transylvanian Saxons were expelled from the region. Following the collapse of Communism in 1990 many more left for Germany, today the whole commune has a population of about 2,500 and the village of Biertan alone has about 1,600 people. It is one of the most visited villages in Transylvania, being the historically important place of the reunion of the Transylvanian Saxons. The Luna Plină Horror and Fantasy Film Festival takes place in Biertan and it is the only film festival in Romania focused exclusively on horror and fantasy movies. Artur Phleps, a Biertan-born military career officer and he, uniquely, served in the Habsburg army of Austria-Hungary, the royal army of Romania and finally the Waffen-SS. Although she was not famous in the sense, her story is representative of that experienced by many Transylvanian Saxons in Biertan following the Second World War. Sara was deported to Siberia in 1945, on a sunny January day and she survived and after five hard years returned to her hometown of Biertan to bring up her family through many further hardships. Read an English translation of her story, or for the original German text in Siebenbürgische Zeitung). According to the 2011 census, Romanians made up 73. 8% of the population, Roma made up 17. 9%, Germans made up 4. 6% and Hungarians made up 3. 6%
Biertan
–
Biertan fortified church
Biertan
Biertan
–
Location of Biertan, Sibiu
Biertan
–
Lock on a wooden door in the church at Biertan. The lock contains 19 locks in one. It won first prize at the
Paris World Expo in 1900.
10.
Sibiu County
–
Sibiu is a county of Romania, in the historical region Transylvania, with the capital city Sibiu. In Hungarian, it is known as Szeben megye, and in German as Kreis Hermannstadt, during Austro-Hungarian administration, from 1876 to 1918, there was a county with similar name. In 2011, it had a population of 375,992, the Roma population, mainly from southern Romania, was placed close to the villages in the Communist period and have since increased their numbers. This county has an area of 5,432 km². In the South side there are the Carpathian Mountains - Făgăraș Mountains with heights over 2500 m, Lotru, the Olt River crosses the mountains over to the South of Romania in Sibiu County forming one of the most accessible link between Transylvania and Wallachia. In the North side there is the Transylvanian Plateau, the most important rivers crossing the county are the Olt in the South with Cibin its main effluent, and the Târnava in the North. Argeş County in the South-East. ș Sibiu County has one of the most dynamic economies in Romania, the predominant industries in the county are, Machine and automotive components. The biggest natural resource in the county is natural gas, especially in the north side, in Copșa Mică during the communist period there were two chemical industrial complexes which polluted the environment heavily with carbon black, heavy metals, and other chemical substances. Thats why the area is considered one of the most polluted communities in Europe. Fortunately, after 1989 many of the complexes were shut down. The regional legislature is the County Council and its president was Martin Bottesch, from 2004 to 2012. The medieval Saxon fortified churches and villages from Transylvania, some of them being UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the abbey of Cârța The Făgăraș Mountains. The Bâlea Valley and the Transfăgărășan, păltiniș mountain resort and the Cindrel Mountains. Ocna Sibiului, Bazna and Miercurea Sibiului Spa towns, emil Cioran Octavian Goga Sibiu County has 2 municipalities,9 towns and 53 communes Municipalities Mediaș Sibiu - capital city, population,137,026 Towns Communes
Sibiu County
–
Sibiu
Sibiu County
–
Sibiu County Județul Sibiu
Sibiu County
–
Mediaș
11.
Biertan fortified church
–
The Biertan fortified church is a Lutheran fortified church in Biertan, Sibiu County, in the Transylvania region of Romania. It was built by the ethnic German Transylvanian Saxon community at a time when the area belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary, briefly Roman Catholic, it became Lutheran following the Reformation. Together with the village, the church forms part of the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site. Biertan was founded by Transylvanian Saxons in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary and it was allowed to organize a market, placing it in competition with Mediaș and Moșna, it was also the see of the Saxon Lutheran Church from 1572 to 1867. This accounts for the church and its defenses. Dedicated to the Virgin Mary and built in Late Gothic style with Renaissance touches, the choir is 18 m in length, with a rib-vaulted ceiling, while the three naves of equal height also have rib vaulting. A defensive level above the choir has parapets and a battlement, a second, wooden, level was demolished in 1803. The polyptych altarpiece has 28 panels executed between 1482 and 1513 by a painter likely trained at Vienna and Nuremberg, in the center, there is a sculpted group, a crucifix with Jesus Christ hanging, Mary standing and Mary Magdalene embracing the cross. The upper side panels show visions of Ezekiel and Augustus, the stone pulpit, which shows scenes carved in relief, dates to 1523. The richly decorated intarsia door of the sacristy has a complex lock and its central system blocks the door in thirteen points, ensuring the safety of the valuables kept in the sacristy. The King granted the town the right to arms when the Ottoman army was frightening the surroundings. The Transylvanian Saxons chose to instead of fortresses around the towns. The church has three rows of exterior fortifications linked by gate towers, nine in total, the clock tower to the north of the church also serves as a gate within the inner fortifications. Four stories high, it has a wooden battlement and parapets, the clock is above the pyramid-shaped roof. The wooden bell tower is located north of the church, while the tower contains the headstones of the priest who built the church as well as the bishops buried at Biertan. The Catholic tower was used by the few Saxons who did not adhere to the Reformation and its chapel features a rare example of 16th-century Transylvanian mural painting, forming an exception to the austere aesthetic that predominated. The grounds contain a matrimonial prison where couples wishing to divorce were confined so they could be sure they wished to end their marriage, the lockup lasted for two weeks, although the pair could leave early if they reconciled. They had to share a bed, plate and spoon
Biertan fortified church
–
Biertan Fortified Church Biserica fortificată din Biertan
Biertan fortified church
–
Nave ceiling
Biertan fortified church
–
Altar with polyptych
Biertan fortified church
–
The church and its three sets of walls
12.
Alba County
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Alba is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, its capital city being Alba-Iulia with a population of 63,536. Alba means white in Latin and is derived from the name of the city Alba Iulia, in Hungarian, it is known as Fehér megye, and in German as Kreis Karlsburg. In October 31,2011, it had a population of 327,224 and the population density was 52/km². Romanians -89. 9% Hungarians -4. 8% Romani -4. 7% Germans -0. 2% This county has an area of 6,242 km². In the northwestern part there are the Apuseni Mountains, in the part there is the northeastern side of the Parâng group - Șureanu. In the east there is the Transylvanian Plateau with deep but wide valleys, the three main elements are separated by the Mureș River valley. The main rivers are the Mureș River and its tributaries, the Târnava, the Sebeș, sibiu County and Mureș County in the East. Bihor County and Arad County in the West, the predominant industries in the county are, Food industry. The mineral resources exploited in Alba county are metals, salt and construction materials, marble, granite, mining began 2000 years ago on Mt. Kirnik, with well-preserved Roman galleries. A Canadian company attempted an open-pit mine, but abandoned the project around 2007, roșia Montană is a famous locality among mineral collectors for fine native gold specimens. The main tourist attractions in the county are, The city of Alba Iulia, maidens Fair on the Găina Mountain. The Hill With Snails west of Vidra, barren Detunata and Shaggy Detunata The Câlnic Castle and the Castle of Gârbova. The Towns and Churches of Sebeș and Aiud, situated in the Apuseni Mountains, Țara Moților is a region with strong Romanian traditions. The Alba County Council, elected at the 2016 local government elections, is made up of 33 counselors, with the party composition. Notable natives include, Ion Agârbiceanu Lucian Blaga Avram Iancu Alba County on memoria. ro
Alba County
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Gold in quartz, Roșia Montană. Size 4.3 × 2.7 × 1.3 cm.
Alba County
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Location of Alba County in Romania
Alba County
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Alba Iulia
Alba County
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Blaj
13.
Harghita County
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Harghita is a county in the center of Romania, in eastern Transylvania, with the county seat at Miercurea Ciuc. In 2002, Harghita County had a population of 326,222, hungarians-84. 62% Romanians -14. 06% Romani -1. 18%, and others. In 2011, it had a population of 302,432, hungarians-85. 21% Romanians –12. 96% Romani, others –1. 76%. Harghita county has the highest percentage of Hungarians in Romania, just ahead of Covasna county, the Székelys of Harghita are mostly Roman Catholic, with Reformed and Unitarian minorities, while the ethnic Romanians are primarily Orthodox. Catholicism is strongest in the east, in the former Csíkszék, while Protestants are concentrated in the west, south and west of Odorheiu Secuiesc. By religion, the county is divided roughly as follows, Roman Catholic Orthodox Reformed Unitarian Other Demographic evolution Harghita County has an area of 6,639 km². Harghita consists primarily of mountains, connected to the Eastern Carpathians, such as the Ciuc and Harghita Mountains, volcanic plateaux, foothills, the mountains are volcanic in origin, and the region is known for its excellent hot mineral springs. Harghita is known as one of the coldest regions in Romania and it is in this county that two of the most important rivers in Romania, the Mureș and the Olt, originate. These rivers origins, near the villages of Izvoru Mureșului and Sândominic, are only a few miles apart, yet the Mureș flows west to the Tisza, while the Olt flows south to the Danube. In the western part of the county the two Târnava rivers flow to the Târnava Plateau, which is part of the Transylvanian Plateau, the county is renowned for its spa resorts and mineral waters. Neamț County and Bacău County to the East, brașov County and Covasna County to the South. The countys main industries, Wood industry – up to 30%, Foods and beverages industry, Textile and leather processing, the main tourist attractions in Harghita county are The cities of Miercurea Ciuc, Odorheiu Secuiesc, Gheorgheni, Toplița
Harghita County
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Landscape around
Lake Sfânta Ana, southern Harghita County
Harghita County
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Lacul Roșu
Harghita County
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Miercurea Ciuc
14.
Prejmer
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Prejmer is a commune in Brașov County, Romania. It is composed of three villages, Lunca Câlnicului, Prejmer and Stupinii Prejmerului, located 18 km northeast of Brașov, the Olt River passes through the commune. At the 2011 census,90. 7% of inhabitants were Romanians,6. 3% Roma,1. 9% Hungarians and 0. 8% Germans, the Teutonic Knights constructed the fortress Tartlau in 1212–1213 as part of their colonization of the Burzenland region. The town of Prejmer near the castle had begun development by 1225, Prejmer was repeatedly invaded throughout the Middle Ages by various groups, including the Mongols, Tatars, Hungarians, Ottoman Turks, Cossacks, and Moldavians. However, the castle was captured once, by Gabriel Báthory in 1611. Most of Prejmers German population fled the commune during World War II, Prejmer is noted for its fortified church, one of the best preserved of its kind in Eastern Europe. The church is modeled after churches of Jerusalem, as well as built in the style of Late Gothic churches from the Rhineland, in the 15th century, it was surrounded by a wall 12m high, forming a quadrilateral with rounded corners. The wall was reinforced by four horseshoe-shaped towers, two of which have since disappeared, the entrance—a vaulted gallery—is protected by a barbican and flanked by a lateral wall. The defensive structure is strengthened by embrasures and bartizans, while the way is surrounded by a parapet. The granaries and rooms that accommodated the villagers are arranged on four levels above the cellars, 177–182 History of Tartlau Aerial picture of Prejmer Fortress Pictures of cultural highlights in Prejmer Biserica Sfânta Cruce Fortified church in Prejmer Video Fortified Church Prejmer
Prejmer
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Prejmer fortified church
Prejmer
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Prejmer
Prejmer
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Typical house in Prejmer
Prejmer
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Painting on the walls of Prejmer Citadel
15.
Prejmer fortified church
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The Prejmer fortified church is a Lutheran fortified church in Prejmer, Brașov County, in the Transylvania region of Romania and the ethnographic area of the Burzenland. The church was founded by the Germanic Teutonic Knights, and then was taken over by the Transylvanian Saxon community. Initially Roman Catholic, it became Lutheran following the Reformation, together with the surrounding village, the church forms part of the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site. Around 1211, King Andrew II of Hungary permitted the knights to settle around Prejmer and they were responsible for the Greek cross plan, the only one of its kind in Transylvania, but found in a few churches in northeast Germany. Following their expulsion in 1225, the Cistercians, who took over in 1240, the triptych altarpiece, the oldest in the province, dates to around 1450, the main panel is joined to side panels painted on both faces, on two levels. The entire piece depicts scenes from the Passion of Christ, the Crucifixion is the central subject, four times the size of the other panels, over half this panel is gilt. The figures are simple and reduced to their essentials, their movements restrained or even statuesque, the backgrounds are cursory, with the interiors showing only slight attention to geometric perspective. The colors are vivid, with the reds given a particular glow by the gilt background, the artist is unknown but was presumably trained in the Viennese school. A bell tower was added above the center of the church in 1461, the Greek cross shape was modified between 1512 and 1515, two side naves of unequal size were added while the main one was extended. The interior is simple and does not have traces of frescoes, due to this strategic position, the church was strongly fortified in the 15th-16th centuries. After Sigismund of Luxemburg ordered defensive systems to be built in the Burzenland, high, strong walls were built and it seems that a subterranean tunnel linked the church to the exterior. The circular walls are up to 5 m thick and reach nearly 12 m in height, the circular walls surround the church, while a second and smaller wall sits atop the arched passage at the entrance gate. Other defensive features include five towers and a battlement, on the interior side of the wall, there are four levels containing rooms and storage space and backed by the battlement. The over 270 rooms could offer shelter to some 1600 villagers in case of attack, entry into the complex is made through a 30 m long tunnel protected by a portcullis with wooden grilles strengthened by iron and powerful oak doors. To the right of the stands an large barbican. In 1999, Prejmer, together with five other places, was added to the already-listed Biertan to form the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site
Prejmer fortified church
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Prejmer Fortified Church Biserica fortificată din Prejmer
Prejmer fortified church
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Interior
Prejmer fortified church
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Barbican
Prejmer fortified church
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Church
16.
Saschiz
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Saschiz is a commune in Mureș County, Romania. It has a population of 2,048, 88% Romanians, 5% Germans, 4% Hungarians and it is composed of three villages, Cloașterf, Mihai Viteazu and Saschiz. Saschiz, with its 15th-century church, is part of the World Heritage Site Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, ion Dacian, composer Transylvanian Saxons Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania
Saschiz
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Saschiz church tower
Saschiz
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Fortified church of Cloașterf village
Saschiz
17.
Saschiz fortified church
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The Saschiz fortified church is a Lutheran fortified church in Saschiz, Mureș County, in the Transylvania region of Romania. It was built by the ethnic German Transylvanian Saxon community at a time when the area belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary, initially Roman Catholic, it became Lutheran following the Reformation. Together with the village, the church forms part of the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site. Construction of a fortified late Gothic church began in 1493 on the site of a Romanesque basilica. The church was dedicated to Saint Stephen of Hungary, a few payments from the authorities at Sibiu for building the church survive, these date from 1494 to 1525. From 1503 to 1507, the received a Papal indulgence upon the request of a parishioner. The large structure, built of quarried stone, is a hall church strengthened by 22 high buttresses, the nave is very wide and long, while the choir is closed on three sides. A brick defensive level was built above the choir, while there are two levels above the sacristys vaulted ceiling. These floors are accessed through two brick towers on the western part of the church. The defensive portion is slightly wider than the hall beneath, the nave ceiling, also vaulted, was rebuilt in 1878. The interior decor is mainly Baroque, with only the richly decorated choir pulpit being Gothic, inscription fragments survive on the exterior walls. The complex was surrounded by a defensive wall, the perimeter of which is today marked by a fence. The only surviving portion is the tower, which was fitted with a prominent spire in 1677. Its multicolored slate roof can be seen from afar, it has twelve dormers, a nearby hill was once the site of a 14th-century citadel for protecting the peasants, but only ruins survive. It was located 2 km away from the center so that people from nearby places could also shelter there. Legend has it that the hill is haunted by a noose-wielding protective giant who emits ghostly sounds on one night a year and this distance is one reason why the church was later fortified, so that the inhabitants would have readier access to a refuge. Earthquakes in 1977,1986 and 1990 damaged the church and tower, in 1999, Saschiz, together with five other places, was added to the already-listed Biertan to form the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site
Saschiz fortified church
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Saschiz Fortified Church Biserica fortificată din Saschiz
Saschiz fortified church
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The church plan
Saschiz fortified church
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Winter view
Saschiz fortified church
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View showing fence
18.
Valea Viilor fortified church
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The Valea Viilor fortified church is a Lutheran fortified church in Valea Viilor, Sibiu County, in the Transylvania region of Romania. It was built by the ethnic German Transylvanian Saxon community at a time when the area belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary, initially Roman Catholic, it became Lutheran following the Reformation. Together with the village, the church forms part of the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site. There is evidence to suggest that an earlier Romanesque church existed in the village and this building is believed to have been 10 m long, less than half the length of the present church. The latter, in Gothic style and dedicated to Saint Peter, was begun in the 14th century, the small nave has a vaulted ceiling with a complex network of ribs, which rest on seven pairs of poles attached to the walls. The choir has a ceiling of the same type, built in 1528, the pulpit was produced in a period of transition from Gothic to Renaissance. The church underwent modifications at the beginning of the 16th century, next to each of these was a small round tower with a spiral staircase that reached the fortified level. A third tower, near the buttress at the southwest end of the nave, provided access to the belfry, itself fitted with numerous, the choir was rebuilt as a three-story brick defensive tower with walls 1.5 m thick. A fourth level, which juts out slightly atop a row of corbels and is supported by arches built between the buttresses, has a timber frame parapet, the altar painting was executed in 1779 by an artist from Sighișoara. A single oval fortification, constructed around 1500 and equipped with a battlement resting on brick arches, access is through an arched passage beneath the gate tower on the western side. This could be closed with a portcullis that had a grille of wood strengthened by iron, three bastions survive, each facing one of the cardinal points. The walls reach 6–7 m in height, they have both parapets and embrasures supported by corbels, in 1999, Valea Viilor, together with five other places, was added to the already-listed Biertan to form the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site. Additionally, the church is listed as a monument by Romanias Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs, with the wall
Valea Viilor fortified church
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Valea Viilor Fortified Church Biserica fortificată din Valea Viilor
Valea Viilor fortified church
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Church interior
Valea Viilor fortified church
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Wall and bastion
Valea Viilor fortified church
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Wall interior
19.
Viscri fortified church
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The Viscri fortified church is a Lutheran fortified church in Viscri, Brașov County, in the Transylvania region of Romania. It was built by the ethnic German Transylvanian Saxon community at a time when the area belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary, initially Roman Catholic, it became Lutheran following the Reformation. Together with the village, the church forms part of the villages with fortified churches in Transylvania UNESCO World Heritage Site. The weißkirch in the villages German name refers to a built by the Székely inhabitants who lived there prior to the Saxons arrival between 1141 and 1162, during the reign of Géza II. The building was rectangular, with an altar of greenish-white limestone. Four Romanesque capitals that survive in the choir, including one used as a baptismal font, in the 13th century, the Saxons built a Romanesque hall church that integrated the chapel but also introduced changes, such as a wooden seat gallery at the western end. The apse, its altar possibly of the Romanesque period, features a scalloped capital unique to Transylvania, the design was popular in 12th-century Germany but disappeared soon after reaching Austria, suggesting the church dates to no later than the first half of the 13th century. In the 14th century the church became a community church, the apse was replaced by a larger trapezoidal choir. The church was fortified around 1500, the hall was lengthened and linked to the keep, formerly freestanding, another level was added to the keep, used for bells and fitted with a battlement that stayed on corbels. The roof featured a level with embrasures for firing. The choirs defensive level was demolished in 1743, due to the peaceful nature of the period, the church battlement was taken down after that time, replaced by grain storerooms for the villagers. The interior ceiling has a divided into squares, also from 1743. In the 12th century, fortifications began to be built around the chapel, forming an oval and made of river and field stone, the south, east and northeast walls have survived, these are 7 m in height. The entrance is through the southeast wall, to two towers and two bastions were added in the 14th century. The south tower, built into the exterior, had three floors and a battlement resting on wooden corbels. Sharing a roof with the bastion, the towers lower levels were joined into a hall entered from the east. The topmost level kept its parapets, with their oak border, the south bastion battlement and roof were joined with those of the south tower
Viscri fortified church
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Viscri fortified church Biserica fortificată din Viscri
Viscri fortified church
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The hall church interior with its wooden gallery
Viscri fortified church
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Distant view
Viscri fortified church
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Southeast wall
20.
King of Hungary
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The King of Hungary was the head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 to 1918. Before 1000 AD, Hungary was not recognized as a kingdom, the first King of Hungary, Stephen I. was crowned on 25 December 1000 with the crown Pope Sylvester II had sent him and with the consent of Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor. Following King Stephen Is coronation, all the monarchs of Hungary used the title King, from the 13th century a certain process was established to confirm the legitimacy of the King. This meant a level of protection to the integrity of the Kingdom such as that for example stealing the Holy Crown of Hungary was no longer enough to become legitimate King. The King Charles I of Hungary was crowned in May 1301 with a crown in Esztergom by the Archbishop of this city. In this time the Holy Crown wasnt used and he was crowned in Buda by the archbishop of Esztergom, however his third coronation was finally in 1310, in the city of Székesfehérvár, with the Holy Crown and effectuated by the archbishop of Esztergom. Then the Kings coronation was considered absolutely legitimate, a similar situation occurred with the Matthias Corvinus, when he negotiated to get back the Holy Crown which was in the possession of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. Then after obtaining it he was legitimately crowned, as in all the traditional monarchies, the heir descended through the male line from a previous King of Hungary. In accordance with Hungarian tradition, this right passed to younger brothers, before passing to the son of the previous King. The founder of the first Hungarian royal house was Árpád, who led his people into the Carpathian Basin in 895 and his descendants, who ruled for more than 400 years, included Saint Stephen I, Saint Ladislaus I, Andrew II, and Béla IV. The same happened later with John Zápolya, who was elected in 1526 after the death of Louis II in the battle of Mohács. After this, the House of Habsburg inherited the throne, over the centuries, the Kings of Hungary acquired or claimed the crowns of several neighboring countries, and they began to use the royal titles connected to those countries. The title Apostolic King was confirmed by Pope Clement XIII in 1758, the title of King of Slavonia referred to the territories between the Drava and the Sava Rivers. That title was first used by Ladislaus I and it was also Ladislaus I who adopted the title King of Croatia in 1091. Coloman added the phrase King of Dalmatia to the style in 1105. The title King of Rama, referring to the claim to Bosnia, was first used by Béla II in 1136 and it was Emeric who adopted the title King of Serbia. The phrase King of Galicia was used to indicate the supremacy over Halych, while the title King of Lodomeria referred to Volhynia, in 1233, Béla IV began to use the title King of Cumania which expressed the rule over the territories settled by the Cumans at that time. The phrase King of Bulgaria was added to the style by Stephen V
King of Hungary
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Charles IV
King of Hungary
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Royal Coat of arms
King of Hungary
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Crown Jewels of Hungary
21.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Empire
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Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Empire
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Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Empire
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Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Empire
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Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
22.
Tatar
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The Tatars are a Turkic people living in Asia and Europe who were one of the five major tribal confederations in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century CE. The name Tatar first appears in form on the Kul Tigin monument as
Tatar
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Persian miniature of the
Szigetvár campaign showing Ottoman troops and
Tatars as vanguard.
Tatar
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Contemporary distribution of
Kipchak languages: Kipchak–Bolgar Kipchak–Cuman Kipchak–Nogay and Kyrgyz–Kipchak
Tatar
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Map of Tartaria (1705)
Tatar
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Drawing of Mongols of the
Golden Horde outside
Vladimir presumably demanding submission, before sacking the city.
23.
Olt River
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The Olt is a river in Romania. It is 615 km long, and its area is 24,050 km2. It is the longest river flowing exclusively through Romania and its source is in the Hășmaș Mountains of the eastern Carpathian Mountains, near Bălan, rising close to the headwaters of the Mureș River. It flows through the Romanian counties Harghita, Covasna, Brașov, Sibiu, Vâlcea, the river was known as Alutus or Aluta in Roman antiquity. Olt County and the province of Oltenia are named after the river. Sfântu Gheorghe, Râmnicu Vâlcea and Slatina are the cities on the river Olt. The Olt flows into the Danube river near Turnu Măgurele
Olt River
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The Avrig reservoir on the Olt River
Olt River
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Crossing the Olt river, 1869 watercolor by Amedeo Preziosi
Olt River
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Olt – Close to the source, at
Siculeni
Olt River
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The Olt River at Turnu Roșu
24.
Romanesque architecture
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Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches, examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture, each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan, the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics, Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Romanesque means descended from Roman and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages, Romance language is not degenerated Latin language. Latin language is degenerated Romance language, Romanesque architecture is not debased Roman architecture. Roman architecture is debased Romanesque architecture, the first use in a published work is in William Gunns An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries, Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches, the scope of Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders, the largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michaels Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band
Romanesque architecture
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Maria Laach Abbey, Germany
Romanesque architecture
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Tum Collegiate Church, Poland
Romanesque architecture
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Lessay Abbey, Normandy, France.
Romanesque architecture
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Portal, Church of Santa Maria, Viu de Llevata,
Catalonia, Spain
25.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
Gothic architecture
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Façade of
Reims Cathedral, France
Gothic architecture
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The interior of the western end of Reims Cathedral
Gothic architecture
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Overview of Reims Cathedral from north-east
Gothic architecture
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South side of
Chartres Cathedral.
26.
Late Middle Ages
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The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history generally comprising the 14th and 15th centuries. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the modern era. Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt, a series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare, France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict in the Hundred Years War. To add to the problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively these events are called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of progress in the arts. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began, the rise of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, eroded the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire and cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the expedition of Columbus to the Americas in 1492 and their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations. The changes brought about by these developments have led scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of modern history. However, the division is artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. As a result there was continuity between the ancient age and the modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all, but rather see the period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance. The term Late Middle Ages refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People. Flavio Biondo used a framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire. Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, for 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit
Late Middle Ages
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Silver mining and processing in
Kutná Hora, Bohemia, 15th century
Late Middle Ages
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Western/Central Europe
Holy Roman Empire France Gascony Bohemia Eastern Europe
Teutonic Order Golden Horde G. Horde Vassals Genovese Prov. Poland Mazovia Wallachia Hungary Lithuania Italian peninsula
Two Sicilies (Sicily) Two Sicilies (Naples) Papal states Sardinia Venice Genoa
Late Middle Ages
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Ottoman miniature of the
siege of Belgrade in 1456
Late Middle Ages
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The peasants preparing the fields for the winter with a
harrow and sowing for the winter grain. The background contains the
Louvre, c. 1410
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