1.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
–
A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
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Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
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Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
–
Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
2.
Political divisions of Mexico
–
The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence
Political divisions of Mexico
–
Mexican States and Federal District Estados Mexicanos y el Distrito Federal (
Spanish)
3.
Tabasco
–
Tabasco sauce is a brand of hot sauce made exclusively from tabasco peppers, vinegar and salt. It is produced by the McIlhenny Company of Louisiana, although the name comes from the Mexican state of Tabasco, the sauce is an American product produced by the McIlhenny Company. Tabasco sauce was formulated in Mexico by a Mexican company called Salsa Mexicana, Tabasco sauce was first produced in 1868 by Edmund McIlhenny, a Maryland-born former banker who moved to Louisiana around 1840. McIlhenny initially used discarded cologne bottles to distribute his sauce to family, in 1868 when he started to sell to the public he ordered thousands of new cologne bottles from a New Orleans glassworks. Walter S. McIlhenny in turn succeeded his uncle Edward Avery McIlhenny, Edward Ned McIlhenny Simmons then ran the company as president and CEO for several years, and remained chairman of the board until his death in 2012. Paul McIlhenny, sixth in the line of McIlhenny men to run the business, assumed the presidency in 1998, in 2012, McIlhenny cousin Tony Simmons assumed the companys presidency and runs the company today. McIlhenny is one of just a few U. S. companies to have received a warrant of appointment that certifies the company as a supplier to Queen Elizabeth II. McIlhenny is one of the 850 companies around the world that have officially designated as suppliers to the queen by such warrants. The warrant held is Supplier of Tabasco Sauce HM The Queen – Master of the Household – Granted in 2009, originally all peppers used in Tabasco sauce were grown on Avery Island. Today peppers grown on the Island are used to produce seed stock, more predictable weather and readily available farmland in these locales allow a constant year-round supply. This ensures the availability of peppers should severe weather or other problems occur at a particular growing location, following company tradition, peppers are picked by hand. To ensure ripeness, pickers compare peppers to a red stick. Peppers are ground into a mash on the day of harvest, to prepare the barrel, the inside of the barrel is de-charred, torched and cleaned, to minimize the presence of any residual whiskey. The barrels are used in warehouses on Avery Island for aging the mash. After aging for up to three years, the mash is strained to remove skins and seeds, the resulting liquid is then mixed with vinegar, stirred occasionally for a month, and then bottled as finished sauce. Much of the used in Tabasco production comes from an Avery Island salt mine, one of the largest in the U. S. In 2005, Avery Island was hit hard by Hurricane Katrina, as a result, the family constructed a 17-foot -high levee around the low side of the factory and invested in back-up generators. Several sauces are produced under the Tabasco brand name, including jalapeño-based green, chipotle-based smoked, habanero, garlic, sweet and spicy, the habanero, chipotle, and garlic sauces include the tabasco peppers blended with other peppers, whereas the jalapeño variety does not include tabasco peppers
Tabasco
–
A Tabasco advertisement from ca. 1905. Note the cork-top bottle and diamond logo label, which are similar to those in use today.
Tabasco
Tabasco
–
Tabasco pepper mash aging in barrels on Avery Island, Louisiana
Tabasco
–
A few of the varieties
4.
Central Standard Time
–
The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
Central Standard Time
–
Regions in the Central Time Zone
5.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
6.
Central Daylight Time
–
The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
Central Daylight Time
–
Regions in the Central Time Zone
7.
Mexican state
–
The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence
Mexican state
–
Mexican States and Federal District Estados Mexicanos y el Distrito Federal (
Spanish)
8.
Centro, Tabasco
–
The Municipality of Centro is one of the 17 subdivisions of the Mexican state of Tabasco. Its municipal seat is located in the city of Villahermosa, the municipality had a 2010 census population of 640,359 inhabitants,353,577 of whom lived in its municipal seat, Villahermosa. The municipal government is headed by the president of Centro. The municipality has the distinction of having 72 towns of over 1,000 inhabitants, and 116 towns of over 500 inhabitants, in both cases more than any other municipality in Mexico
Centro, Tabasco
–
Location of Centro in
Tabasco.
9.
Municipalities of Mexico
–
Municipalities are the second-level administrative division in Mexico, where the first-level administrative division is the state. There are 2,438 municipalities in Mexico, with an average population 45,616, the internal political organization and their responsibilities are outlined in the 115th article of the 1917 Constitution and further expanded in the constitutions of the states to which they belong. All Mexican states are divided into municipalities and this concept, which originated after the Mexican Revolution, is known as a municipio libre. A municipal president heads the ayuntamiento, the municipal president is elected by plurality and cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. The municipal council consists of a cabildo with a síndico and several regidores, in that sense, a municipality in Mexico is roughly equivalent to the counties of the United States, whereas the auxiliary presidency is equivalent to a township. Nonetheless, auxiliary presidencies are not considered an administrative division since they depend fiscally on the municipalities in which they are located. Although an urban area might cover an entire municipality, auxiliary councils might still be used for administrative purposes, municipalities are responsible for public services, street lighting, public safety, traffic, supervision of slaughterhouses and the cleaning and maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. Since 1983, they can collect property taxes and user fees, although more funds are obtained from the state, since the Conquest and colonization of Mexico, the municipality became the basic entity of the administrative organization of New Spain and the Spanish Empire. Settlements located in strategic locations received the status of city and were entitled to form an ayuntamiento or municipality, as such, every state set its own requirements for a settlement to become a municipality. However, in 1983 the 115th article was modified to expand the authority to raise revenue. Data from the 2015 Intercensal Survey by INEGI and it is administered through the Government of the Federal District and it has its own unicameral Legislative Assembly. For administrative purposes, the Federal District is subdivided into delegaciones or boroughs, while not fully equivalent to a municipality, since 2000, they enjoy a certain degree of political autonomy since residents within a borough directly elect a local borough head of government. However, boroughs do not form local councils and they are not constituted by a group of trustees. They do not have powers, which are mostly centralized in the Federal District government. Most of the public services are organized by the Federal District even if part of the administration responsibilities are carried out by the boroughs. Still, at the level, the delegaciones of the Federal District are considered a second-level territorial division in statistical data collection. Other municipalities in Mexico have chosen to use a similar administrative internal organization, all municipalities of Baja California are subdivided into boroughs or delegaciones
Municipalities of Mexico
–
Municipal Palace of
Veracruz
Municipalities of Mexico
–
Ensenada
10.
Mexico City
–
Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
Mexico City
–
From above
Torre Latinoamericana,
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral,
Anillo Periférico,
World Trade Center Mexico City,
Angel of Independence,
Chapultepec Castle,
St. Regis Hotel Tower and
Torre Mayor, Skyline of
Paseo de la Reforma and
Palacio de Bellas Artes.
Mexico City
–
Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.
Mexico City
–
The ruins of the
Templo Mayor.
Mexico City
–
The
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built by the Spaniards over the ruins of the main Aztec temple.
11.
Pemex
–
Pemex has a total asset worth of $415. Asphalt and pitch had been worked in Mexico since the time of the Aztecs, small quantities of oil were first refined into kerosene around 1876 near Tampico. In 1938, President Lázaro Cárdenas sided with oil workers striking against foreign-owned oil companies for an increase in pay and he framed expropriation as a necessary national response to the injustice of the operations of foreign companies operating on Mexican soil. Expropriation was not outright confiscation, since the Mexican government promised to compensate companies, however, in retaliation, many foreign governments closed their markets to Mexican oil. In spite of the boycott, Pemex developed into one of the largest oil companies in the world and helped Mexico become the fifth-largest oil exporter in the world. In an interview on the oil news website in November 2005, annual production has dropped each year since 2004. Furthermore, it has reported the 2005-2006 daily oil production was down by approximately 500,000 barrels per day on the previous year. Pemex averaged 3.71 MMBPD in 2006, Pemex has never produced 4 MMBPD or higher for a yearly average. Pemex has been replaced as Latin America’s largest company by Petrobras, President Calderón made clear at the beginning of his presidency that he would try his best to open up the sector to private investment. Pemex is Latin America’s second largest company measured by revenues, according to a ranking of the region’s 500 largest companies by Latin Business Chronicle, in June 2009, Pemex has asked for an extra $1.5 billion state aid to finance oil fields investments, reported Bloomberg. President Felipe Calderón called for change in Mexico’s oil industry after output at Pemex fell at the fastest rate since 1942. His comments came after Petrobras and London-based BP said they made a giant oil find of as much as 3 billion barrels in the Gulf of Mexico southeast of Houston. In February 2016, Emilio Lozoya Austin stepped down as CEO of Pemex, in addition to a failing infrastructure, dwindling reserves have created urgency in completing some type of reform. In February 2015, the board approved a $4.16 billion spending cut, the company also said it will delay deepwater exploration plans and cut jobs in response to weak oil prices. In 1979, Pemex’s Ixtoc I exploratory oil well in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout resulting in one of the largest oil spills in history, Pemex spent $100 million to clean up the spill and avoided most compensation claims by asserting sovereign immunity as a state-run company. On 19 September 2012 an explosion at the Pemex gas plant in Reynosa, Tamaulipas killed 30, Pemex Director Juan Jose Suarez said that there was no evidence that it was a deliberate incident, or some kind of attack. On January 31,2013, an explosion occurred at the offices of Pemex in Mexico City. At least 37 people were killed and at least 126 were injured, the cause has not been confirmed
Pemex
–
Typical Pemex gas station
Pemex
–
Petróleos Mexicanos
Pemex
–
Pemex's offices in
Mexico City.
12.
Petroleum
–
Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
Petroleum
–
Pumpjack pumping an oil well near
Lubbock, Texas
Petroleum
–
An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait
Petroleum
–
Natural petroleum spring in
Korňa, Slovakia
Petroleum
–
Oil derrick in
Okemah, Oklahoma, 1922
13.
Emerald
–
Emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Beryl has a hardness of 7. 5–8 on the Mohs scale, most emeralds are highly included, so their toughness is classified as generally poor. The word emerald is derived, from Vulgar Latin, esmaralda/esmaraldus, a variant of Latin smaragdus, emeralds, like all colored gemstones, are graded using four basic parameters–the four Cs of Connoisseurship, Color, Clarity, Cut and Carat weight. Before the 20th century, jewelers used the water, as in a gem of the finest water. Normally, in the grading of colored gemstones, color is by far the most important criterion, however, in the grading of emeralds, clarity is considered a close second. A fine emerald must possess not only a pure verdant green hue as described below, in the 1960s, the American jewelry industry changed the definition of emerald to include the green vanadium-bearing beryl as emerald. As a result, vanadium emeralds purchased as emeralds in the United States are not recognized as such in the UK, in America, the distinction between traditional emeralds and the new vanadium kind is often reflected in the use of terms such as Colombian Emerald. In gemology, color is divided into three components, hue, saturation, and tone, emeralds occur in hues ranging from yellow-green to blue-green, with the primary hue necessarily being green. Yellow and blue are the normal secondary hues found in emeralds, only gems that are medium to dark in tone are considered emerald, light-toned gems are known instead by the species name green beryl. The finest emerald are approximately 75% tone on a scale where 0% tone would be colorless, in addition, a fine emerald should be well saturated and have a hue that is bright. Gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in emerald, Emerald tends to have numerous inclusions and surface breaking fissures. Unlike diamond, where the standard, i. e. 10× magnification, is used to grade clarity. Thus, if an emerald has no visible inclusions to the eye it is considered flawless, stones that lack surface breaking fissures are extremely rare and therefore almost all emeralds are treated to enhance the apparent clarity. The inclusions and fissures within an emerald are sometime described as jardin, imperfections are unique for each emerald and can be used to identify a particular stone. Eye-clean stones of a vivid primary green hue, with no more than 15% of any hue or combination of a medium-dark tone. The relative non-uniformity motivates the cutting of emeralds in cabochon form, faceted emeralds are most commonly given an oval cut, or the signature emerald cut, a rectangular cut with facets around the top edge. Most emeralds are oiled as part of the process, in order to fill in surface-reaching cracks so that clarity and stability are improved. Cedar oil, having a refractive index, is often used in this widely adopted practice
Emerald
–
Emerald crystal from
Muzo,
Colombia
Emerald
–
Cut emeralds
Emerald
–
Brazilian emerald (grass-green variety of the mineral beryl) in a quartz-pegmatite matrix with typical hexagonal, prismatic crystals.
Emerald
–
Spanish-made emerald and gold pendant exhibited at
Victoria and Albert Museum.
14.
Liverpool (store)
–
Its 85 department stores comprise 73 stores under the Liverpool name,22 stores under the Fábricas de Francia name,6 Duty Free stores, and 27 specialized boutiques. Its headquarters are in Santa Fe and in Cuajimalpa, Liverpool, first called The Cloth Case, was founded in 1847 by Jean Baptiste Ebrard, a Frenchman who first started selling clothes in cases in Mexico Citys downtown. In 1872, he started importing merchandise from Europe, much of the merchandise was shipped via Liverpool, England, prompting Ebrard to adopt the name Liverpool for his store, in 1862 he opened its second store and since then it has not stopped growing. In 2011, Liverpool opened a store in the Interlomas neighborhood of Greater Mexico City. The structure was designed by Rojkind Arquitectos and this three-story structure is clad in a double-layered stainless steel surface fabricated by Zahner. The 30, 000m2 department store includes a recreational park where friends, families. Several design firms were involved in aspects of the project. The interiors were done by FRCH, the garden by Thomas Balsley. Fábricas de Francia are found in 25 cities, operating and working in the fashion that Liverpool does
Liverpool (store)
–
Liverpool
Interlomas, Greater Mexico City.
Liverpool (store)
–
Liverpool Torreón.
Liverpool (store)
–
Liverpool store in Torreón
Liverpool (store)
–
The original Liverpool store located at Carranza and 20 de Noviembre streets in the
historic center of
Mexico City.
15.
Palacio de Hierro (store)
–
El Palacio de Hierro is an upscale chain of department stores in Mexico. Its the largest department store in Latin America, in the 1850s, a clothing store opened in Mexico City called Las Fábricas de Francia which was owned by Victor Gassier, a Frenchman. In 1860, Gassier teamed up with Alexander Reynaud, forming a business called Gassier & Reynaud, in 1876, José Tron and José Leautaud bought in, forming the association V. Gassier & Reynaud, Sucs. In 1879 the business name was changed to J. Tron y Cía. However, it continued to trade as Las Fábricas de Francia, from here Tron and Leautauds endeavor met with considerable success. In 1879, they planning to build a department store in Mexico City similar to famous upscale, and high class stores in Paris, New York City, London. In 1888 they bought land to construct their new department store and they hired the Mexican architect Ignacio de la Hidalga for the project and construction was to last until 1891. Tron and Leautaud chose to build a five story building and it was, notably the first building in Mexico City made of iron and steel. As the first such structure in Mexico, people who passed by often asked What iron palace are they building, in 1891, when construction finished, Tron and Leautaud decided to rename the business El Palacio de Hierro, taking advantage of the publicity they earned during construction. On April 15,1914 a fire destroyed the building, with the end of the Mexican Revolution, construction began on a new building designed by French architect Paul Dubois. The Art Nouveau building opened in 1920 with dual stained-glass ceilings by Jacques Grüber of Nancy, nowadays, El Palacio de Hierro is part of Grupo Bal a diversified conglomerate in Mexico with interests in insurance, mining and retail. It is a department store with product lines ranging from clothing, to houseware, furniture, jewelry, select foods, toys, spa, travel services. Acapulco Cancún eCommerce Site Official Site Photo Gallery
Palacio de Hierro (store)
Palacio de Hierro (store)
–
El Palacio de Hierro store in Mexico City
Palacio de Hierro (store)
–
Store in
Polanco Mexico City hosting an exhibition of
Uriarte Talavera.
Palacio de Hierro (store)
–
Inside of an El Palacio de Hierro store
16.
Walmart
–
Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. doing business as Walmart, is an American multinational retailing corporation that operates as a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores. Headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas, the company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962, as of January 31,2017, Walmart has 11,695 stores and clubs in 28 countries, under a total of 63 banners. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and it operates as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Brazil, and Canada and it also owns and operates the Sams Club retail warehouses. Walmart is the worlds largest company by revenue, according to the Fortune Global 500 list in 2016 and it is a family-owned business, as the company is controlled by the Walton family. Sam Waltons heirs own over 50 percent of Walmart through their company, Walton Enterprises. Walmart is also one of the worlds most valuable companies by market value, in 2016,62.3 percent of Walmarts US$478.614 billion sales came from its U. S. operations. The company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1972, by 1988, Walmart was the most profitable retailer in the U. S. and by October 1989, it had become the largest in terms of revenue. A Walmart in York, Pennsylvania opened in October 1990, bringing the store to the Northeast. In 1945, a businessman and a former J. C. Penney employee, Sam Walton and his primary focus was on selling products at low prices to get higher-volume sales at a lower profit margin, portraying it as a crusade for the consumer. He experienced setbacks, because the price and branch purchase were unusually high. He passed on the savings in the product pricing, sales increased 45 percent in his first year of ownership to US$105,000 in revenue, which increased to US$140,000 the next year and US$175,000 the year after that. Within the fifth year, the store was generating US$250,000 in revenue, when the lease for the location expired, Walton was unable to reach an agreement for renewal, so he opened up a new store at 105 N. Main Street in Bentonville, naming it Waltons Five and Dime and that store is now the Walmart Museum. On July 2,1962, Walton opened the first Walmart Discount City store at 719 W. Walnut Street in Rogers, within its first five years, the company expanded to 24 stores across Arkansas and reached US$12.6 million in sales. In 1968, it opened its first stores outside Arkansas, in Sikeston, Missouri and Claremore, the company was incorporated as Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. on October 31,1969. In 1970, it opened its office and first distribution center in Bentonville. It had 38 stores operating with 1,500 employees and sales of US$44.2 million and it began trading stock as a publicly held company on October 1,1970, and was soon listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Walmart
–
Walmart headquarters building
Walmart
–
Sam Walton's original Walton's Five and Dime store in
Bentonville,
Arkansas now serving as the Walmart Visitor Center
Walmart
–
Inside a Walmart Supercenter in
West Plains, Missouri
Walmart
–
The exterior of the Walmart store in
West Hills, California.
17.
City Club (wholesale club)
–
As of 2013 it has 32 stores. In February 2004, City Club edited the first issue of its magazine, Members Choice, similar to Sams Clubs Members Mark and Costcos Kirkland Signature. Kitchen Solutions, similar to Sams Clubs Bakers & Chiefs
City Club (wholesale club)
–
City Club
18.
Soriana
–
Organización Soriana is a Mexican public company and a major retailer in Mexico with more than 824 stores. Soriana is a grocery and department store chain headquartered in Monterrey, Nuevo León. The company is 100% capitalized in Mexico and has been traded on the Mexican stock exchange, since 1987 under the symbol. Soriana is powered by IT Retail software, Soriana was founded in 1968 by Mexican entrepreneurs and brothers, Francisco and Armando Martín Borque, in Torreón, Coahuila. The company currently, as of 2013, operates under the brands Soriana, Clubes City Club, Hipermart, Mercado Soriana, Super City is the companys convenience store division brand. It operates supermarkets and department stores for consumer and wholesale markets, Soriana competes primarily with H-E-B, Alsuper, Comercial Mexicana, Chedraui, S-Mart and Walmex. Soriana emphasizes that it is Mexican-owned and operated, on December 6,2007, Organizacion Soriana acquired Supermercados Gigante for US$1.35 billion. In 2008, Soriana replaced the existing Gigante stores including its seven stores in the United States, most Mexican stores retained Supermercados Gigante props like point of sale systems and food equipment. In 2012, it had more than 606 stores in 208 cities in Mexico under 5 store formats and it also had 14 distribution centers. In 2006, for reporting and administrative purposes, Soriana moved its headquarters from Torreón to Monterrey, Soriana promotes its Tarjeta del Aprecio, whereby customers who purchase items earn points for free merchandise, and in-store credits for 20% off in general merchandise. Soriana is currently the sponsor for the Primera División de la Federación Mexicana de Fútbol football club Santos Laguna. He also claims that the PRI handed out gifts to lure voters to cast their vote in favor of them, during the day of the 2012 presidential elections, people who voted for el PRI would receive pre-paid gift cards. Nonetheless, the PRI and the store denied such accusation and threatened to sue López Obrador, peña Nieto vowed to imprison anyone – including members of the PRI – if they are found guilty of electoral fraud. Despite Enriques statement many videos by citizens about the Soriana cards surfaced on Youtube, List of companies traded on the Bolsa Mexicana de Valores List of Mexican companies Economy of Mexico Official website
Soriana
–
Organización Soriana, S.A.B. de C.V.
Soriana
–
Interior of a Soriana store at
Oaxaca de Juarez
Soriana
–
A Soriana Plus store at
Ciudad Victoria
19.
Comercial Mexicana
–
Tiendas Comercial Mexicana S. A. de C. V. colloquially known as La Comercial or La Comer, is a Mexican hypermarket group that operates mainly in Mexico City and Central Mexico. It is owned and operated by Controladora Comercial Mexicana, which also owns Sumesa stores, City Market stores, Comercial Mexicana, including its different store formats, is the third-largest supermarket chain in Mexico as of 2014. The first store, which opened in Mexico City in 1930, many of its general stores are connected to a shopping mall with competing businesses surrounding. Comercial Mexicana also has programs for children, in exchange for working in stores as bag boys, the children receive family support, tuition support and educational supplies, and basic services. The children wear almost-trademark brown uniforms with the orange pelican logo and are expected to be well groomed and they help most of the customers out of the store and return the carts, which in turn keeps the shopping cart thefts low. Carlos González Nova, Comercial Mexicanas co-founder, served as the chairman of the board of directors until 1998. He remained the chairman of Comercial Mexicana until his death on August 19,2009. In 1998, Guillermo González Nova, younger brother of Carlos, a boat carrying Guillermo González Nova and others hit and killed British singer Kirsty MacColl while sailing. Carlos González Novas son, Carlos González Zabalegui, is the current executive chairman. In January 2015 it was announced that Organización Soriana will buy Comercial Mexicana stores, from which 118 will be fully owned while 42 will be leased and operated by third parties
Comercial Mexicana
–
Comercial Mexicana store in
Zamora,
Michoacán
Comercial Mexicana
–
Comercial Mexicana brand Flor de Jamaica (Hibiscus flower)
20.
Home Depot
–
The Home Depot, Inc. is a home improvement supplies retailing company that sells tools, construction products, and services. It operates many big-box format stores across the United States, all 10 provinces of Canada, the company is headquartered at the Atlanta Store Support Center in Cobb County, Georgia, in Greater Atlanta. In terms of overall revenue reported to the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission, the Home Depot is the largest home improvement retailer in the United States, ahead of rival Lowes. It operates out of large warehouse-style buildings averaging 105,000 ft2 with megastores operating in larger facilities, the Home Depot was founded in 1978 by Bernard Marcus, Arthur Blank, Ron Brill and Pat Farrah. The Home Depots proposition was to build home-improvement superstores, larger than any of their competitors facilities, investment banker Ken Langone helped Marcus and Blank to secure the necessary capital. In 1979, the first two stores, built in spaces leased from J. C. Penney that were originally Treasure Island hypermarket stores, two more opened not long after, and all four shared the space under the squiggly zig-zag roof with Zayre on its right side. The initial public offering occurred in approximately September 1981 and the became a New York Stock Exchange traded company on April 19,1984. The first headquarters was on Terrell Mill Road on the southeast side of Marietta, Georgia, the tallest building is approximately 85 metres high, the fourth-tallest in the Vinings area. The three buildings are marked B, C, and D—the missing building A is actually store #121 on Cumberland Parkway, in 2000, after the retirement of Marcus and Blank, Robert Nardelli was appointed chairman, president, and CEO. Nardelli had pushed hard to make the more efficient, instituting many metrics and centralizing operations, while cutting jobs, benefits. Its 2005 sales totaled US$91.8 billion, despite the 10% increase in revenue, it dropped three spots to No.17 on the 2007 FORTUNE magazines FORTUNE500 list. The Home Depot owned EXPO Design Center, a chain of home decorating and appliance stores, in 2001, it acquired distributor Your Other Warehouse, which still operates as its own division. In 2006, the Home Depot acquired Hughes Supply which was assimilated into HD Supply serving contractors, in September 2005, Home Depot Direct launched its online home-furnishings store,10 Crescent Lane, shortly followed by the launch of Paces Trading Company, its online lighting store. In mid 2006, the Home Depot acquired Home Decorators Collection, Home Depot Landscape Supply, with only a few stores each in metro Atlanta and Dallas/Fort Worth, was founded in 2002 and closed in late 2007. On January 2,2007, the Home Depot and Robert Nardelli mutually agreed on Nardellis resignation as CEO after a six-year tenure and his severance package of $210 million was criticized because when the stock went down, his pay went up. His successor, Frank Blake, previously served as the vice chairman of the board. Blake agreed to a more conservative compensation package than Nardelli. Although a longtime deputy to Nardelli at GE and Home Depot, Blake was said to lack Nardellis hard edge, indeed, Blake repudiated many of his predecessors strategies, and it has been reported that the two men have not spoken since Nardelli departed Home Depot
Home Depot
–
The Home Depot corporate headquarters in unincorporated
Cobb County, Georgia
Home Depot
–
The Home Depot, Inc.
Home Depot
–
The Home Depot in
Knightdale, North Carolina in April 2009.
Home Depot
–
The Home Depot in
Durham, North Carolina in October 2008.
21.
Timeline of Villahermosa
–
The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Villahermosa in Centro Municipality, Tabasco state, Mexico. 1677 - Regional seat of government relocated from Villahermosa to Tacotalpa,1797 - Regional seat of government relocated to Villahermosa from Tacotalpa. 1824 Villahermosa becomes capital of State of Tabasco, congress of Tabasco headquartered in town. 1826 Town renamed San Juan Bautista,1846 - 24–26 October, First Battle of Tabasco against U. S. forces. 1847 15–16 June, Second Battle of Tabasco, Regional seat of government relocated from Villahermosa to Tacotalpa. 1880 - Roman Catholic Diocese of Tabasco established,1881 - El Tabasqueño newspaper in publication. 1890 - Casa de los azulejos built,1894 - Governors Palace built on the Plaza de Armas de Villahermosa. 1915 - City named Villahermosa again,1921 - Diario de Tabasco newspaper begins publication. 1924 - Liga Central de Resistencia headquartered in city,1958 - Parque-Museo La Venta opens. 1974 - Villahermosa Institute of Technology established,1977 - Oil discovered near city. 1979 - Pérez International Airport inaugurated,19821 January, Tabasco state election,1982 held. 1987 Peñitas Dam commissioned near city on the Grijalva River,19889 October, Tabasco state election,1988 held. Museo de Historia Natural José Narciso Rovirosa opens,1990 Catedral del Señor de Tabasco built. Population,261,131 city,386,776 Centro Municipality,1994 -20 November, Tabasco state election,1994 held. 1995 - Population,301,328 city,465,449 Centro Municipality,200015 October, Tabasco state election,2000 held. Population,430,846 city,520,308 Centro Municipality,2005 - Population,558,524 city,664,629 Centro Municipality. 2006 -15 October, Tabasco state election,2006 held,2007 - October,2007 Tabasco flood. 2009 - Jesús Alí de la Torre elected mayor of Centro Municipality,2010 - Population,353,577 city,755,425 metro
Timeline of Villahermosa
–
Municipalities
and
(municipal seats)
22.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
23.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
City
–
1908 map of
Piraeus, the port of
Athens, showing the grid plan of the city
City
–
Ancient
Ur of
Sumer in present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in
Iraq, one of the world's earliest cities
City
–
Mohenjo-daro, a
World Heritage site that was part of the
Indus Valley Civilization
City
–
A map dating 1669 showing the location of
Multan, Pakistan
24.
John the Baptist
–
John the Baptist, also known as John the Baptizer, was a Jewish itinerant preacher in the early first century AD. John is revered as a religious figure in Christianity, Islam, the Baháí Faith. He is called a prophet by all of these traditions, and is honoured as a saint in many Christian traditions, John used baptism as the central symbol or sacrament of his messianic movement. Most scholars agree that John baptized Jesus, scholars generally believe Jesus was a follower or disciple of John and several New Testament accounts report that some of Jesus early followers had previously been followers of John. John the Baptist is also mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, according to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself. Christians commonly refer to John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus, John is also identified with the prophet Elijah. John the Baptist is mentioned in all four canonical Gospels and the non-canonical Gospel of the Nazarenes, the Synoptic Gospels describe John baptising Jesus, in the Gospel of John it is implied in John 1, 32-34. The Gospel of Mark introduces John as a fulfilment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah about a messenger being sent ahead, John is described as wearing clothes of camels hair, living on locusts and wild honey. John proclaims baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sin, and says another will come after him who will not baptize with water, Jesus comes to John, and is baptized by him in the river Jordan. The account describes how, as he emerges from the water, the heavens open, a voice from heaven then says, You are my Son, the Beloved, with you I am well pleased. Later in the gospel there is an account of Johns death and it is introduced by an incident where the Tetrarch Herod Antipas, hearing stories about Jesus, imagines that this is John the Baptist raised from the dead. It then explains that John had rebuked Herod for marrying Herodias, Herodias demands his execution, but Herod, who liked to listen to John, is reluctant to do so because he fears him, knowing he is a righteous and holy man. The account then describes how Herods daughter Herodias dances before Herod, when the girl asks her mother what she should request, she is told to demand the head of John the Baptist. Reluctantly, Herod orders the beheading of John, and his head is delivered to her, at her request, Johns disciples take the body away and bury it in a tomb. There are a number of difficulties with this passage, the Gospel wrongly identifies Antipas as King and the ex-husband of Herodias is named as Philip, but he is known to have been called Herod. Although the wording clearly implies the girl was the daughter of Herodias, many texts describe her as Herods daughter, Herodias. Since these texts are early and significant and the reading is difficult, many see this as the original version, corrected in later versions and in Matthew. Josephus says that Herodias had a daughter by the name of Salome, scholars have speculated about the origins of the story
John the Baptist
–
John the Baptist Preaching in the Wilderness by
Anton Raphael Mengs, 1760
John the Baptist
–
The Preaching of St. John the Baptist by
Pieter Bruegel the Elder
John the Baptist
–
St. John the Baptist Preaching, c. 1665, by
Mattia Preti
John the Baptist
–
John the Baptist (right) with
child Jesus, painting by
Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo
25.
French intervention in Mexico
–
It followed President Benito Juárezs suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on 17 July 1861, which angered these three major creditors of Mexico. Emperor Napoleon III of France was the instigator, justifying military intervention by claiming a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade, for him, a friendly government in Mexico would ensure European access to Latin American markets. Napoleon also wanted the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire, Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain while the U. S. was deeply engaged in its civil war. The three European powers signed the Treaty of London on 31 October 1861, to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico, on 8 December the Spanish fleet and troops arrived at Mexicos main port, Veracruz. When the British and Spanish discovered that France planned to all of Mexico. The subsequent French invasion resulted in the Second Mexican Empire, after heavy guerrilla resistance led by Juárez, which continued even after the capital had fallen in 1863, the French eventually withdrew from Mexico and Maximilian I was executed in 1867. The British, Spanish and French fleets arrived at Veracruz, between 8 and 17 December 1861 intending to pressure the Mexicans into settling their debts, the Spanish fleet seized San Juan de Ulúa and subsequently the capital Veracruz on 17 December. The European forces advanced to Orizaba, Cordoba and Tehuacán, as they had agreed in the Convention of Soledad, the city of Campeche surrendered to the French fleet on 27 February 1862, and a French army, commanded by General Lorencez, arrived on 5 March. When the Spanish and British realised the French ambition was to conquer Mexico, they withdrew their forces on 9 April, in May, the French man-of-war Bayonnaise blockaded Mazatlán for a few days. Mexican forces commanded by General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated the French army in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862, the pursuing Mexican army was contained by the French at Orizaba, Veracruz, on 14 June. More French troops arrived on 21 September, and General Bazaine arrived with French reinforcements on 16 October, the French occupied the port of Tampico on 23 October, and unopposed by Mexican forces took control of Xalapa, Veracruz on 12 December. The French bombarded Veracruz on 15 January 1863, two months later, on 16 March, General Forey and the French Army began the siege of Puebla. They were forced to make a defence in a nearby hacienda, danjou was mortally wounded at the hacienda, and his men mounted an almost suicidal bayonet attack, fighting to nearly the last man, only three French Legionnaires survived. To this day, the anniversary of 30 April remains the most important day of celebration for Legionnaires. The French army of General François Achille Bazaine defeated the Mexican army led by General Comonfort in its campaign to relieve the siege of Puebla, at San Lorenzo, Puebla surrendered to the French shortly afterward, on 17 May. On 31 May, President Juárez fled the city with his cabinet, retreating northward to Paso del Norte, having taken the treasure of the state with them, the government-in-exile remained in Chihuahua until 1867. French troops under Bazaine entered Mexico City on 7 June 1863, the main army entered the city three days later led by General Forey. General Almonte was appointed the provisional President of Mexico on 16 June, the Superior Junta with its 35 members met on 21 June, and proclaimed a Catholic Empire on 10 July
French intervention in Mexico
–
Clockwise from left: French assault during the
Second Battle of Puebla;
French cavalry seize the Republican flag during the
Battle of San Pablo del Monte; depiction of the execution of Emperor Maximilian I by
Édouard Manet.
French intervention in Mexico
–
The
Battle of Puebla, 1862
French intervention in Mexico
–
Emperor
Maximilian I of Mexico
French intervention in Mexico
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Battle of Miahuatlán, 3 October 1866
26.
Battle of San Juan Bautista
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The Battle of San Juan Bautista was a battle in the French intervention in Mexico fought on February 27,1864. Mexican Republicans were victorious and retook control of the city, from these points, Republicans began attacking the French in the state capital. On the 3rd he reached the plazuela del Águila driving away some French, the rear guard was defended by a line of siege artillery behind them. The reserve constituted of the Castillo section in the Campo Santo, the Mexican scout cavalry was discovered at the gates of the city by the French vanguard commanded by the former commander Antonio Castillo. The first series of shots wounded two of the Mexican lancers, the Imperialists concentrated the defense of San Juan Bautista around the Principal and the Governors House that were barricaded and perforated with loopholes from top to bottom. These buildings were adjacent to the Comercio Street, which prolonged the trenchline squarewise and these blocks was linked internally by tunnels whose exit led to the Comercio Street. The house north of the market, which had walls pierced with loopholes onto the Esquipulas Street was occupied by the Republican center. The first defense line was formed by buildings and trenches, with the exception of the Romano tradehouse on the Aurora street, which was equipped by light weapons. The Republican Army fully sealed the siege on the starting from January 18 and installed five of the smaller culverins. Eduardo González Arévalos troops counted 350 Mexican riflemen, and about 250 French marines, on the first days of the siege the beleaguered Imperialists made some breakout attempts, without any significant egress. It is worth to note that during the siege more Imperialist soldiers were wounded by machete cuts than gunshots and his convoy was attacked by a band of 30 liberals whereas some Imperialist were injured among them was their Captain Gabriel Escoffié. Immediately, on the 20th, the new imperial governor requested the surrender of the Republicans by offering guarantees and he was declined and subsequently a clash broke out between the Republican center and the besieged ones. Commander Francisco Ramírez repelled the attack and took 18-20 prisoners who were deported to Atasta. The Republicans advanced forward house by house in close fights as the French was tearing down the buildings while retreating, the Republicans, with a 24 pounder bombard hit the Tourmente nine times until they ran out of ammunition. They collected the cannonballs of the fire from the ground to recharge their own battery. When the Republicans reached the fortified houses and barricades of the defenders, on February 11,1864, Tabasco forces begin an assault on The Principal where there were entrenched French troops. From three oclock the Zaragoza section was ordered to advance in order to cut the enemy from the casa de Paillet, while this was taking place, two sections of Cardenás raided the house. Under the covering fire by the Zaragoza section the Castillo guerrillas attacked the French guardpost at the entrance, the assault lasted over an hour, but the result was the occupation of the Principal
Battle of San Juan Bautista
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French evacuation at San Juan Bautista
Battle of San Juan Bautista
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Monument in honor of the battle depicting Gregorio Méndez
Battle of San Juan Bautista
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High resolution contemporary map of San Juan Bautista (note that some streets were renamed after the reoccupation)
27.
La Venta
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This article is about the archeological site in Mexico. For the fossil site in Colombia, see La Venta, La Venta is a pre-Columbian archaeological site of the Olmec civilization located in the present-day Mexican state of Tabasco. Some of the artifacts have been moved to the museum Parque - Museo de La Venta, which is in nearby Villahermosa, the Olmec was one of the first civilizations to develop in the Americas. Chronologically, the history of the Olmecs can be divided into the Early Formative, Middle Formative, the Olmecs are known as the mother culture of Mesoamerica, meaning that the Olmec civilization was the first culture that spread and influenced Mesoamerica. The spread of Olmec culture eventually became the features found throughout all Mesoamerican societies. Prior to the site of La Venta, the first Olmec site of San Lorenzo dominated the day state of Veracruz. By no later than 1200 BCE, San Lorenzo had emerged as the most prominent Olmec center, while a layer of occupation at La Venta dates to 1200 BCE, La Venta did not reach its apogee until the decline of San Lorenzo, after 900 BCE. After 500 years of pre-eminence, La Venta was all but abandoned by the beginning of the fourth century BCE, located on an island in a coastal swamp overlooking the then-active Río Palma, La Venta probably controlled a region between the Mezcalapa and Coatzacoalcos rivers. The humid tropical climate of La Venta has an annual temperature of 26 degrees Celsius. La Venta is located at the nexus of four different ecosystems, marshes, mangrove swamps, tropical forest, and the Gulf of Mexico. ”Unfortunately, few, if any, of the residential structures surrounding the large centers of the city have survived. The main part of the site is a complex of clay constructions stretched out for 20 kilometres in a north-south direction, the urbanized zone may have covered an area as large of 2 km2. This particular site layout is the way the city was from 600 –400 BCE and this is perhaps related to religion but it certainly shows a high level of sophistication and city-planning. Unlike later Maya or Aztec cities, La Venta was built from earth, large basalt stones were brought in from the Tuxtla Mountains, but these were used nearly exclusively for monuments including the colossal heads, the altars, and various stelae. For example, the columns that surround Complex A were quarried from Punta Roca Partida. “Little more than half of the ancient city survived modern disturbances enough to map accurately. ”Today, many of the sites monuments are now on display in the archaeological museum and park in the city of Villahermosa, Tabasco. La Venta was a civic and ceremonial center, while it may have included as-yet-undiscovered regal residences, habitation for the non-regal elite and the commoners were located at outlying sites such as San Andrés. Instead of dwellings, La Venta is dominated by a sacred area, the Great Pyramid. As a ceremonial center, La Venta contains a series of buried offerings and tombs
La Venta
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Great pyramid.
La Venta
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"The Grandmother", La Venta (reproduction). Officially known as Monument 5, this statue is thought to represent a kneeling “baby-face” figure. [Colman 2010, p. 232]
La Venta
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Complex C, The Great Pyramid.
La Venta
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Complex A.
28.
Olmec
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The Olmecs were the first major civilization in Guatemala and Mexico following a progressive development in Soconusco and modern southwestern pacific lowlands of Guatemala. They lived in the lowlands of south-central Mexico, in the present-day states of Veracruz. It has been speculated that Olmec derive in part from neighboring Mokaya and/or Mixe–Zoque, the population of the Olmecs flourished during Mesoamericas formative period, dating roughly from as early as 1500 BCE to about 400 BCE. They were the first Mesoamerican civilization, and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed, among other firsts, the Olmec appeared to practice ritual bloodletting and played the Mesoamerican ballgame, hallmarks of nearly all subsequent Mesoamerican societies. The aspect of the Olmecs most familiar now is their artwork, the Olmec civilization was first defined through artifacts which collectors purchased on the pre-Columbian art market in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Olmec artworks are considered among ancient Americas most striking, the name Olmec comes from the Nahuatl word for the Olmecs, Ōlmēcatl or Ōlmēcah. This word is composed of the two words ōlli, meaning rubber, and mēcatl, meaning people, so the word means rubber people, the Olmec heartland is the area in the Gulf lowlands where it expanded after early development in Soconusco. This area is characterized by swampy lowlands punctuated by low hills, ridges, the Tuxtlas Mountains rise sharply in the north, along the Gulf of Mexicos Bay of Campeche. Here the Olmec constructed permanent city-temple complexes at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, La Venta, Tres Zapotes, in this region, the first Mesoamerican civilization emerged and reigned from c. The beginnings of Olmec civilization have traditionally been placed between 1400 and 1200 BCE, past finds of Olmec remains ritually deposited at El Manati shrine moved this back to at least 1600–1500 BCE. It seems that the Olmec had their roots in early farming cultures of Tabasco and these shared the same basic food crops and technologies of the later Olmec civilization. What is today called Olmec first appeared fully within the city of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, the rise of civilization was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered alluvial soil, as well as by the transportation network provided by the Coatzacoalcos River basin. This environment may be compared to that of other ancient centers of civilization, the Nile, Indus, and Yellow River valleys and this highly productive environment encouraged a densely concentrated population, which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class. The elite class created the demand for the production of the symbolic, the state of Guerrero, and in particular its early Mezcala culture, seem to have played an important role in the early history of Olmec culture. Olmec-style artifacts tend to appear earlier in some parts of Guerrero than in the Veracruz-Tabasco area, in particular, the relevant objects from the Amuco-Abelino site in Guerrero reveal dates as early as 1530 BC. The city of Teopantecuanitlan in Guerrero is also relevant in this regard, the first Olmec center, San Lorenzo, was all but abandoned around 900 BCE at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence. A wholesale destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments also occurred circa 950 BCE, which may indicate an internal uprising or, less likely, an invasion. The latest thinking, however, is that changes may have been responsible for this shift in Olmec centers
Olmec
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Olmec Head No. 3 from
San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan 1200–900 BCE
Olmec
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"
The Wrestler ", an Olmec era statuette, 1400–400 BCE
Olmec
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Olmec jadeite mask 1000–600 BCE
Olmec
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Great pyramid in
La Venta,
Tabasco
