1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
California State Route 47
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State Route 47 is a state highway in the U. S. state of California, connecting Terminal Island to the mainland in the Los Angeles area. From its south end at I-110 in San Pedro, it heads east across the Vincent Thomas Bridge to the island and the end of state maintenance. The state highway again at the junction with I-710 on Terminal Island, crossing the Schuyler Heim Bridge north to the mainland and the second terminus. The entire route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, after coming back to ground level on Terminal Island, SR47 becomes the locally maintained Seaside Avenue at the interchange with Ferry Street, where there was a toll plaza until 2000. The freeway ends just beyond at Navy Way, after which the road enters Long Beach and becomes Ocean Boulevard, however, SR47 must exit the freeway onto its frontage roads, intersecting Henry Ford Avenue before turning north onto the Terminal Island Freeway. Ocean Boulevard leads east over the Gerald Desmond Bridge and becomes Interstate 710, State maintenance begins again on the Terminal Island Freeway, which is also signed as State Route 103. After a partial interchange with New Dock Street, only allowing access to and from the north, SR47 crosses the Cerritos Channel on the Schuyler Heim Bridge, a lift bridge opened in 1948. Just beyond the bridge, SR47 leaves the freeway, which continues northeast as SR103, onto Henry Ford Avenue, the remainder of what is signed as SR47, along Henry Ford Avenue and Alameda Street to the Redondo Beach Freeway, is locally maintained. Henry Ford Avenue quickly crosses the Dominguez Channel and Anaheim Street, and merges with Alameda Street, all cross streets are thus grade-separated from the rail line while intersecting the streets at grade, except for Rosecrans Avenue, which bridges over all three. Crossings along this segment include the Century Freeway, Imperial Highway, Firestone Boulevard, after that portion was completed, an extension to Wilmington was opened on February 2,1924, resulting in a completely independent truck route to the port. The truck boulevard continued along the west side to Dominguez Street, there trucks could turn east and south to Terminal Island via Henry Ford Avenue, or continue southwest through Wilmington to San Pedro. The highway soon came to be known as Alameda Street all the way to Wilmington and it did not become a state highway, instead the state took over Figueroa Street to the west and Atlantic Avenue to the east. Plans for freeways in Los Angeles County evolved from a 1937 Automobile Club of Southern California plan, the former included a single freeway connecting Los Angeles to Long Beach, beginning at Pasadena and heading south-southwest to Lynwood, then paralleling Long Beach Boulevard to Long Beach. This second freeway came to be known as the Long Beach Parkway or Alamitos Parkway, construction began in early 1946, and the completed link was dedicated on January 10,1948, replacing the older Henry Ford Bridge. Initially known as the East By-Pass and West By-Pass, the later became part of the Harbor Parkway. The state legislature added the East By-Pass to the highway system in 1947 as Route 222. The Los Angeles City Planning Commission approved a master plan in mid-1955. The Industrial Freeway south of the Santa Monica Freeway became Route 270 in 1959, in the 1964 renumbering, the Industrial Freeway became Route 47, and the former East By-Pass became Route 241
3.
Port of Los Angeles
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The Port of Los Angeles, also called Americas Port, is a port complex that occupies 7,500 acres of land and water along 43 miles of waterfront and adjoins the separate Port of Long Beach. The port is located in San Pedro Bay in the San Pedro and Wilmington neighborhoods of Los Angeles, a department of the City of Los Angeles, the Port of Los Angeles employs nearly 896,000 people throughout the LA County Region and 3.6 million worldwide. Around $1.2 billion worth of cargo comes in and out each day at the LA Port, the Ports Channel Depth is 53 feet. The port has 23 cargo terminals,270 deepwater berths,77 container cranes,9 container terminals, the LA Port imports furniture, footwear, electronics, automobile parts, and apparel. The Port exports wastepaper, cotton, resins, animal feed, the ports major trading partners are China, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. S. In 1542, Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo discovered the Bay of Smokes, the south-facing San Pedro Bay was originally a shallow mudflat, too soft to support a wharf. Visiting ships had two choices, stay far out at anchor and have their goods and passengers ferried to shore, or beach themselves. That sticky process is described in Two Years Before the Mast by Richard Henry Dana, phineas Banning greatly improved shipping when he dredged the channel to Wilmington in 1871 to a depth of 10 feet. The port handled 50,000 tons of shipping that year, after Bannings death in 1885, his sons pursued their interests in promoting the port, which handled 500,000 tons of shipping in that year. The Southern Pacific Railroad and Collis P. Huntington wanted to create Port Los Angeles at Santa Monica, however, the Los Angeles Times publisher Harrison Gray Otis and U. S. Senator Stephen White pushed for support of the Port of Los Angeles at San Pedro Bay. The Free Harbor Fight was settled when San Pedro was endorsed in 1897 by a commission headed by Rear Admiral John C, with U. S. government support, breakwater construction began in 1899, and the area was annexed to Los Angeles in 1909. The Los Angeles Board of Harbor Commissioners was founded in 1907, in 1912 the Southern Pacific Railroad completed its first major wharf at the port. During the 1920s, the port surpassed San Francisco as the West Coasts busiest seaport, in the early 1930s, a massive expansion of the port was undertaken with the construction of a breakwater three miles out and over two miles in length. In addition to the construction of this outer breakwater, a breakwater was built off Terminal Island with docks for seagoing ships. It was this improved harbor that hosted the events for the 1932 Summer Olympics. During World War II the port was used for shipbuilding, employing more than 90,000 people. In 1959, Matson Navigation Companys Hawaiian Merchant delivered 20 containers to the port, the opening of the Vincent Thomas Bridge in 1963 greatly improved access to Terminal Island and allowed increased traffic and further expansion of the port
4.
San Pedro, Los Angeles
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San Pedro is a community within the city of Los Angeles, California. Formerly a separate city, it consolidated with Los Angeles in 1909, the Port of Los Angeles, a major international seaport, is partially located within San Pedro. The district has grown from being dominated by the industry to become primarily a working class community within the city of Los Angeles. The site, at the end of the Palos Verdes Peninsula. The peninsula, including all of San Pedro, was the homeland of the Tongva-Gabrieleño Native American people for thousands of years, in other areas of the Los Angeles Basin archeological sites date back 8, 000–15,000 years. The Tongva believe they have been here since the beginning of time, once called the lords of the ocean, due to their mastery of oceangoing canoes, many Tongva villages covered the coastline. Their first contact with Europeans in 1542 with João Cabrilho, the Portuguese explorer who also was the first to write of them, chowigna and Suangna were two Tongva settlements of many in the peninsula area, which was also a departure point for their rancherias on the Channel Islands. Legend has it that the Native Americans blessed the land of Palos Verdes, the Tongva called the San Pedro area Chaaw. San Pedro was named for St. Peter of Alexandria, a bishop in Alexandria. His feast day is November 24 on the ecclesiastical calendar of Spain. Santa Catalina Island, named after Catherine of Alexandria, was claimed for the Spanish Empire the next day, on her feast day, in 1602–1603, Sebastián Vizcaíno officially surveyed and mapped the California coastline, including San Pedro Bay, for New Spain. The anglicized pronunciation, popularized by the English-speaking people of Midwestern America, is san-PEE-dro, european settlement began in 1769 as part of an effort to populate California, although trade restrictions encouraged more smuggling than regular business. Rancho San Pedro is the site of the first Spanish land grant in Alta California, the land was granted in 1784 by King Carlos III to Juan Jose Dominguez, a retired Spanish soldier who came to California with the Gaspar de Portolà expedition. When New Spain won its independence from the Spanish Empire and Alta California became part of Mexico, the restrictions were lifted. In 1888, the War Department took control of a tract of land next to the bay and this became Fort MacArthur in 1914 and was a coastal defense site for many years. Woodrow Wilson transferred 200 United States Navy ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1919 when tension arose between the United States and Japan over the fate of China. San Diego Bay was considered too shallow for the largest ships, local availability of fuel oil minimized transportation costs, and consistently good weather allowed frequent gunnery exercises off the nearby Channel Islands of California. The heavy cruisers of the Scouting Force were transferred from the Atlantic to San Pedro in response to the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, by 1934,14 battleships, two aircraft carriers,14 cruisers, and 16 support ships were based at San Pedro
5.
Terminal Island
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Terminal Island is a largely artificial island located in Los Angeles County, California, between the neighborhood of San Pedro in the city of Los Angeles, and the city of Long Beach. Terminal Island is roughly split between the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach, land use on the island is entirely industrial and port-related, as well as the Federal Correctional Institution, Terminal Island. The island was originally called Isla Raza de Buena Gente and later Rattlesnake Island and it was renamed Terminal Island in 1891. The site chosen for the new plant was on a barren mudflat known as Rattlesnake Island, construction of Plant No.1 began in 1910. In 1930, the Ford Motor Company built a facility called Long Beach Assembly, the factory remained until 1958 when manufacturing operations were moved inland to Pico Rivera. In 1927, a facility, Allen Field, was established on Terminal Island. The Naval Reserve established a center at the field and later took complete control. In 1941 the Long Beach Naval Station became located adjacent to the airfield, in 1942 the Naval Reserve Training Facility was transferred, and a year later NAB San Pedros status was downgraded to a Naval Air Station. Reeves Field as a Naval Air Station was disestablished in 1947, a large industrial facility now covers the site of the former Naval Air Station. The island was home to about 3,500 first- and second-generation Japanese Americans prior to World War II in a known as East San Pedro or Fish Island. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, all of the adult Issei males on Terminal Island were incarcerated by the FBI on February 9,1942. Immediately after the signing of Executive Order 9066 on February 19,1942 and they were subsequently sent to internment camps, and the entire neighborhood was razed. The Japanese community on Terminal Island was the first to be evacuated and interned en masse, because of the relative geographical isolation of the island, the citizens developed their own culture and even their own dialect. After World War II, the Terminal Islanders settled elsewhere, in 1971, they formed the Terminal Islanders Club, which has organized various events for its members. In 2002, the surviving second-generation citizens set up a memorial on Terminal Island to honor their parents, during World War II, Terminal Island was an important center for defense industries, especially shipbuilding. It was also, therefore, one of the first places where African Americans tried to effect their integration into defense-related work on the West Coast. In 1946, Howard Hughes moved his monstrous Spruce Goose airplane from his plant in Culver City to Terminal Island in preparation for its test flight, in its first and only flight, it took off from the island on November 2,1947. Preservation of vacant buildings earned the island a spot on the top 11 sites on the National Trust for Historic Preservations 2012 Most Endangered Historic Places List, in mid-2013, the Los Angeles Board of Harbor Commissioners approved a preservation plan
6.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
7.
California Department of Transportation
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The California Department of Transportation is an executive department within the U. S. state of California. Caltrans manages the highway system and is actively involved with public transportation systems throughout the state. It supports Amtrak California and the Capitol Corridor, the department is part of the state cabinet-level California State Transportation Agency. Like the majority of government agencies, Caltrans is headquartered in Sacramento. In 2015, Caltrans released a new statement, Provide a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California’s economy. The earliest predecessor of Caltrans was the Bureau of Highways, which was created by the California Legislature and this agency consisted of three commissioners who were charged with analyzing the state road system and making recommendations. At the time, there was no highway system, since roads were purely a local responsibility. After the commissioners submitted their report to the governor on November 25,1896, voters approved an $18 million bond issue for the construction of a state highway system in 1910, and the first Highway Commission was convened in 1911. On August 7,1912, the department broke ground on its first construction project, the year 1912 also saw the founding of the Transportation Laboratory and the creation of seven administrative divisions. In 1913, the legislature started requiring vehicle registration and allocated the funds to support regular highway maintenance. In 1921, the legislature turned the Department of Engineering into the Department of Public Works, the history of Caltrans and its predecessor agencies during the 20th century was marked by many firsts. In late 1972, the legislature approved a reorganization in which the Department of Public Works was merged with the Department of Aeronautics to become the modern Department of Transportation, for administrative purposes, Caltrans divides the State of California into 12 districts, supervised by district offices. Most districts cover multiple counties, District 12 is the district with one county. The largest districts by population are District 4 and District 7, like most state agencies, Caltrans maintains its headquarters in Sacramento, which is covered by District 3. Official California Department of Transportation website Named Highways, Freeways, Structures, and Other Appurtenances in California
8.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
9.
Annual average daily traffic
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Annual average daily traffic, abbreviated AADT, is a measure used primarily in transportation planning and transportation engineering. Traditionally, it is the volume of vehicle traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT is a useful and simple measurement of how busy the road is, newer advances from traffic data providers are now providing AADT by side of the road, by day of week and by time of day. One of the most important uses of AADT is for determining funding for the maintenance, in the United States the amount of federal funding a state will receive is related to the total traffic measured across its Highway network. Each year on June 15, every state in the United States submits a Highway Performance Monitoring System HPMS report, the HPMS report contains various information regarding the road segments in the state based on a sample of the road segments. In the report, the AADT is converted to Vehicle Miles Traveled, VMT is the AADT multiplied by the length of the road segment. To determine the amount of traffic a state has, the AADT cannot be summed for all road segments since an AADT is a rate, the VMT is summed and is used as an indicator of the amount of traffic a state has. For federal-funding, formulas are applied to include the VMT and other highway statistics, to measure AADT on individual road segments, traffic data is collected either by an automated traffic counter or hiring an observer to record traffic. There are two different techniques of measuring the AADTs for road segments, one technique is called continuous count data collection method. This is where sensors are embedded into a road and traffic data is measured all 365 days. The AADT would be the sum of the traffic for the entire year divided by 365 days. There is a problem calculating the AADT with this method. The continuous count equipment is not operating for the full 365 days due to being shut down for maintenance or repair, because of this, seasonal or day-of-week biases might skew the calculated AADT. In 1992, AASHTO released the AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs, for every month and day-of-week, a Monthly Average Day of Week is calculated. Each day-of-weeks MADW is then calculated across months to calculate an Annual Average Day of Week, finally, the AADWs are averaged to calculate an AADT. The United States Federal Highway Administration has adopted this method as the method in the. While providing the most accurate AADT, installing and maintaining continuous count stations method is costly, most agencies are only able to monitor a very small percentage of the roadway using this method. Most AADTs are generated using data collection methods sometimes known as the coverage count data collection method
10.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
11.
Vincent Thomas
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Vincent Tomasevich-Thomas was a Democratic Party politician from California who represented San Pedros 68th and 52nd Districts in the California Assembly from 1941-79. Born in Biloxi, Mississippi, Thomas was the third of eight children of Croatian immigrants who came to America in 1903 and his family moved from Mississippi to Oakland, California in 1917, and then to San Pedro in 1919. In 1928, he graduated from San Pedro High School and he received a Bachelor Degree from the University of Santa Clara in 1932 and attended the University of Santa Clara and Loyola Law Schools from 1932 to 1936. He worked as a sports coach and physical education instructor while in college. He also played football for Santa Clara, after graduating law school, Thomas did not open his own practice, but found a job in a fish processing factory that was owned by Martin J. Bogdanovich, a fellow Croatian from the Island of Vis. While with the factory, Thomas was encouraged to engage himself in politics, Thomas entered politics and was successful in his first run for office in 1940, resoundingly defeating Charles M. Smith to become the State Assemblyman for the 68th District representing San Pedro. He also served as Chairman of the Committee on Intergovernmental Relations, Thomas had the longest record of service in the Assembly and was known affectionately as Dean of the Assembly. In 1974, his district was redrawn as the 52nd Assembly District, ultimately, he served in the Assembly for 19 consecutive terms, until his first defeat in a re-election bid by Republican candidate Gerald N. Felando in 1978. The bridge was dedicated as the Vincent Thomas Bridge and opened to traffic on November 15,1963, Thomas paid the very first toll, which was then 25 cents. Thomas died in San Pedro, California in 1980, aged 72, Vincent Thomas Bridge at Structurae Vincent Thomas in Political Graveyard
12.
Pile bridge
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Piles in such cases are hammered to a depth where the grip or friction of the pile and the soil surrounding it will support the load of the bridge deck. Bridging solely using the method is nowadays a rare occurrence. Pile bridges have been used to cross rivers and other geological chasms since at least the time of the Roman Empire, during the English Middle Ages bridge building was a booming activity. Groups of piles, usually made of elm or oak were driven together into the soil, the pile hammer was a construction that allowed a heavy weight to fall on the top of the pile. Each pile wore a pile shoe tip made of iron, perhaps one of the most well-known of the medieval pile bridges, and one that was probably similarly constructed as a pile bridge by the Romans, are the older versions of London Bridge. However even when the first version of the bridge as a structure, was commenced during the reign of Henry II in 1176. Indeed, some of those piles while driven in 1176 were still enough to be drawn in 1921
13.
Cruise ship
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Transportation is not the only purpose of cruising, particularly on cruises that return passengers to their originating port, with the ports of call usually in a specified region of a continent. There are even cruises to nowhere or nowhere voyages where the ship makes 2–3 night round trips without any ports of call, by contrast, dedicated transport oriented ocean liners do line voyages and typically transport passengers from one point to another, rather than on round trips. The gradual evolution of passenger ship design from ocean liners to cruise ships has seen passenger cabins shifted from inside the hull to the superstructure with private verandas, the distinction between ocean liners and cruise ships has blurred, particularly with respect to deployment. Larger cruise ships have also engaged in longer trips such as transoceanic voyages which may not return to the port for months. Some former ocean liners operate as cruise ships, such as Marco Polo, the only dedicated transatlantic ocean liner in operation as a liner of December 2013 is Queen Mary 2 of the Cunard fleet. The industrys rapid growth has seen nine or more newly built ships catering to a North American clientele added every year since 2001, smaller markets, such as the Asia-Pacific region, are generally serviced by older ships. These are displaced by new ships in the growth areas. The worlds largest cruise ship is currently Royal Caribbean Internationals Harmony of the Seas beating her sister ships by about 2.15 meters, the birth of leisure cruising began with the formation of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company in 1822. The company started out as a line with routes between England and the Iberian Peninsula, adopting the name Peninsular Steam Navigation Company. It won its first contract to deliver mail in 1837, in 1840, it began mail delivery to Alexandria, Egypt, via Gibraltar and Malta. The company was incorporated by Royal Charter the same year, becoming the Peninsular, P&O first introduced passenger cruising services in 1844, advertising sea tours to destinations such as Gibraltar, Malta and Athens, sailing from Southampton. The forerunner of modern cruise holidays, these voyages were the first of their kind, the company later introduced round trips to destinations such as Alexandria and Constantinople. It underwent a period of expansion in the latter half of the 19th century, commissioning larger. Some sources mention Francesco I, flying the flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and she was built in 1831 and sailed from Naples in early June 1833, preceded by an advertising campaign. The cruise ship was boarded by nobles, authorities, and royal princes from all over Europe, however, it was restricted to the aristocracy of Europe and was not a commercial endeavour. Christian Wilhelm Allers published an account of it as Backschisch. The first vessel built exclusively for cruising, was Prinzessin Victoria Luise of Germany, designed by Albert Ballin. The ship was completed in 1900, the practice of luxury cruising made steady inroads on the more established market for transatlantic crossings
14.
Cargo ship
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A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the worlds seas and oceans each year, cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today, they are almost always built by welded steel, cargo ships/freighters can be divided into five groups, according to the type of cargo they carry. Tankers carry petroleum products or other liquid cargo, dry bulk carriers carry coal, grain, ore and other similar products in loose form. Multi-purpose vessels, as the name suggests, carry different classes of cargo – e. g. liquid, a Reefer ship is specifically designed and used for shipping perishable commodities which require temperature-controlled, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy products and other foodstuffs. Specialized types of cargo vessels include ships and bulk carriers. Cargo ships fall into two categories that reflect the services they offer to industry, liner and tramp services. Those on a published schedule and fixed tariff rates are cargo liners. Tramp ships do not have fixed schedules, users charter them to haul loads. Generally, the shipping companies and private individuals operate tramp ships. Cargo liners run on fixed schedules published by the shipping companies, each trip a liner takes is called a voyage. However, some cargo liners may carry passengers also, a cargo liner that carries 12 or more passengers is called a combination or passenger-cum-cargo line. The desire to trade routes over longer distances, and throughout more seasons of the year. Before the middle of the 19th century, the incidence of piracy resulted in most cargo ships being armed, sometimes heavily, as in the case of the Manila galleons. They were also escorted by warships. Piracy is still common in some waters, particularly in the Malacca Straits. In 2004, the governments of three nations agreed to provide better protection for the ships passing through the Straits. The waters off Somalia and Nigeria are also prone to piracy, while smaller vessels are also in danger along parts of the South American, Southeast Asian coasts, the words cargo and freight have become interchangeable in casual usage
15.
Victory ship
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The Victory ship was a class of cargo ship produced in large numbers by North American shipyards during World War II to replace losses caused by German submarines. A total of 531 Victory ships were built, one of the first acts of the United States War Shipping Administration upon its formation in February 1942 was to commission the design of what came to be known as the Victory class. The design was an enhancement of the Liberty ship, which had successfully produced in extraordinary numbers. Victory ships were larger than Liberty ships,14 feet longer at 455 feet,6 feet wider at 62 ft. Displacement was up just under 1,000 tons, to 15,200, with a raised forecastle and a more sophisticated hull shape to help achieve the higher speed, they had a quite different appearance from Liberty ships. To make them vulnerable to U-boat attacks, Victory ships made 15 to 17 knots,4 to 6 knots faster than the Libertys. The extra speed was achieved through more modern, efficient engines, most used steam turbines, which had been in short supply earlier in the war and reserved for warships. All were oil-fired, but for a handful of Canadian vessels completed with both coal bunkers and oil tanks, another improvement was electrically powered auxiliary equipment, rather than steam-driven machinery. To prevent the hull fractures that a few Liberty ships developed and these were manned by United States Navy Armed Guard personnel. The VC2-S-AP5 Haskell-class attack transports were armed with the 5-inch stern gun, one quad 40 mm Bofors cannon, four dual 40 mm Bofors cannon, the Haskells were operated and crewed exclusively by U. S. Navy personnel. The Victory ship was noted for good proportion of cubic between holds for a ship of its day. A Victory ships cargo hold one, two and five hatches are a single rigged with a capacity of 70,400,76,700, and 69,500 bale cubic feet respectively. Victory ships hold three and four hatches are double rigged with a capacity of 136,100 and 100,300 bale cubic feet respectively. Victory ship have built in mast, booms and derrick cranes, the first vessel was SS United Victory launched at Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation on 12 January 1944 and completed on 28 February 1944, making her maiden voyage a month later. American vessels frequently had a name incorporating the word Victory, the British and Canadians used Fort and Park respectively. Although initial deliveries were slow—only 15 had been delivered by May 1944—by the end of the war 531 had been constructed, because the Atlantic battle had been won by the time that the first of the Victory ships appeared none were sunk by U-boats. Three were sunk by Japanese kamikaze attack in April of 1945, many Victory ships were converted to troopship to bring US soldiers home at the end of World War II as part of Operation Magic Carpet. A total of 97 Victory ships were converted to carry up to 1,600 soldiers
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SS Lane Victory
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SS Lane Victory is an American Victory-class cargo ship used in World War II, the Korean War and Vietnam War. The ship was preserved in 1989 to serve as a ship in the San Pedro area of Los Angeles. As a rare surviving Victory ship, she was designated a U. S. National Historic Landmark, the school grew into a prominent liberal arts college. Lane Victory was built in Los Angeles by the California Shipbuilding Corporation, on her first voyage, June 27,1945, Lane Victory carried war supplies in the Pacific. The War Shipping Administration gave the operations of the ship to the American President Lines, United States Merchant Mariners operated the ship. The United States Navy Armed Guard, who manned the ships guns and she made two Pacific cruises, beginning July 10,1945 to Manus Island, and the second starting August 30,1945 to Guam, Saipan and Hawaii. The trip to Guam was to bring food to the island, on the way Lane Victory sailed through a typhoon and was tossed around for 14 days. On February 27,1946 her second voyage ended, with the end of World War II, she started shipping aid. In March 1946 she started delivering goods to Europe under the Marshall Plan, with the end of the aid plan, on May 11,1948 Lane Victory was laid up at Suisun Bay, California. In 1950 Lane Victory was taken out of storage and by October 1950 was back in service and she was then deployed to evacuate Korean civilians and United Nations personnel at Wonsan, North Korea. During December 1950 she evacuated over 3,800 U. S. troops and 1,100 vehicles from Hungnam while under attack during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. Lane Victory offloaded troops, vehicles and cargo as the cruiser USS Saint Paul, after unloading she evacuated 7,010 men, women and children, taking them south to safety. When the ship arrived 7,011 passengers disembarked, as a baby had been born during the voyage, on October 10,1953 she was laid up in Suisun Bay, California storage. An annual Korean War tribute day is held aboard SS Lane Victory in honor of those saved, in 1966 the ship was restored to duty again for the Vietnam War. She also saw duty during the conflict moving ammunition and supplies to, on April 29,1970 Lane Victory was laid up again at Suisun Bay for storage in the National Defense Reserve Fleet. During her three-war career, she traveled through the Far East Pacific, made a few transatlantic crossings, because of the ships excellent condition in storage at Suisun Bay, the Maritime Administration decided to set aside Lane Victory for preservation. President Ronald Reagan signed into law H. R.2032 on October 18,1988, joe Vernick, John Smith and a group of Merchant Marine veterans had worked for years for the ship to be released from the Reserve Fleet. Many upgrades were performed in order to bring Lane Victory up to Coast Guard standards and she was drydocked in 1992, and her hull was proved sound
17.
Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge
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The Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge was a vertical-lift bridge in the Port of Los Angeles. Dedicated on January 10,1948, the bridge allowed State Route 47 to cross over the Cerritos Channel and it was one of the largest vertical-lift bridges on the West Coast. At the time of its opening, it was the highest in the country with the deck weighing about 820 short tons and its towers are 186 feet tall above the roadway deck and about 236 feet tall when measured from the water level at high water. The bridge was decommissioned on October 12,2015 and will be replaced by a new, six-lane fixed-span bridge in order to meet current safety, a replacement bridge, tentatively titled State Route 47 Schuyler Heim Bridge Replacement, is expected to open in early 2017. The San Pedro, Los Angeles and Utah Railroad was incorporated on October 8,1887 with the goal to build a line from Rattlesnake Island on the east side of San Pedro Bay to Utah. The line included a 1, 000-foot long pile bridge spanning the mouth of the Los Angeles River, since the trestle bridge effectively blocked marine traffic from passing through the east end of Cerritos Slough, the War Department ordered the Salt Lake Railroad to demolish it in 1906. Although 3, 300-foot long tunnel was proposed as a replacement in February 1907, the location for the new drawbridge was set in May 1907, and the first piles were driven in December 1907. The bridge was completed in 1908 as a Scherzer Rolling Lift Bridge, as port traffic increased, plans to widen Cerritos Slough to 1,000 feet were advanced in 1914, connecting the Port of Los Angeles to the Port of Long Beach. However, the channel would require the newly-renamed Salt Lake Railroad to move its tracks on Terminal Island. After several years of negotiation, a compromise was reached, after widening, the waterway was renamed Cerritos Channel. That replacement bridge was completed in 1924 as the Badger Avenue Bridge, the 1908 bridge was moved to Washington State in 1934, where it is still in use as a bridge for BNSF Railway over the Cowlitz River near its mouth at Longview. Despite these early bridges, a road bridge was keenly desired by residents of Terminal Island. 1924 also saw work begin on an air base at Terminal Island. Port traffic continued to increase and the United States Navy began to expand its presence on Terminal Island in the early 1940s, including an expanded air base. Expansion plans for the Navy called for workers than could be accommodated over the Henry Ford Bridge. Construction on the began in 1946. The Chief Engineer for the project until October 1947 was H. E. Wilson, the bridge was named in honor of Commodore Schuyler Franklin Heim, who was in command of the Naval Air Station on Terminal Island in 1942. The state of California took over operation of the bridge from the city of Los Angeles in 1964, as of 1988, the bridge was being raised frequently, about 8,500 times per year
18.
Gerald Desmond Bridge
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The Gerald Desmond Bridge is a through arch bridge that carries four lanes of Ocean Boulevard from Interstate 710 in Long Beach, California, west across the Back Channel to Terminal Island. The bridge is named after Gerald Desmond, a prominent civic leader, prior to 1944, the only road access to Terminal Island was via Badger Avenue over the Henry Ford Bridge. The pontoon bridge was intended to last six months, but was not replaced until 1968,24 years after it had opened, depending on the level of the tide, road traffic had to descend 17 to 25 feet below the level on the shore. When marine traffic required the bridge to open, traffic delays of up to 15 minutes could occur, an estimate of seven people died after driving off the pontoon bridge. The 1968 through-arch bridge was designed by Moffatt & Nichol Engineers and was constructed by Bethlehem Steel as a replacement for the World War II-era pontoon bridge. Gerald Desmond served as City Attorney for Long Beach and played a significant role in obtaining tideland oil funds which helped finance the bridge that would bear his name. Desmond died in office at age 48 of kidney cancer, one year after Desmonds death in January 1964, ground-breaking for the construction of the new bridge occurred on October 19,1965, and it was completed in June 1968. Desmonds son, also named Gerald, sank the final golden bolt and it has a 527-foot-long suspended main span and a 155-foot vertical clearance spanning the Cerritos Channel. The western terminus of the bridge is on the east side of Terminal Island, the bridge separates the inner harbor of the Port of Long Beach from the middle harbor. At the time of its completion in 1968, traffic was projected to be modest, by some estimates, truck traffic across the bridge tripled in the years following the closure of the Long Beach NSY. Studies to widen the bridge were funded in 1987, Caltrans rated the structural sufficiency of the Desmond Bridge at 43 points out of possible 100 in 2007. Also, since the 1968 bridge roadway lacks emergency/breakdown lanes, multiple lanes would be shut down in the event of an accident, the Gerald Desmond Bridge became a barrier for large ships entering the Inner Harbor at Long Beach, with its restrictive 155-foot vertical clearance. This restrictive vertical clearance was cited as a factor in a drop in the Port of Long Beachs share of United States container imports. According to U. S. census data, the ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles handled 32% of U. S. container imports in 2013, down from 39% in 2002. Port officials estimated that 10% of all cargo in the United States passed over the Desmond Bridge in 2004. In March 2012, the insufficient vertical clearance of the bridge prevented passage of the 12,562 TEU MSC Fabiola, the height restriction prevented the ship from docking at the Mediterranean Shipping Company dock, it docked at the Hanjin terminal instead. The 1968 steel arch bridge developed numerous issues, and the Port of Long Beach suggested it would be economical to replace the bridge. The new bridge will allow access to the port for the tallest container ships, for the bridge to be so tall, long approaches will be required to allow trucks to cross
19.
Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)
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Route 110, consisting of State Route 110 and Interstate 110, locally referred to as the one ten, is a state highway in the Los Angeles area of the U. S. state of California, built to freeway standards. The entire Route 110 connects San Pedro and the Port of Los Angeles with Downtown Los Angeles, i-110 is one of two 3-digit interstate designations to appear on opposite coasts, with I-280 in California and New Jersey being the other. This route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, in addition, the Harbor Transitway, a grade-separated bus and high-occupancy vehicle corridor in the median of the 110, runs between State Route 91 and the south side of Downtown Los Angeles. The Harbor Freeway, along with the Long Beach Freeway, are the means for freight from the port of Los Angeles to rail yards. Its interchange with the Santa Monica Freeway is notoriously busy and congested, SR110 continues north on the Arroyo Seco Parkway to Pasadena. The Harbor Freeway is noted for its elaborate high-occupancy toll lane feature, with the HOT lanes elevated above the rest of traffic in many areas, myers, Inc. as HOV lanes and converted to HOT lanes in 2012. In the 1924 Major Street Traffic Plan for Los Angeles, a widening of Figueroa Street to San Pedro as a road to the Port of Los Angeles was proposed. Progress was slow, and in 1933 the state legislature added the entire length to the highway system as Route 165. The entire length of Route 165 became Sign Route 11 in 1934, the state completed the Arroyo Seco Parkway which had been added to the state highway system in 1935 as Route 205, in early 1941, providing a faster route between SR11 at Avenue 26 and Pasadena. US66 was moved to the new route, while SR11 remained on Figueroa Street and Linda Vista Avenue, construction of a freeway to San Pedro was much slower, despite having been in the earliest plans for an integrated system. The Harbor Freeway gradually pushed south, opening to Olympic Boulevard on March 23,1954, on March 27,1956, the highway was extended to 42nd Street, and on April 24,1957 it reached temporary ramps at 88th Place. There it connected with a section that had been open since June 19,1956, along with the Vincent Thomas Bridge to Terminal Island, the final piece in San Pedro opened on July 9,1970, completing the Harbor Freeway to its present length. In December 1978, the Harbor Freeway was approved as an Interstate Highway by the FHWA, in 1981, the SR11 designation was renumbered as Interstate 110 on the Harbor Freeway, and State Route 110 on the Pasadena Freeway. He performed his modifications in broad daylight, disguised as a Caltrans worker, in that district, Caltrans has three sign crews, each thinking one of the other two crews did the installation. After nine months, at Ankroms request, the Los Angeles Downtown News broke the story. Prior to Ankroms work, the only signage directing motorists to the 5 North off-ramp came at a quarter-mile before the exit, the signs were inspected by Caltrans to ensure they would not fall off onto the road below. Ankrom was never charged, despite statements from officials that his actions were illegal, ankrom referred to his sign project as Guerilla Public Service. These new signs include Ankroms original improvements, instead, the recent push has been to restore and preserve the Pasadena Freeway as a historic landmark
20.
Terminal Island Freeway
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State Route 103, part of the Terminal Island Freeway, is a short state highway in Los Angeles and Long Beach. It runs from a split with State Route 47 northeast to an interchange with State Route 1. Beyond SR1, the freeway is owned by the city of Long Beach to its end at Willow Street, SR47 turns west there to its end at Interstate 110. The freeway does not directly connect to any other freeways and it was originally planned to continue to the Interstate 710 and Interstate 405 interchange. It is heavily used by trucks carrying cargo to and from the Port of Los Angeles, because of its isolation from residential and business areas, and the industrial-looking neighborhood it runs through, the freeway is frequently used to film freeway scenes for major motion pictures. Terminator 2, Judgment Day and Mr. & Mrs. Smith were two movies to use it for location purposes, SR103 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System. The state route begins at Interstate 710 in Long Beach, where it begins an overlap with SR47. It then begins as a freeway, whence it follows the Schuyler Heim Bridge over the Cerritos Channel and it then leaves SR47 and reenters Long Beach, where it meets SR1. Prior to 1969, Route 103 was what is now State Route 15, the entire Terminal Island Freeway was once part of State Route 47, and was to continue north to Interstate 10 near downtown Los Angeles. SR47 was redefined in 1983 to split from the north of the Schuyler Heim Bridge. Except where prefixed with a letter, postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964, based on the alignment that existed at the time, and do not necessarily reflect current mileage. R reflects a realignment in the route since then, M indicates a second realignment, L refers an overlap due to a correction or change, segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted. The entire route is in Los Angeles County, California Roads portal AARoads - State Route 47/103 Caltrans, Route 103 highway conditions California Highways, SR103
21.
Interstate 710
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Route 710, consisting of State Route 710 and Interstate 710, is a state highway in the Los Angeles area of the U. S. state of California, mostly built to interstate standards. Interstate 710 is an auxiliary interstate freeway running for 23 miles through Los Angeles County. South of I-5, Interstate 710 follows the course of the Los Angeles River, South of SR1 in Long Beach, SR710 is officially part of the Seaside Freeway. Until this gap is constructed, the segment already completed from California Boulevard north to its terminus at State Route 134. Prior to 1983, the road was not an Interstate, although it was built to Interstate standards. Until 1964 it was State Route 15, but it was renumbered to State Route 7 in the 1964 renumbering because of the existence of Interstate 15, the route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System. Section 622 of the California Streets and Highways Code defines Route 710 as from Route 1 to Route 210 in Pasadena, the southern terminus of the freeway presently signed as Interstate 710 is at Ocean Boulevard in Long Beach. From there, the Long Beach Freeway follows the course of the Los Angeles River to Atlantic Boulevard in the city of Bell. 710 then travels north, east of downtown Los Angeles, to its current northern terminus at Valley Boulevard in Alhambra. Near its southern terminus, I-710 separates into three spur freeways and this spur becomes a surface arterial at the intersection with South Chestnut Place and the Pike Parking Garage. Meanwhile, the segment continues south as the Seaside Freeway, keeping the I-710 designation. West carry both the Seaside Freeway name and I-710 designation to the approaches to the Gerald Desmond Bridge, the mainline continues south as Harbor Scenic Drive, leading to the eastern piers of the Port of Long Beach and the Queen Mary. Currently, the Interstate 710 designation terminates at the interchange with SR-47, while the actual roadway, there is a part of 710 in Pasadena that is constructed to freeway standards, extending from California Boulevard north to the Foothill /Ventura freeway interchange. However, the designation on this freeway stub is unsigned. Legislative Route 167 was defined in 1933 to run from San Pedro east to Long Beach, an extension was added in 1947, taking it north to Pasadena. State Route 15 was signed in 1934 along the section of Legislative Route 167 from Pacific Coast Highway in Long Beach north to Garvey Avenue in Monterey Park, the original pre-freeway alignment ran along Los Robles Avenue and Atlantic Boulevard. The freeway replacement of SR 15/LR167 was built from 1953 to 1965, the Long Beach Freeway was approved as a chargeable interstate in September 1983, so Caltrans replaced the SR7 signs with Interstate 710 signs in 1984. It was added shortly after the Harbor Freeway went up, replacing the SR11 signs with Interstate 110 in 1981, the short stub in Pasadena was built in 1975, along with the adjacent sections of Interstate 210 and State Route 134
22.
Eastside Los Angeles
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East Los Angeles was founded in 1870 by John Strother Griffin, who was called the father of East Los Angeles. That land was a rancho called La Rosa de Castilla, on the east side of the Los Angeles River, in late 1874 the two men offered an additional thirty-five acres, divided into 65x165-foot lots, for $150 each. They planned the laying out of streets of the present community of East Los Angeles, in 2000, a total of 286,222 people lived in the 20.66 square miles of the Eastside region, amounting to 13,852 people per square mile. The neighborhood was not especially diverse ethnically, with a percentage of Latino people. The ethnic breakdown was Latino,91. 2%, Asian,5. 2%, white,2. 3%, black,0. 7%, just 5. 1% of residents aged 25 and older had a four-year college degree. More than two-thirds of the lived in shared housing, and 33. 2% were homeowners. A. Project of the Los Angeles Times defines the Eastside as comprising Boyle Heights, El Sereno, Lincoln Heights, however, the boundaries are a matter of perennial discussion and debate among the residents of Los Angeles. The Mapping L. A. Eric Garcetti, the mayor of Los Angeles, the trend led the Silver Lake Neighborhood Council to declare officially in February 2014 that Silver Lake is not part of the Eastside. The Sixth Street Viaduct, also known as the Sixth Street Bridge was demolished, prior to the demolition, Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti recorded the rap song 101SlowJam, backed by musicians from Roosevelt High School, and issued it via a video on his own YouTube channel. The public service announcement video advertised the closure of parts of the 101 Freeway to accommodate the demolition of the viaduct and my Family/Mi Familia, Motion Picture of life in East Los Angeles Born in East L. A. East Los Angeles, History of a Barrio, austin, Texas, University of Texas Press. The Eastsider LA East Los Angeles travel guide from Wikivoyage East LA Guide
23.
Light-emitting diode
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
24.
Solar panel
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Solar panel refers to a panel designed to absorb the suns rays as a source of energy for generating electricity or heating. A photovoltaic module is a packaged, connect assembly of typically 6×10 photovoltaic solar cells, photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, the efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few commercially available solar modules that exceed 22% efficiency, a single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power, most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a pack for storage, interconnection wiring. The most common application of solar panels is solar heating systems. The price of power has continued to fall so that in many countries it is cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the grid. Photovoltaic modules use light energy from the Sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect, the majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer, cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells, the cells must be connected electrically in series, one to another. Externally, most of photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors type to facilitate easy connections to the rest of the system. Modules electrical connections are made in series to achieve an output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals, bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated. Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells and this enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area in a cost-effective way. Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and this has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%. Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate is around 21. 5% in new products typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation
25.
California Highway Patrol
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The California Highway Patrol is a law enforcement agency of the U. S. state of California. The CHP has patrol jurisdiction over all California highways and can act as the state police. It was reestablished as a department by Governor Earl Warren in 1947. The CHP gradually assumed increased responsibility beyond the enforcement of the State Vehicle Act and it is currently organized as part of the California State Transportation Agency. In addition to its patrol duties, the CHP also provides other services including protecting state buildings and facilities. The CHP also works with law enforcement agencies, providing assistance in investigations, patrol. The California Highway Patrol is the largest state agency in the United States, with more than 10,500 employees,7,200 of whom are sworn officers. The agency has jurisdiction over all California state routes, U. S. Highways, Interstate Highways. While the agencys mission is related to transportation, it also possesses full law enforcement authority. Furthermore, CHP officers act as bailiffs for the California Supreme Court and California Court of Appeal, CHP officers enforce the California Vehicle Code, pursue fugitives spotted on the highways, and attend to all significant obstructions and accidents within their jurisdiction. Beginning in 2013, the CHP switched to the Ford Explorer-based Ford Police Interceptor Utility fleet vehicles because the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor was being phased out of production. CHP officers are responsible for investigating and disposing of car accidents, disabled vehicles, debris and they are often the first responders at the scene of an accident, and in turn summon paramedics, firefighters, tow truck drivers or Caltrans personnel. The CHP files traffic collision reports for state highways and within unincorporated areas, the CHP responds to and investigates all accidents involving school buses throughout the state including incorporated cities. CHP also has Multidisciplinary Accident Investigation Teams for the investigation of traffic collisions, the CHP also publishes data on traffic accidents in California from a database called SWITRS. After the September 11,2001 attacks the CHP became responsible for securing and patrolling a number of potential terrorist targets in California and these sites include nuclear power plants, government buildings, and key infrastructure sites. The CHP also maintains a SWAT team on 24‑hour stand‑by to respond to any terrorist activity, in September 2005, the CHP sent its two Mobile Field Forces to the Gulf Coast to assist in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. CHP investigators also work closely with agents of the State Bureau of Investigation, additionally, the CHP has dozens of narcotic patrol and explosive detection K‑9 teams stationed throughout the state. One of the California Highway Patrols additional responsibilities includes a governor protection detail, average officer pay was $118,000 in 2014
26.
Sapphire Princess
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Sapphire Princess is a cruise ship owned by Princess Cruises that entered service in 2004 as the twin sister ship of Diamond Princess. She is one of the worlds largest cruise ships, with a capacity of 2,670 passengers and is the sixth Gem Class ship built by Princess Cruises, Sapphire Princess was christened on June 10,2004 in Seattle—the first cruise ship ever to be christened in that port. Currently, Sapphire Princess is sailing Asian cruises from Shanghai year-round until the arrival of the Majestic Princess in 2017, after the arrival, it will resume sailing from China in the summer months, then from November through February, sailing roundtrip Asia cruises out of Singapore. Sapphire Princess is technically a ship to Grand Princess, but has several differences. The most notable of these is that the Skywalkers Nightclub suspended across her stern was moved to the back of the funnel, which opens up the terrace pool area. Sapphire takes personal choice dining another step further by splitting the two dining rooms of its older sisters into four, each of which has its own theme. Another dramatic alteration is the repositioning of the Internet Café to the Promenade Deck adjacent to Sabatinis and this moves the Wheelhouse Bar farther to the front of the ship, in place of the Crown Grill. She is otherwise identical to her older sisters. Sapphire Princess was built in Japan by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the second Princess Cruises ship to be built in a Japanese shipyard and her only sister ship, with whom she swapped names, Diamond Princess during construction. The name swap occurred because a fire swept through the original Diamond Princess during construction. Both sister ships were being constructed at the time, so the original Sapphire assumed the role of Diamond. This name swap assisted in keeping the date of Diamond Princess on time. Sapphire Princess was the second Princess Cruises ship to be built in a Japanese shipyard, at the beginning of 2012 Sapphire Princess was refitted with Princess signature Piazza in place of the center atrium, including the International Café and a pizzeria. Princess also added the Movies Under the Stars poolside theatre to the top deck, the refit brings Sapphire Princess in alignment with the newer features from Grand Princess and others in the Grand Fleet. Her diesel-electric plant includes four diesel generators and a gas turbine generator, the diesel generators are Wärtsilä46 series common rail engines, two of the straight 9-cylinder configuration, and two of the straight 8-cylinder configuration. The 8- and 9-cylinder engines can produce approximately 8 1⁄2 and 9 1⁄2 MW of power respectively and these engines are fueled with Heavy Fuel oil and Marine Gas Oil depending on the local regulations regarding emissions, as MGO produces much lower emissions but is much more expensive. The gas turbine generator is a GE2500, producing a peak of 25 MW of power and this generator is much more expensive to run than the diesel generators, and is used mostly in areas, such as Alaska, where the emissions regulations are strict. It is also used when top speed is required to make it to a port in a time period
27.
Gone in 60 Seconds (1974 film)
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Gone in 60 Seconds is a 1974 American action film written, directed, produced by, and starring H. B. It centers on a group of car thieves and the 48 cars they must steal in a matter of days, the film is known for having wrecked and destroyed 93 cars in a 40 minute car chase scene. This film is the basis for the 2000 remake starring Nicolas Cage, Maindrian Pace is a respectable insurance investigator who runs an automobile chop shop in Long Beach, California. As an insurance industry insider, Pace does have one small idiosyncrasy, Pace is approached by a South American drug lord who offers $400,000 in exchange for the theft of 48 specific vehicles, to be delivered to the Long Beach docks within five days. The list includes limousines, semi-trailer trucks, vintage cars, and exotics, nevertheless, Pace is confident that the order can be filled. Mapping out a strategy, the thieves scout out their vehicular targets. The plan goes smoothly – with even some of the more eclectic vehicles acquired with relative ease –, chief of these difficulties is a yellow,1973 Ford Mustang, code named Eleanor. The first Eleanor they come across is occupied, they locate this car again, a second Eleanor is acquired seemingly without issue. Further tension enters into the picture when a white Cadillac – stolen as part of the order – is found to contain several kilos of heroin stashed in its trunk. Paces brother-in-law, Eugene, sees the heroin as a side business, Pace disagrees. Against Eugenes vehement protests, Pace does not relinquish the heroin, the theft of all 48 vehicles is soon completed, but the second Eleanor is discovered to be uninsured within hours of delivery to the docks. After pleas from fiancée Pumpkin Chase, Pace agrees to return it – only because he is aware of a match for Eleanor at the International Towers in Long Beach. At the same time, Eugene learns of the Cadillacs fate and attempts to start a brawl, Pace prepares to steal the third Eleanor, unaware that Eugene has anonymously tipped off the police. As a result of the tip-off, two detectives in an unmarked Mercury corner the disguised Pace as he exits the International Towers, a 40-minute car chase ensues, covering 6 California cities from Long Beach to Carson. Eluding the police with speed and driving skill, Pace keeps from being caught by police –, Pace is now desperate, police blockades and surveillance surround the areas. Pace spots another Eleanor Mustang pulling into a car wash, realizing an opportunity, Pace drives the abused Mustang up to the wash entrance, leaves it with the staff, and then dupes the owner of the fourth Mustang. After a quick license plate swap and removal of his disguise, meanwhile, the duped owner is inquiring with the manager of the car wash as to the whereabouts of her Mustang – and faints at the sight of the wrecked car as it exits the wash bay. The police, spotting the wrecked Mustang, quickly descend upon the scene to arrest the manager of the car wash, the film ends as Pace clears a police roadblock, driving the fourth Eleanor
28.
Gone in 60 Seconds (2000 film)
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Gone in 60 Seconds is a 2000 American action heist film, starring Nicolas Cage, Angelina Jolie, Giovanni Ribisi, Christopher Eccleston, Robert Duvall, Vinnie Jones, and Will Patton. The film was directed by Dominic Sena, written by Scott Rosenberg, and produced by Jerry Bruckheimer, producer of The Rock and Con Air and Armageddon, Halicki film of the same name. The film was shot throughout Los Angeles and Long Beach, California, Kip Raines, an aspiring car thief in Los Angeles, has taken the offer of stealing fifty expensive cars for Raymond Calitri, a British gangster, via Calitris associate, Atley. Detectives Castleback and Drycoff seize the cars and begin an investigation, Calitri orders Kip kidnapped and threatens to kill him for failing. Atley contacts Kips older brother, Randall Memphis Raines, a car thief having gone straight years before. Memphis attempts to negotiate for Kips release, but Calitri forces him to accept the same job Kip had, Kip is turned over to Memphis, but Calitri warns that he only has 72 hours to complete the heist or he will kill Kip. After getting their mothers approval to do whatever it takes to save Kip, Memphis begins talking with his mentor, Otto Halliwell and assembling a crew, including Donny Astricky and Sphinx. Memphis also tries to engage his former lover, Sara Sway Wayland, Kip offers the help of his own gang, as they know tricks for dealing with more modern cars than Memphis crew knows. They identify the fifty cars with female code names and identify the locations where they can be stolen. Memphis sees one car is a 1967 Ford Shelby GT500, dubbed Eleanor, to avoid police detection, they plan to steal all the cars over a few short hours just prior to Calitris deadline. Castleback and Drycoff learn Memphis is back in town, and believe he is about to engage in a car theft, warning him to keep himself, the detectives tail Memphis but he remains careful to avoid giving the police a reason to arrest him while scouting the vehicles. The detectives investigation at the warehouse reveals that to get some of the cars, Kips gang had to acquire electronic keys, the night of the heist arrives, and most of the cars are stolen without incident as they are delivered to Calitris dockside warehouse. When Memphis approaches one of the cars, he recognizes the signs of surveillance. Instead, they are able to recover the previously stolen versions of the cars from police impound. They return to the warehouse and discover Calitris list of written in UV-sensitive paint, matching up with those they had been watching. Castleback recognizes the GT500 on the list as the likely last car to be based on Memphis previous thefts. With all the other cars collected, Memphis proceeds to steal Eleanor and this leads to a chase across the city, but Memphis eventually ditches the police chasing him near Calitris dock. He delivers the car minutes after the deadline, and Calitri refuses to accept it, considering his deal null
29.
Lethal Weapon 2
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Lethal Weapon 2 is a 1989 American buddy cop action comedy film directed by Richard Donner, and starring Mel Gibson, Danny Glover, Joe Pesci, Patsy Kensit, Derrick OConnor and Joss Ackland. It is a sequel to the 1987 film Lethal Weapon and second installment in the Lethal Weapon series, the film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Sound Editing. The film received positive reviews and earned more than $227 million worldwide. One year after the events of Lethal Weapon, LAPD sergeants Martin Riggs and it soon becomes clear that both cases are related, After an attempt on Leos life, Riggs and Murtaugh learn of the formers murky past laundering funds for vengeful drug smugglers. Two assassins attack Murtaugh at his home, but he kills them in the ensuing fight and he succeeds in drowning Rika, but a vengeful Riggs manages to escape. He phones Murtaugh, declaring an intention to pursue Rudd and avenge his wife, Rika, and their fallen friends, while investigating a guarded 40 foot cargo container at the docks, Riggs and Murtaugh are locked inside by Rudds men. They break out of the box, scattering two pallets of Rudds drug money into the harbor in the process, Riggs and Murtaugh engage in a firefight with some of Rudds men aboard the Alba Varden before separating to hunt down Rudd. Riggs confronts and fights Vorstedt hand-to-hand, culminating when Riggs stabs Vorstedt with his own knife, Rudd retaliates by shooting Riggs in the back multiple times with an antique Broomhandle Mauser pistol. Ignoring his claim to immunity, Murtaugh kills Rudd with a single shot from his revolver and tends to Riggs. Producer Joel Silver asked writer of the first film Shane Black to write the script for the sequel in the spring of 1987 and Black agreed. Although he was struggling with issues, Black still managed to write the first draft along with his friend, novelist Warren Murphy. Their original title for the script was Play Dirty, when his script was rejected, Black felt that he had failed the producers. He initially offered to give his payment back, but his agent talked him out of it, Black also refused to re-write the script and quit from the project after working for six months on it. Black later said how the problem with the film was that they did too much comedy. The final version of the written by Jeffrey Boam that was used for filming was completely different from Blacks draft. The character of Leo Getz was originally a character in Blacks draft with only one scene. There was also a scene where Riggs gets tortured by them in a way to how he was in first film. There was also a scene in the script where a plane full of cocaine gets destroyed
30.
To Live and Die in L.A. (film)
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To Live and Die in L. A. is a 1985 American action thriller film directed by William Friedkin and based on the novel by former U. S. Secret Service agent Gerald Petievich, who co-wrote the screenplay with Friedkin, the film features William Petersen, Willem Dafoe and John Pankow among others. Wang Chung composed and performed the music soundtrack. The film tells the story of the lengths to which two Secret Service agents go to arrest a counterfeiter, richard Chance and Jimmy Hart are United States Secret Service agents assigned as counterfeiting investigators in its Los Angeles field office. Chance has a reputation for reckless behavior, while Hart is three days away from retirement, alone, Hart stakes out a warehouse in the desert thought to be a print house of counterfeiter Rick Masters. After Masters and Jack, his bodyguard, kill Hart, Chance explains to his new partner, John Vukovich, the two agents attempt to get information on Masters by putting one of his criminal associates, attorney Max Waxman, under surveillance. Vukovich falls asleep on watch, and consequently they fail to catch Masters in the act of murdering Waxman, while Vukovich wants to go by the book, Chance becomes increasingly reckless and unethical in his efforts to catch Masters. While Chance relies on his relationship with parolee/informant Ruth for information, Vukovich meets privately with Masters attorney. Masters is reluctant to work them, but ultimately agrees to print them $1,000,000 worth of fake bills. In turn, Masters demands $30,000 in front money, to get the cash, Chance persuades Vukovich to aid him in robbing Thomas Ling, a man whom Ruth previously told Chance is bringing $50,000 cash to purchase stolen diamonds. Chance and Vukovich intercept Ling at the station and seize the cash in an industrial area. Lings cover people follow them, though, open fire and accidentally shoot Ling, Chance and Vukovich try to evade them through the streets, freeways and even one of the flood control channels, before a final escape by going the wrong way on the freeway. The next day, the end of their daily briefing includes an FBI bulletin that Ling was its undercover agent, only a generic description of the assailants and their vehicle is given. While Chance and Vukovich did not kill Ling, Vukovich is nonetheless consumed by guilt, while Chance is apathetic and focused solely on getting Masters. Unable to persuade Chance to come clean about their role in Lings death, Vukovich meets with Grimes, Vukovich refuses to implicate his partner. Chance and Vukovich meet with Masters for the exchange, after inspecting the counterfeit million, the agents attempt to arrest Masters and Jack, but Jack pulls a shotgun. Jack and Chance fatally shoot each other, and Masters escapes, Vukovich gives chase, going to a warehouse a previous informant had told them about. By the time he arrives, Masters has set fire to everything inside, Vukovich confronts Masters and during a brief struggle, Masters asks Vukovich why he did not take Grimes advice to turn his partner in, revealing that Grimes was working on Masters behalf all along
31.
City of Angels (film)
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City of Angels is a 1998 American romantic fantasy drama film directed by Brad Silberling. The film stars Nicolas Cage and Meg Ryan, set in Los Angeles, California, the film is a very loose remake of Wim Wenders 1987 German film Wings of Desire, which was set in Berlin. Seth is one of many angels who watch over humans and protect them in unseen ways, Seths main responsibility is to appear to those who are close to death and guide them to the next life. As part of task, Seth and one of his fellow angels, Cassiel. Despite these daily encounters, they have trouble understanding human beings, despite this, they develop a friendship which soon turns to mutual attraction, although Maggie is already involved with one of her colleagues, Jordan Ferris, at the hospital. Seth then meets Nathaniel Messinger, one of Maggies patients, who can sense Seths presence and that of other angels. Nathaniel soon relates to Seth that he, too, had once been an angel but, by way of the free will granted to angels, Seth begins to consider exercising this option so that he can be with Maggie in a fully physical and emotional relationship. When Maggie receives a proposal from Jordan, she finds herself having to choose between him and Seth. Having realized that Seth is impervious to injury, Maggie confronts him and demands to know who or what he really is, but she is unable to accept the revelation and sends him away. Maggie later talks with Nathaniel, who reveals his own angelic origin, explaining why he himself chose to become human. Seth decides to become human through the symbolic gesture of jumping from the top of a skyscraper, immediately upon awakening, he starts to experience all of the human feelings and sensations that he had never been able to understand, beginning with physical injury and pain. Up until this point, Seths personality and emotions, like those of all the angels, had been very subdued. Now human, Seth heads to the hospital to see Maggie, penniless and naive, he cannot pay for the journey and ends up getting mugged and having his boots taken by a gang of roving predators. He eventually hitches a ride to Lake Tahoe and appears, soaked and cold, seeing the split lip and condensed breath coming from his mouth in the cold air, Maggie realizes that he has given up his exalted status for her love. She sees to his wounds and they enjoy warm, passionate lovemaking at last. The next morning, as Seth is in the shower, enjoying his first sensation of running hot water on his body, Maggie rides her bike to a local store to buy some pears for him. On her way back, happy and fulfilled, she rides her bike with her eyes closed and her arms wide open and her happiness is cut short by a truck that catches her by surprise when it pulls out in front of her. Seth senses that Maggie is in trouble and runs to her aid and he arrives in time for Maggie to tell him that she sees the angel who has come to escort her away
32.
Heat (1995 film)
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Heat is a 1995 American crime film written, produced and directed by Michael Mann, and starring Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, and Val Kilmer. De Niro plays Neil McCauley, a thief, while Pacino plays Lt. Vincent Hanna. The story is based on the former Chicago police officer Chuck Adamsons pursuit during the 1960s of a criminal named McCauley, after whom De Niros character is named. Mann originally wrote and filmed the script as a pilot of a television series and it was well received by critics. Career criminals Neil McCauley and his crew, Chris Shiherlis, Michael Cheritto, during the heist, Waingro impulsively kills a guard, infuritating McCauley. As the team attempts to kill Waingro, he escapes, McCauleys fence, Nate, suggests he sell the stolen bonds back to their original owner, money launderer Roger Van Zant. Van Zant agrees, but instructs his men to ambush McCauley at the meeting, McCauley survives the ambush and vows revenge against Van Zant. LAPD Lieutenant Vincent Hanna, working with Sergeant Drucker and Detectives Sammy Casals, Mike Bosko and Danny Schwartz, investigate the heist and they discover their next target to be a precious metals depository. The unit stakes out the depository and observe the crime in progress, Hanna, dissatisfied with the lack of evidence, lets McCauleys crew escape. Despite the increased police surveillance, McCauleys crew agrees to one last brazen bank robbery worth $12 million to secure their financial futures, Waingro approaches Van Zant with information about eliminating McCauleys crew. McCauley starts a relationship with Eady, a designer he meets in a cafe, Hanna moves into a hotel after learning his wife Justine is having an affair. Hanna pulls over McCauley on the freeway and invites him to coffee, both men reaffirm their commitment to their work and to using lethal force if necessary to stop the other. After coffee, Hanna discovers that McCauleys crew have evaded their surveillance, when Trejo withdraws from the robbery, McCauley recruits ex-convict Donald Breedan into the crew. Hannas unit receives a tip and interrupt McCauleys crew in the middle of their bank robbery. In the ensuing gunfight, several officers, including Bosko, are killed, while McCauleys crew loses Breedan. Shiherlis is wounded, but escapes with McCauley, McCauley leaves Shiherlis with a doctor to treat his wounds. He breaks into Trejos house to find Trejo near death, Trejo reveals that Waingro alerted Van Zant to their bank robbery, who subsequently informed the police. McCauley finishes off Trejo at his own request, then kills Van Zant at his home, McCauley approaches Eady, who has accepted his criminal activities, with a plan to flee to New Zealand
33.
Robert De Niro
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Robert Anthony De Niro is an American actor, producer and director who has both Italian and American citizenship. He was cast as the young Vito Corleone in the 1974 film The Godfather Part II and his longtime collaboration with director Martin Scorsese earned him the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Jake La Motta in the 1980 film Raging Bull. He received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2003, the Golden Globe Cecil B, deMille Award in 2010, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama in 2016. De Niros first major roles were in the sports drama, Bang the Drum Slowly. He earned Academy Award nominations for the psychological thrillers Taxi Driver and Cape Fear, De Niro received additional nominations for Michael Ciminos Vietnam war drama, The Deer Hunter, Penny Marshalls drama Awakenings, and David O. Russells romantic comedy-drama, Silver Linings Playbook. His portrayal of gangster Jimmy Conway in Scorseses crime film, Goodfellas, other notable performances include roles in Once Upon a Time in America, Brazil, The Untouchables, Heat, and Casino. He has directed and starred in such as the crime drama A Bronx Tale. Robert Anthony De Niro was born in the Greenwich Village area of Manhattan, New York, the son of Virginia Admiral and Robert De Niro Sr. Both of his parents were painters, his father was of half Italian and half Irish descent, while his mother was of half German ancestry, with her other roots being French, English and Dutch. De Niros parents, who had met at the classes of Hans Hofmann in Provincetown, Massachusetts. De Niro was raised by his mother in the Greenwich Village and his father lived within walking distance and De Niro spent much time with him as he grew up. His mother was raised Presbyterian but became an atheist as an adult, against his parents wishes, his grandparents had him secretly baptized into the Catholic Church while he was staying with them during his parents divorce. De Niro attended PS41, an elementary school in Manhattan. He then went to Elisabeth Irwin High School, the upper school of the Little Red School House. He was accepted into the High School of Music and Art for the ninth grade, De Niro began high school at the private McBurney School and later attended the private Rhodes Preparatory School, although he never graduated from either. Nicknamed Bobby Milk for his pallor, De Niro hung out with a group of kids as a youth in Little Italy. The direction of his future had already been foreshadowed by his debut at age 10. Along with finding relief from shyness through performing, he was also fixated by cinema and he studied acting at the Stella Adler Conservatory, as well as Lee Strasbergs Actors Studio
34.
Mission: Impossible
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Mission, Impossible is an American television series that was created and initially produced by Bruce Geller. It chronicles the missions of a team of government agents known as the Impossible Missions Force. In the first season, the team is led by Dan Briggs, played by Steven Hill, Jim Phelps, a hallmark of the series shows Briggs or Phelps receiving his instructions on a recording that then self-destructs, followed by the theme music composed by Lalo Schifrin. The series was filmed and financed by Desilu Productions, and aired on the CBS network from September 1966 to March 1973, the series was revived in 1988 for two seasons on ABC, retaining only Graves in the cast. It also inspired a series of motion pictures starring Tom Cruise. The series follows the exploits of the Impossible Missions Force, a team of secret agents used for covert missions against dictators, evil organizations. On occasion, the IMF also mounts unsanctioned, private missions on behalf of its members, the identities of the higher echelons of the organization that oversees the IMF are never revealed. In the 1980s revival, it is suggested the IMF is an independent agency of the United States government, the leader of the IMF is initially Dan Briggs, played by Steven Hill. As an Orthodox Jew, Hill had to leave on Fridays at 4 p. m. to be home before sundown and was not available until after dark the next day, Hill had other problems as well. Unable to come to terms with Hill, the producers re-shot the episode without him, as far as Hills religious requirements were concerned, line producer Joseph Gantman simply had not understood what had been agreed to. He told author Patrick J. White, If someone understands your problems and says he understands them, but if he doesnt care about your problems, then you begin to really resent him. Steven Hill may have exactly the same way. In theory, Briggs and Phelps are the only members of the IMF. Still, many also feature guest stars playing one-time additional agents who have special skills. His contract gave producers an option to have him render services for additional episodes, to fill the void left by Hills Sabbath absences, producers wound up using Landau for more episodes, always as a guest star. He eventually struck a deal to appear in all the first seasons remaining episodes, Landau contractually became a series regular in season two. As actors left the series time, others became regulars. Replacements often possessed the skills as their predecessors
35.
Peter Graves
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Peter Graves was an American film and television actor. He was best known for his role as Jim Phelps in the CBS television series Mission, Impossible from 1967 to 1973 and his elder brother was actor James Arness. Graves was also known for his portrayal of airplane pilot Captain Clarence Oveur in the 1980 comedy film Airplane. and its 1982 sequel Airplane II, The Sequel. Peter Graves was born Peter Duesler Aurness on March 18,1926, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Rolf Cirkler Aurness, a businessman, and his wife Ruth, Graves ancestry was Norwegian, German, and English. The family name originally was Aursnes, but when Rolfs Norwegian father, Peter Aursnes, immigrated to New York City in 1887, Graves graduated from Southwest High School in 1944, and spent two years in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. He then enrolled at the University of Minnesota on the G. I, bill, and was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity. Graves appeared in more than 70 films, television shows, in 1955, Graves joined the NBC television series Fury, as the rancher and adoptive single father, Jim Newton. Graves also was featured in the 1953 World War II film, from 1960 to 1961, Graves starred as leading character Christopher Cobb in 34 episodes of the TV series Whiplash. In the story line, Cobb is an American who arrives in Australia in the 1850s to establish the countrys first stagecoach line, the series also starred Anthony Wickert. In 1967, Graves was recruited by Desilu Studios to replace Steven Hill as the actor on Mission. Graves portrayed the character of James Phelps, the sometimes-gruff director of the Impossible Missions Force. After the series ended in 1973, Graves played a support role in the feature film Sidecar Racers in Australia which was released in 1975. Graves also made a guest appearance in the teen soap opera Class of 74 in mid-1974, Graves was cast as Palmer Kirby in the 1983 ABC miniseries, The Winds of War. He played opposite Robert Mitchum, Jan Michael Vincent, Deborah Winters and Ali MacGraw in what became in 83, after playing mainly serious roles in the 1970s, he appeared as Captain Clarence Oveur in the early 80s comedies Airplane. and Airplane II, The Sequel. In 1988, a Hollywood writers strike resulted in a new Mission, Graves was the only cast member from the original series to return as a regular, reprising his role as James Phelps, though others made guest appearances. The series was filmed in Australia, and Graves made his journey there for acting work. The new version of Mission, Impossible lasted for two seasons, ending in 1990, the concept was later used in the brief 1980s adventure series Masquerade. During the 1990s, he hosted and narrated the documentary series Biography on A&E and he also acted in a number of films featured on Mystery Science Theater 3000, which subsequently featured running jokes about Gravess Biography work and presumed sibling rivalry with Arness
36.
CHiPs
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CHiPs is an American television drama series that originally aired on NBC from September 15,1977, to May 1,1983. CHiPs followed the lives of two police officers of the California Highway Patrol. The series ran for 139 episodes over six seasons, plus one reunion TV movie from October 27,1998, CHiPs is an action crime dramedy. Over-the-top freeway pileups, which occurred frequently, especially in the seasons, were a signature of the show. There was little violence on CHiPs, and the show can be classified as a light drama, the episodes filled a standard hour-long time slot, which at the time required 48 minutes of actual programming. For filming, traffic on Los Angeles freeways was non-existent and most chase scenes were done on back roads, eventually, by the end of the first season, this subplot faded away as audiences were used to seeing the two working as a team. Larry Wilcox as Officer Jonathan A. as Officer Benjamin Webster / 15-Adam-9 In the fifth season, as a result, he did not appear in seven episodes, for that period he was replaced by Jenner. Despite their successful pairing on-screen, Wilcox and Estrada did not always get along behind the camera, however, it was Wilcoxs falling-out with the producers over what he saw as continual favoritism toward Estrada that saw Wilcox not return for the sixth and final season. Wilcox was replaced by Tom Reilly, the episode also used television coverage of the final. In order to become a member of the CHiPs cast. As a result, Bobby was featured less prominently in later episodes of the season, with Bruce becoming Ponchs partner in the third to last episode. According to a 1998 TV Guide article, show creator Rick Rosner was a deputy with the Los Angeles County Sheriffs Department. During a coffee break on an evening shift in the mid-1970s he saw two young CHP officers on motorcycles which gave him the idea for this series. He later created 240-Robert, which seemed like a hybrid of CHiPs, episodes occasionally reference Jon Bakers service in Vietnam. This makes his one of the earliest regular portrayals of a Vietnam veteran on television. Larry Wilcox served 13 months in Vietnam as a Marine artilleryman, although doubles were used for far-off shots and various stunt or action sequences, Wilcox and Estrada did a great deal of their own motorcycle riding, and performed many smaller stunts themselves. Although Wilcox emerged relatively injury-free, Estrada suffered various injuries several times throughout the run of the series, in several early first season episodes, a huge bruise or scar can be seen on his arm after he was flung from one of the motorcycles and skidded along the ground. But his worst accident came when he was injured in a motorcycle accident while filming a season three episode in August 1979, fracturing several ribs and breaking both wrists
37.
History (U.S. TV network)
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The channel originally broadcast documentary programs and historical fiction series. More recently, it has mostly broadcast various reality series such as Pawn Stars, Ax Men. As of February 2015, approximately 96,149,000 American households receive History, International localized versions of History are available, in various forms, in India, Canada, Europe, Australia, Middle East, Africa, and Latin America. The first European version was launched in Scandinavia in 1997 by Viasat which now operates their own channel, History was launched on January 1,1995 as The History Channel, its original format focused entirely on historical series and specials. On February 16,2008, a new logo was launched on the U. S. network as part of a rebranding effort, while the trademark H was kept, the triangle shape on the left acts as a play button for animation and flyouts during commercials and shows. On March 20,2008, as part of that same rebranding effort, The History Channel dropped The, on June 1,2015, the History logo was slightly updated, completely removing the triangle shape on the left. Programming on History has covered a range of historical periods and topics. Programming also includes mainstream reality television-style shows involving truck drivers, alligator hunters, pawn stores, antique and collectible pickers, car restorers, photography, occasionally some programs compare contemporary culture and technology with that of the past. On March 3,2013, History channel premiered its first original series, during the 1990s, History was jokingly referred to as The Hitler Channel for its extensive coverage of World War II. Much of its programming has been shifted to its sister network Military History. The network has also criticized for having a bias towards US history. The network was criticized by Stanley Kutner for airing the series The Men Who Killed Kennedy in 2003. Kutner was one of three historians commissioned to review the documentary, which the channel disavowed and never aired again, programs such as Modern Marvels have been praised for their presentation of detailed information in an entertaining format. Some of the series, including Ice Road Truckers, Ax Men. Senator Chuck Grassley is a critic of the channel and its lack of historical or educational programming, showing disdain for Ax Men. In his book 2012, Its Not the End of the World, Peter Lemesurier describes the channels Nostradamus series, in which he was invited to participate, as largely fiction, the History Channel was also singled out for ridicule by Smithsonian magazine. The article took issue with the show Ancient Aliens for postulating the idea that caused the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs. The online magazine Cracked also lampooned the channel for its definition of history
38.
Top Gear (U.S. TV series)
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Top Gear is an American motoring television series, based on the BBC series of the same name. The shows presenters are professional racing driver Tanner Foust, actor and comedian Adam Ferrara, as with the original British version, the show has its own version of The Stig, an anonymous racing driver, and a celebrity guest was featured each week for the first two seasons. The show premiered on November 21,2010, on History and its most recent season, Season 6, began airing on April 26,2016. On June 28,2016, the BBC confirmed that the series has completed its run on the History channel. BBC America has announced that it produce a new version of Top Gear. A start date has not been announced, but the eight episode first season will be broadcast in 2017, the show will have 3 new hosts, American actor and race driver William Fichtner, British motor journalist Tom Wookie Ford, and drag racer Antron Brown. In addition, challenges similar in nature to the ones presented in the show are replicated in Top Gear. The Star in a Reasonably Priced Car segment uses a Suzuki SX4 Sportback, filming of this segment, along with in-studio segments take place at the former Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, now known as the Orange County Great Park, in Irvine, California. Beginning in season 3, the changed its emphasis to the hosts stunts involving car customization, with all studio-based segments, as well as car reviews and Power Laps. During the first two seasons, Power Laps was a segment of the program in which The Stig completes a lap around the track in a car to compare its performance to previous contenders. During each episode, a celebrity is interviewed by one of the three presenters, discussion is normally amusing, and focuses on car-related matters, such as the celebritys car history. Then the presenter and the audience watch the guests fastest lap on the Top Gear test track. The car used for this segment is a Suzuki SX4 Sportback, each guest practices with The Stig before making several attempts to complete the test track in the fastest time. The guest does not learn their time until the interview, practice laps, crashes and the drivers facial expressions are also shown during the segment. Note, means the track was wet when the lap was taken, a short time later Discovery Channel began airing a slightly Americanized version of the British Top Gear show with presenters Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond, and James May. Regular features like The News and Star in a Reasonably Priced Car were not shown on the Discovery Channel version, in April 2007, the BBC was still looking to export an American produced version of Top Gear to the United States. NBC announced, in January 2008, that it had ordered a pilot for an American version of the show, BBC Worldwide had been contracted to produce the pilot for NBC. According to NBC reality chief Craig Plestis, many automakers had shown interest in Americas version of Top Gear, on June 16,2008, NBC and the BBC officially announced an American version of Top Gear, to be hosted by Adam Carolla, Tanner Foust and Eric Stromer
39.
Tanner Foust
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Tanner Foust is a professional racing driver, stunt driver, and television host. He competes in rally, drift, ice racing, time attack and rallycross with multiple podium placements, national championships and he is a co-host on the American version of the motoring television series, Top Gear. Growing up in a family, Foust spent several years as a child in Scotland. He returned to the United States and went into a track at the University of Colorado. He spent his summers at the track, trading seat time in racecars for mechanic work, after college, he began working as an ice driving coach, an instructor at automotive marketing events and competing in anything he could, including rally and drifting. He made the transition to professional racing in 2003, and soon moved to California to begin stunt driving for Hollywood films, with his passion for cars, he has rapidly become one of the busiest professional drivers in the United States. He was slated to become co-host for the original American version of the television series, Top Gear, on NBC. The series has since picked up by the History Channel. He has also hosted shows including SPEED Channels SuperCars Exposed, SPEED Channels Redline TV. On November 21,2010, he made his debut for the History Channel series, Top Gear, the American version of the BBC hit series of the same name. Foust has been a stunt driver for films such as The Fast and he was a prominent competitor in the Formula Drift series, winning the 2007 and 2008 championship. Foust is the first driver in Formula Drift history to win back-to-back series championships and he is the most decorated driver in X Games history with 9 medals. Foust first competed in X Games XIII in 2007 where he won the gold in the racing event. He also participated in Rally America in 2009, in 2010 at X Games XVI he won gold in Rally Car Racing and Rally Car Super Rally, driving the Rockstar Energy Ford Fiesta. He also competed in the European Rallycross Championship, becoming the first American to do so, in 2012, Foust continued his success with another Global RallyCross championship. For 2013, Foust medaled in both racing events at X Games XIX Los Angeles with a gold in Gymkhana Grid and silver in RallyCross and these marked his eighth and ninth X Games medals. He is currently in place in points behind Ford Racing teammate Toomas Heikkinen. Foust will return for a season as host of Top Gear at the end of the summer
40.
I Think I'm in Love with You
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I Think Im in Love with You is a song written and produced by Cory Rooney and Dan Shea for Jessica Simpsons debut album Sweet Kisses. It contains a sample of singer-songwriter John Mellencamps Jack & Diane and was released as the albums third, the songs protagonist declares Boy I think that Im in love with you, got me doin silly things when it comes to you. The single reached at top ten in Australia, Canada and Japan and in the top 20 in Canada, in the United States, it reached #21. Los Angeles radio station KBIG-104 produced a version of I Think Im in Love with You with a few samples of Jack and Diane lyrics. Simpson recorded a Spanish version of the song titled Tal vez Es Amor, a radio / single mix of the song was also released with a slightly longer outro. It is approximately 20 seconds longer than the album version. The song was included in the second volume of the soundtrack of The WBs television drama Dawsons Creek. I Think Im in Love with You is a pop song. The song samples the signature opening guitar-based melody line of John Mellencamps 1982 hit Jack & Diane. The song is written in the key of A major, with a progression of A–E/A–A–E. The vocal range spans from D4 to F♯5, the video was directed by Nigel Dick. The video starts out with Jessica and her girlfriends, including her sister, the workers, exhausted from their unloading, and in need of some female company, gladly join Simpson and her girlfriends in an impromptu dance on the streets. After some dancing, the girls decide to leave, and the news is not well received by the men, the girls decide to leave anyway, disappointing the factory workers, who pursue the girls in their truck. After once again cheating death and a stop at the end of the highway, Simpson and the others reach their destination. The factory workers following the girls reach the park too, and dance with the girls, as the day carries on, it is soon time for Simpson and her girlfriends to leave, and once again they abandon the factory workers. The workers seem a bit peeved by the girls ditching them yet again, the video is also intercut with scenes of Simpson in front of a giant heart. The videos TRL world premiere debut was on June 1,2000 at number 10, the video peaked at number 5 and stayed on the countdown for 25 days, making it her first successful video on MTVs TRL. I Think Im in Love with You was more up-tempo than Simpsons previous singles, in the United States, the single debuted at number sixty-three on the Billboard Hot 100, on the issue dated July 1,2000
41.
Jessica Simpson
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Jessica Ann Johnson is an American singer, actress, and businesswoman. Simpson signed a contract with Columbia Records when she was sixteen. The album sold four million copies worldwide, and spawned the top three hit I Wanna Love You Forever. Hoping to achieve success with her second album, Simpson adopted a more mature image for the release of Irresistible. The albums title track, which served as the lead single, the album itself earned a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America. Simpson married singer Nick Lachey on October 26,2002 after four years of dating, the couple starred in the reality television series Newlyweds, Nick and Jessica on MTV, chronicling their marriage and careers. The show became a pop phenomenon, and made Simpson. Her third studio album, In This Skin, became her most successful album to date, the album was aided in part due to the success of the single With You, which topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart. She later released a Christmas themed album, ReJoyce, The Christmas Album and she made her film debut as Daisy Duke in the film adaption of The Dukes of Hazard, it was commercially successful, though received a negative critical reaction. She also recorded the song These Boots Are Made for Walkin for the film, in November 2005, Simpson and Lachey confirmed they were separating, Simpson filed for divorce the following month. It was later announced that Simpson had parted ways with Columbia, Simpson has sold over 30 million albums worldwide. Aside from her pursuits, she launched The Jessica Simpson Collection in 2005. The brand has gone on to earn over $1 billion in revenue and her fifth studio album, A Public Affair, saw a decline in sales for Simpson. She later starred in the romantic comedy Employee of the Month, with the release of her sixth studio album, Simpson attempted to shift into the country music genre. The project was met harshly by critics, and failed to achieve commercial success, Simpson went on to star in the reality television series The Price of Beauty, and was a judge on two seasons of Fashion Star. She gave birth to her first child in 2012, and her second in 2013, the following year, she married Eric Johnson, the couple had been engaged since 2010. Simpson has since announced work on her studio album, slated for release in 2017. Jessica Ann Simpson was born on July 10,1980, in Abilene and she is the first child of Tina Ann, a homemaker, and Joseph Joe Simpson who worked as a minister
42.
Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas
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Grand Theft Auto, San Andreas is an open world action-adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It was released on 26 October 2004 for the PlayStation 2, a high definition remaster received a physical release on both the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3 on 30 June 2015 and 1 December 2015, respectively. It is the title in the Grand Theft Auto series. It was released on the day as the handheld game Grand Theft Auto Advance. Grand Theft Auto, San Andreas is played from a perspective in an open world environment. The game is set within the fictional U. S. state of San Andreas, the state of San Andreas consists of three metropolitan cities, Los Santos, based on Los Angeles, San Fierro, based on San Francisco, and Las Venturas, based on Las Vegas. The single-player story follows Carl CJ Johnson, who returns home to Los Santos from Liberty City after his mothers murder. It became the video game of 2004, and has sold over 27.5 million copies worldwide as of 2011. The game, like its predecessors, is cited as a landmark in video games for its influence within the industry. However, the violence and sexual content of San Andreas has been the source of public concern. In particular, a software patch, dubbed the Hot Coffee mod. The next main entry in the series, Grand Theft Auto IV, was released on 29 April 2008, San Andreas has been ported to various other platforms and services, such as OS X, Xbox Live, PlayStation Network and mobile devices. San Andreas is structured similarly to the two games in the series. The core gameplay consists of elements of a shooter and a driving game, affording the player a large. On foot, the character is capable of walking, running, sprinting, swimming, climbing and jumping as well as using weapons. Players can drive a variety of vehicles, including automobiles, buses, semis, boats, fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, trains, tanks, players may also import vehicles in addition to stealing them. The open, non-linear environment allows players to explore and choose how they wish to play the game, although storyline missions are necessary to progress through the game and unlock certain cities and content, they are not required as players can complete them at their own leisure. When not taking on a mission, players can free-roam and look around the cities of San Andreas, eat in restaurants, or cause havoc by attacking people
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Grand Theft Auto V
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Grand Theft Auto V is an action-adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It was released on 17 September 2013 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, on 18 November 2014 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and it is the first main entry in the Grand Theft Auto series since 2008s Grand Theft Auto IV. The open world design lets players freely roam San Andreas open countryside, the game is played from either a first-person or third-person view and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle. Players control the three lead protagonists throughout single-player and switch between both during and outside of missions. The story is centred on the heist sequences, and many missions involve shooting and driving gameplay, a wanted system governs the aggression of law enforcement response to players who commit crimes. Grand Theft Auto Online, the multiplayer mode, lets up to 30 players explore the open world. Development began soon after Grand Theft Auto IVs release and was shared between many of Rockstars studios worldwide, much of the development work constituted the open worlds creation, and several team members conducted field research around California to capture footage for the design team. The games soundtrack features a score composed by a team of producers who collaborated over several years. It received widespread acclaim, with praise directed at its multiple protagonist design, open world, presentation. It caused controversies related to its depiction of women and a mission featuring torture during a hostage interrogation and it has shipped over 75 million copies and is one of the best-selling video games of all time. Grand Theft Auto V is a game played from either a first-person or third-person view. Players complete missions—linear scenarios with set objectives—to progress through the story, outside of missions, players may freely roam the open world. Composed of the San Andreas open countryside area and the city of Los Santos. It may be explored after the games beginning without restriction. Players use melee attacks, firearms and explosives to fight enemies, to accommodate the maps size, the game introduces vehicle types absent in its predecessor Grand Theft Auto IV, such as fixed-wing aircraft. In combat, auto-aim and a system may be used as assistance against enemies. Should players take damage, their health meter will gradually regenerate to its halfway point, players respawn at hospitals when their health depletes. If players commit crimes, law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a meter in the head-up display
44.
Need for Speed: Most Wanted (2012 video game)
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Need for Speed, Most Wanted is an open world racing game developed by Criterion Games and published by Electronic Arts. The game picked up on the Most Wanted intellectual property, as opposed to the Hot Pursuit reboot that Criterion Games developed previously, need for Speed, Most Wanted is set in an open world environment. The game takes on the style of the first Most Wanted title in the Need for Speed franchise. There are also Ambush races, where the player starts surrounded by cops, cops are integrated into certain racing sessions, in which the police deploy vehicles and tactics to stop the players car and arrest the player, like the original Most Wanted. The game features a Most Wanted List of 10 racers, similar to the Blacklist in the section of the original Most Wanted. As the Most Wanted racers are defeated, their cars are added to the roster the moment the player wrecks them. In this reiteration, the shifts from Rockport, the city in the original. Fairhaven is just like a regular city and it has a beach and an Industrial District. It has a main highway dubbed I-92 that stretches across the city, gameplay of Most Wanted has been likened to that of the Burnout series. Destructible billboards and fences, and drive-through repair garages, all of which originated from Paradise, are also featured. The game uses Autolog, the system developed by Criterion for Need for Speed, Hot Pursuit. Autolog in Most Wanted plays a role and gives more information to players. Activities in-game allow players to earn Speed Points which can boost players up on the Most Wanted list, Autolog recommendations have now been integrated into the game world, rather than sit externally on the menu system. Most Wanted features a new system called Cloudcompete, which strings together Most Wanted across all platforms in an inspired example of cross-compatibility. One profile is used for all versions of the game, allowing the player to rank up on one format and continue progress on another. The driving model of the game has been described as deep, physical and fun, not as arcade-styled as the Burnout series and Hot Pursuit, but far from a simulator. Most Wanted has a range of vehicles, a mix of muscle cars, street racers and exotics. A feature called EasyDrive enables players to modify their vehicle performance while in usage, almost all the cars are available from the start, hidden in different locations throughout Fairhaven, the player has to discover them in order to unlock them
45.
1964 Summer Olympics
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The 1964 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVIII Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held in Tokyo, Japan, from October 10 to 24,1964. The 1964 Summer Games were the first Olympics held in Asia, Tokyo was chosen as the host city during the 55th IOC Session in West Germany, on May 26,1959. These games were also the first to be telecast internationally without the need for tapes to be overseas, as they had been for the 1960 Olympics four years earlier. The games were telecast to the United States using Syncom 3, the first geostationary communication satellite and these were also the first Olympic Games to have color telecasts, albeit partially. Certain events like the sumo wrestling and judo matches, sports huge in Japan, were tried out using Toshibas new color transmission system, history surrounding the 1964 Olympics was chronicled in the 1965 documentary film Tokyo Olympiad, directed by Kon Ichikawa. The games were scheduled for mid-October to avoid the citys midsummer heat and humidity, the previous Olympics in Rome in 1960 started in late August and experienced hot weather. The following games in 1968 in Mexico City also began in October, the 1964 Olympics were also the last to use a traditional cinder track for the track events. A smooth synthetic all-weather track was used for the first time at the 1968 Olympics, the 2020 Summer Olympics will be held in Tokyo. Tokyo won the rights to the Games on May 26,1959, at the 55th IOC Session in Munich, West Germany, over bids from Detroit, Brussels and Vienna. Toronto was an early bidder again in 1964 after the attempt for 1960. Yūji Koseki composed the song of the opening ceremony. Yoshinori Sakai, who lit the Olympic Flame, was born in Hiroshima on August 6,1945, kumi-daiko was first exhibited to a world-wide audience at the Festival of Arts presentation. Judo and womens volleyball, both sports in Japan, were introduced to the Olympics. Japan won gold medals in three events, but Dutchman Anton Geesink won the Open category. The Japanese womens volleyball won the gold medal, with the final being broadcast live. The womens pentathlon was introduced to the athletics events, soviet gymnast Larisa Latynina won two gold medals, a silver medal and two bronze medals. She held the record for most Olympic medals at 18 which stood until broken by American swimmer Michael Phelps in 2012, czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská wins 3 gold medals, including the individual all-around competition, crowning her the new queen over the reigning champion Larisa Latynina. Australian swimmer Dawn Fraser won the 100 m freestyle event for the time in a row
SR 47
