1.
Inti
–
INTI International University & Colleges are private university colleges located in Malaysia. The main campus was known as INTI University College until May 31,2010 when the Higher Education Ministry announced its upgrade to university status. It is owned by INTI Education Group which has formalised its partnership with Laureate International Universities in 2008, some of the programmes offered at the university and colleges includes pre-university and foundation studies, diploma, degrees, and postgraduate degrees. The college was opened in 1986 in Bangunan Sim Lim, Brickfields, the college only enrolled 37 students at its inception, but the student population exploded to 400 within 18 months. Enrolment continues to increase, leading the college to be re-located to Jalan Sungai Besi, two years later, with more than 900 full-time students, the college established a permanent campus, INTI College Subang Jaya. In 1991 and 1996 INTI opened branch campuses in Kuching, Sarawak and Kota Kinabalu, INTI College Malaysias main campus was established on 82 acres of land in Putra Nilai in 1998. In March 2000, INTI acquired International College Penang which is located in the Bukit Jambul education township, in 2004, INTI continued to expand with three new associate campuses, Genting INTI International College, Metropolitan College and PJ College of Art & Design. To date, INTI has six campuses in Malaysia. On 4 September 2006, ICM received the Ministry of Higher Education approval for upgrade to university college status, in 2008, INTI merged with Laureate International Universities to be a Laureate International Education Group member. In 31 May 2010, the Ministry of Higher Education upgraded INTI University College to the status of a University able to confer its own degrees - INTI International University. On 1 June 2010, INTI-UC received its upgrades to a university from Higher Education Minister Datuk Seri Mohamed Khaled Nordin. INTI International University & Colleges have six campuses across Malaysia, the clubs and societies listed below varies for the campuses
Inti
–
INTI International University
2.
Pachamama
–
Pachamama is a goddess revered by the indigenous people of the Andes. She is also known as the earth/time mother, in Inca mythology, Pachamama is a fertility goddess who presides over planting and harvesting, embodies the mountains, and causes earthquakes. She is also an ever-present and independent deity who has her own self-sufficient and her shrines are hallowed rocks, or the boles of legendary trees, and her artists envision her as an adult female bearing harvests of potatoes and coca leaves. Pachamama is the wife of Pacha Kamaq and her children are Inti, the sun god, and Killa, the moon goddess. After the conquest by Spain, which forced conversion to Roman Catholicism, in pre-Hispanic culture, Pachamama is often a cruel goddess eager to collect her sacrifices. As Andes cultures form modern nations, Pachamama remains benevolent, giving, thus, many in South America believe that problems arise when people take too much from nature because they are taking too much from Pachamama. Pachamama is usually translated as Mother Earth, but a literal translation would be World Mother (in Aymara. The Inca goddess can be referred to in ways, the primary way being Pachamama. Other names for her are, Mama Pacha, La Pachamama, La Pachamama differs from Pachamama because the La signifies the interwoven connection that the goddess has with nature, whereas Pachamama—without the La—refers to only the goddess. Pachamama is known to Andean people as a good mother, therefore, people usually toast to her honor before every meeting or festivity, in some regions by spilling a small amount of chicha on the floor, before drinking the rest. This toast is called challa and it is made almost every day, Pachamama has a special worship day called Martes de challa, when people bury food, throw candies, and burn incense. There have been many circulating stories of people being lured to building sites, given alcohol until unconscious. The festival coincides with Shrove Tuesday, also celebrated as Carnevale or Mardi Gras, the central ritual to Pachamama is the Challa or Pago. It is carried out during all of August, and in places also on the first Friday of each month. Other ceremonies are carried out in times, as upon leaving for a trip or upon passing an apacheta. According to Mario Rabey and Rodolfo Merlino, Argentine anthropologists who studied the Andean culture from the 1970s to the 1990s, challaco is a deformation of the Quechua words challay and challakuy, that refer to the action to insistently sprinkle. In the current language of the campesinos of the southern Central Andes, the challaco covers a complex series of ritual steps that begin in the family dwellings the night before. They cook a special food, the tijtincha, the ceremony culminates at a pond or stream, where the people offer a series of tributes to Pachamama, including food, beverage, leaves of coca and cigars
Pachamama
–
Representation of Pachamama in the cosmology, according to Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua (1613), after a picture in the Sun Temple
Qurikancha in
Cusco
3.
Inca mythology
–
Inca mythology includes many stories and legends that attempt to explain or symbolize Inca beliefs. Ethnographic and anthropological studies such as Prof and this was the main tool to ensure cultural transmission of key information, in spite of regime change or social catastrophes. The Inca myths have been interpreted from a Eurocentric perspectives, this is detached from cosmology and agriculture, depriving of its richness, all those that followed the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro burned the records kept by the Inca culture. There is currently a theory put forward by Gary Urton that the Quipus could have represented a system capable of recording phonological or logographic data. Manco Cápac the legendary founder of the Inca Dynasty in Peru, the legends and history surrounding this mythical figure are very jumbled, especially those concerning his rule at Cuzco and his birth or his origins respectively. In one legend, he was the son of Tici Viracocha, in another, he was brought up from the depths of Lake Titicaca by the sun god Inti. However, commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Inca Viracocha, there were also many myths about Manco Cápac and his coming to power. In one myth, Manco Cápac and his brother Pacha Kamaq were sons of the sun god Inti, Manco Cápac, himself, was worshiped as a fire and sun god. In another myth, Manco Cápac was sent with Mama Ocllo to Lake Titicaca where they resurfaced and settled in Isla Del Sol, Bolivia. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth to honor the sun god Inti, their father. In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, since this was a later origin myth than that of Pacaritambo it may have been created as a ploy to bring the powerful Aymara tribes into the fold of the Tawantinsuyo. In the Inca Virachocha legend, Manco Cápac was the son of Inca Viracocha of Paqariq Tampu which is 25 km south of Cuzco. He and his brothers, and sisters lived near Cusco at Paqariq Tampu, and uniting their people and this legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Cápac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them. Like the Romans, the Incas permitted the cultures they integrated into their empire to keep their individual religions, below are some of the various gods worshiped by the peoples of the Incan empire, many of which have overlapping responsibilities and domains. Unless otherwise noted, it can safely be assumed these were worshipped by different ayllus or worshipped in particular former states, Apu was a god or spirit of mountains. All of the important mountains have their own Apu, and some of them receive sacrifices to bring out aspects of their being. Some rocks and caves also are credited as having their own apu, apocatequil or Illapa was the god of lightning
Inca mythology
–
Inca Empire
Inca mythology
–
Viracocha, is the great creator god in Inca mythology
Inca mythology
–
Supay, god of death in the Andean diablada
Inca mythology
–
Chakana or tree of life
4.
Andes
–
The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
Andes
–
Aerial photo of a portion of the Andes between
Argentina and
Chile
Andes
Andes
–
"
Cono de Arita " in the
Puna de Atacama,
Salta (
Argentina).
Andes
–
Aerial view of Aconcagua.
5.
Kon-Tiki
–
The Kon-Tiki expedition was a 1947 journey by raft across the Pacific Ocean from South America to the Polynesian islands, led by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl. The raft was named Kon-Tiki after the Inca sun god, Viracocha, Heyerdahl believed that people from South America could have settled Polynesia in pre-Columbian times. The Kon-Tiki expedition was funded by loans, along with donations of equipment from the United States Army. The trip began on April 28,1947, Heyerdahl and five companions sailed the raft for 101 days over 6900 km across the Pacific Ocean before smashing into a reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands on August 7,1947. The crew made landfall and all returned safely. Thor Heyerdahls book about his experience became a bestseller and it was published in Norwegian in 1948 as The Kon-Tiki Expedition, By Raft Across the South Seas, later reprinted as Kon-Tiki, Across the Pacific in a Raft. It appeared with success in English in 1950, also in many other languages. A documentary motion picture about the expedition, also called Kon-Tiki, was produced from a write-up and expansion of the crews filmstrip notes and it was directed by Thor Heyerdahl and edited by Olle Nordemar. The voyage was chronicled in the documentary TV-series The Kon-Tiki Man, The Life and Adventures of Thor Heyerdahl. The original Kon-Tiki raft is now on display in the Kon-Tiki Museum at Bygdøy in Oslo, Kon-Tiki had a six-man crew, all of whom were Norwegian except for Bengt Danielsson, a Swede. Thor Heyerdahl was the expedition leader and he was also the author of the book of the expedition and the narrator of the story. Heyerdahl had studied the ancient people of South America and Polynesia, erik Hesselberg was the navigator and artist. He painted the large Kon-Tiki figure on the rafts sail and his childrens book Kon-Tiki and I appeared in Norwegian in 1949 and has since been published in more than 15 languages. Bengt Danielsson took on the role of steward, in charge of supplies, Danielsson was a Swedish sociologist interested in human migration theory. He also served as translator, as he was the member of the crew who spoke Spanish. He was also a reader, his box aboard the raft contained many books. Haugland was the last surviving member, he died on Christmas Day,2009 at the age of 92. Torstein Raaby was also in charge of radio transmissions and he gained radio experience while hiding behind German lines during WWII, spying on the German battleship Tirpitz
Kon-Tiki
–
Kon-Tiki, 1947
Kon-Tiki
–
The raft in the
Kon-Tiki Museum, in Bygdøy, near Oslo
Kon-Tiki
–
A
moai
Kon-Tiki
–
Tangaroa anchored by
Stavern, Norway
6.
Inca
–
The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
Inca
–
Inca Empire
Inca
–
Banner of the Tawantinsuyu
Inca
–
The first image of the Inca in Europe,
Pedro Cieza de León, Cronica del Peru, 1553
Inca
–
View of
Machu Picchu
7.
Sun god
–
A solar deity is a sky deity who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it, usually by its perceived power and strength. Solar deities and sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms, the Sun is sometimes referred to by its Latin name Sol or by its Greek name Helios. The English word sun stems from Proto-Germanic *sunnǭ, the Neolithic concept of a solar barge is found in the later myths of ancient Egypt, with Ra and Horus. Predynasty Egyptian beliefs attribute Atum as the sun-god and Horus as a god of the sky, as the Old Kingdom theocracy gained power, early beliefs were incorporated with the expanding popularity of Ra and the Osiris-Horus mythology. Atum became Ra-Atum, the rays of the setting sun, Osiris became the divine heir to Atums power on Earth and passes his divine authority to his son Horus. Early Egyptian myths imply the sun is within the lioness, Sekhmet, at night and is reflected in her eyes, or that it is within the cow, Hathor, during the night, being reborn each morning as her son. Mesopotamian Shamash plays an important role during the Bronze Age, similarly, South American cultures have a tradition of Sun worship, as with the Incan Inti. Proto-Indo-European religion has a chariot, the sun as traversing the sky in a chariot. In Germanic mythology this is Sol, in Vedic Surya, and in Greek Helios, svarog is the Slavic solar deity, represented as a spirit of fire. During the Roman Empire, a festival of the birth of the Unconquered Sun was celebrated on the winter solstice—the rebirth of the sun—which occurred on December 25 of the Julian calendar. In late antiquity, the centrality of the sun in some Imperial religious systems suggest a form of a solar monotheism. The religious commemorations on December 25 were replaced under Christian domination of the Empire with the birthday of Christ, the Tiv people consider the Sun to be the son of the supreme being Awondo and the Moon Awondos daughter. The Barotse tribe believes that the Sun is inhabited by the sky god Nyambi, some Sara people also worship the sun. Even where the sun god is equated with the supreme being, the Ancient Egyptian god of creation, Amun is also believed to reside inside the sun. So is the Akan creator deity, Nyame and the Dogon deity of creation, also in Egypt, there was a religion that worshiped the sun directly, and was among the first monotheistic religions, Atenism. Sun worship was prevalent in ancient Egyptian religion, the earliest deities associated with the sun are all goddesses, Wadjet, Sekhmet, Hathor, Nut, Bast, Bat, and Menhit. First Hathor, and then Isis, give birth to and nurse Horus, Hathor the horned-cow is one of the 12 daughters of Ra, gifted with joy and is a wet-nurse to Horus. From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the sun was worshipped as the deity Re, and portrayed as a falcon headed god surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent
Sun god
–
The
Trundholm sun chariot
Sun god
–
Statue of
Hathor – Luxor Museum
Sun god
–
A solar representation on an anthropomorphic stele dated from the time period between the
Copper Age and the
Early Bronze Age, discovered during an archaeological excavation on the Rocher des Doms,
Avignon.
Sun god
–
Taiyang Shen, the Chinese solar deity
8.
Titicaca
–
Lake Titicaca is a large, deep lake in the Andes on the border of Bolivia and Peru. By volume of water and by area, it is the largest lake in South America. Lake Maracaibo has a surface area, but it is a tidal bay. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world, although this refers to navigation by large boats, it is generally considered to mean commercial craft. For many years the largest vessel afloat on the lake was the 2, 200-ton, today the largest vessel is most likely the similarly sized, but broader, train barge/float Manco Capac, operated by PeruRail. Numerous smaller bodies of water around the world are at higher elevations, the lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lies within the Puno Region of Peru. The lake is composed of two nearly separate sub-basins connected by the Strait of Tiquina, which is 800 m across at the narrowest point, the larger sub-basin, Lago Grande, has a mean depth of 135 m and a maximum depth of 284 m. The smaller sub-basin, Wiñaymarka, has a depth of 9 m. The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m, five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca. In order of their flow volumes these are Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané. More than twenty other smaller streams empty into Titicaca, the lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated. This only accounts for about 10% of the water balance. Evapotranspiration, caused by winds and intense sunlight at high altitude. It is nearly a closed lake, since 2000 Lake Titicaca has experienced constantly receding water levels. Between April and November 2009 alone the water level dropped by 81 cm and this drop is caused by shortened rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers feeding the tributaries of the lake. Water pollution is also a concern because cities in the Titicaca watershed grow, sometimes outpacing solid waste. According to the Global Nature Fund, Titicacas biodiversity is threatened by water pollution, already in 2012, the GNF nominated the lake Threatened Lake of the Year
Titicaca
–
View of the lake from the lake's
Isla del Sol
Titicaca
–
A view of Lake Titicaca taken from the town of
Puno
Titicaca
–
A reed boat on Lake Titicaca
Titicaca
–
Raft of
totora on Lake Titicaca in the
island of the Sun (Bolivia)
9.
Paqariq Tampu
–
In Inca mythology, one of the main Inca creation myths was that of the Ayar Brothers who emerged from a cave called Paqariq Tampu. This house of production was located on the hill called Tampu Tuqu, according to the myth, the tribe of Maras emerged from one of the niches, called Maras Tuqu by spontaneous generation. The tribe of Tampus emerged from the suti tuqu window, manco Capac, his three Ayar brothers, and his four Mama sisters, emerged from the chief window in the middle, the qhapaq tuqu. Those eight brothers and sisters out of Pacari Tanbo and they went to their idol huaca of Uana Cauri
Paqariq Tampu
–
Guaman Poma 1615: "IDOLOS DE LOS INGAS INTI, UANACAURI, TAMBOTOCO" (Idolos de los Incas
Inti,
Wanakawri, Tampu T'uqu)
10.
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
–
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa was a Spanish explorer, author, historian, mathematician, astronomer, and scientist. His birthplace is not certain and may have been Pontevedra, in Galicia, where his family originated, or Alcalá de Henares in Castile. His father Bartolomé Sarmiento was born in Pontevedra and his mother María Gamboa was born in Bilbao, at the age of 18, Sarmiento de Gamboa entered the royal military in the European wars. Between 1550 and 1555 the future navigator fought in the armies of Emperor Charles V, in 1555 he began his exploring career, sailing across the Atlantic Ocean. His first destination was New Spain, where he lived for two years, little is known of this period in his life, other than that he encountered difficulties with the Inquisition. He then sailed to Peru, where he lived for more than twenty years, in Lima he was accused by the Inquisition of possessing two magic rings and some magic ink and of following the precepts of Moses. The expedition failed to find gold and attempts at establishing a settlement in the Solomon Islands ended in failure, in order to take credit of the discoveries for himself Mendaña threw the journals and maps made by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa overboard and abandoned him in Mexico. However, a trial was held in Lima, with the result giving Sarmiento credit for the discoveries. In 1572 he was commissioned by Francisco de Toledo, the fifth Viceroy of Peru, Toledo hoped such a history would justify Spanish colonisation by revealing the violent history of the Incas. Sarmiento collected oral accounts first hand from Inca informants and produced a history that chronicles their violent conquest of the region, the royal sponsorship of the work guaranteed Sarmiento direct access to the highest Spanish officials in Cuzco. It also allowed him to summon influential natives, as well as those who had witnessed the fall of the Inca Empire, so that they could relate their stories. Sarmiento traveled widely and interviewed numerous local leaders and lords, surviving members of the royal Inca families, after the public reading, which occurred on 29 February and 1 March 1572, the manuscript was entrusted to a member of the viceroys personal guard. However, due to a series of events, this irreplaceable document of Inca history was relegated to obscurity for centuries. He became the commander of the station in the Pacific in 1578. Sarmiento de Gamboa sailed out of the port of Callao with eleven vessels in 1579 to capture Drake. The expedition lost eight vessels in a storm, and Flores, on account of rivalry with Sarmiento de Gamboa, abandoned him with twelve vessels in the entry of the Strait and returned to Spain. The settlement failed shortly after he left, and when Thomas Cavendish visited the ruins in 1587 he renamed the place Port Famine. In 1584 Sarmiento de Gamboa sailed for Europe, but he was captured by an English fleet under to Sir Walter Raleigh and carried to England where he was presented to Queen Elizabeth I of England
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
–
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa.
11.
Deluge (mythology)
–
A flood myth or deluge myth is a narrative in which a great flood, usually sent by a deity or deities, destroys civilization, often in an act of divine retribution. Most flood myths also contain a culture hero, who represents the human craving for life, the Mesopotamian flood stories concern the epics of Ziusudra, Gilgamesh, and Atrahasis. In the Sumerian King List, it relies on the motif to divide its history into preflood and postflood periods. The preflood kings had enormous lifespans, whereas postflood lifespans were much reduced, in the Atrahasis version, the flood is a river flood. In the Genesis mythology of the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh decides to flood the earth because of the depth of the state of mankind. Righteous Noah is given instructions to build an ark, when the ark is completed, Noah, his family, and representatives of all the animals of the earth are called upon to enter the ark. When the destructive flood begins, all life outside of the ark perishes, after the waters recede, all those aboard the ark disembark and have Gods promise that he will never judge the earth with a flood again. He gives the rainbow as the sign of this promise, in the 19th century, Assyriologist George Smith translated the Babylonian account of a great flood. Further discoveries produced several versions of the Mesopotamian flood myth, with the account closest to that in Genesis found in a 700 BCE Babylonian copy of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the vessel would save Utnapishtim, his family, his friends, and the animals. In Platos Timaeus, Timaeus says that because the Bronze race of Humans had been making wars constantly Zeus was angered and decided to punish humanity by a flood. Prometheus the Titan knew of this and told the secret to Deucalion, after 9 nights and days, the water started receding and the ark was landed at Mount Parnassus. In ancient Mesopotamia, the Sumerian King List reads After kingship came down from heaven, the kingship was taken to Shuruppak. In Shuruppak, Ubara-Tutu became king, he ruled for 5 sars and 1 ner, in 5 cities 8 kings, they ruled for 241,200 years. Excavations in Iraq have revealed evidence of localized flooding at Shuruppak, a layer of riverine sediments, radiocarbon dated to about 2900 BC, interrupts the continuity of settlement, extending as far north as the city of Kish, which took over hegemony after the flood. Polychrome pottery from the Jemdet Nasr period was discovered immediately below the Shuruppak flood stratum, other sites, such as Ur, Kish, Uruk, Lagash, and Ninevah, all present evidence of flooding. However, this comes from different time periods. Geologically, the Shuruppak flood coincides with the 5.9 kiloyear event at the end of the Older Peron, in Israel, there is no such evidence of a widespread flood. Given the similarities in the Mesopotamian flood story and the Biblical account, floods in the wake of the last glacial period may have inspired myths that survive to this day
Deluge (mythology)
–
"The Deluge", frontispiece to
Gustave Doré 's illustrated edition of the Bible. Based on the story of
Noah's Ark, this shows humans and a tiger doomed by the flood futilely attempting to save their children and cubs.
Deluge (mythology)
–
"The Deluge", by
John Martin, 1834. Oil on canvas.
Yale University
Deluge (mythology)
–
Matsya-
avatara of Lord
Vishnu pulls
Manu 's boat after having defeated the demon.
Deluge (mythology)
–
The Great Flood, by anonymous painter, The vom Rath bequest,
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
12.
Quechuan languages
–
Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
Quechuan languages
–
Quechua
13.
Camelid
–
Camelids are members of the biological family Camelidae, the only currently living family in the suborder Tylopoda. The extant members of group are, dromedary camels, Bactrian camels, wild Bactrian camels, llamas, alpacas, vicuñas. Camelids are even-toed ungulates classified in the order Cetartiodactyla, along with pigs, hippopotamuses, whales, deer, giraffes, cattle, goats, antelope, Camelids are large, strictly herbivorous animals with slender necks and long legs. They differ from ruminants in a number of ways and their dentition show traces of vestigial central incisors in the upper jaw, and the third incisors have developed into canine-like tusks. Camelids also have canine teeth and tusk-like premolars, which are separated from the molars by a gap. Because of this, camelids have to lie down by resting on their knees with their legs tucked underneath their bodies and they also have a unique type of antibodies which lack the light chain, in addition to the normal antibodies found in other mammals. These so-called heavy-chain antibodies are being used to develop single-domain antibodies with potential pharmaceutical applications, Camelids do not have hooves, rather they have two-toed feet with toenails and soft foot pads. Most of the weight of the animal rests on these tough, the South American camelids, adapted to steep and rocky terrain, can move the pads on their toes to maintain grip. Many fossil camelids were unguligrade and probably hooved, in contrast to all living species, Camelids are behaviorally similar in many ways, including their walking gait, in which both legs on the same side are moved simultaneously. Consequently, camelids large enough for human beings to ride have a typical swaying motion, dromedary camels, bactrian camels, llamas and alpacas are all induced ovulators. The three Afro-Asian camel species have developed adaptations to their lives in harsh, near-waterless environments. Wild populations of the Bactrian camel are even able to drink brackish water, comparative table of the seven extant species in the family Camelidae, Camelids are unusual in that their modern distribution is almost the inverse of their area of origin. Camelids first appeared early in the evolution of the even-toed ungulates, around 45 million years ago during the middle Eocene. Among the earliest camelids was the rabbit-sized Protylopus, which still had four toes on each foot, by the late Eocene, around 35 million years ago, camelids such as Poebrotherium had lost the two lateral toes, and were about the size of a modern goat. The family diversified and prospered, but remained confined to the North American continent until only two or three million years ago, when representatives arrived in Asia, and South America. A high arctic camel from this period has been documented in the far northern reaches of Canada. Fossil camelids show a wider variety than their modern counterparts, one North American genus, Titanotylopus, stood 3.5 m at the shoulder, compared with the about 2 m of the largest modern camelids. Other extinct camelids included small, gazelle-like animals, such as Stenomylus, finally, a number of very tall, giraffe-like camelids were adapted to feeding on leaves from high trees, including such genera as Aepycamelus, and Oxydactylus
Camelid
Camelid
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Camelid feet lack functional hooves, the toe bones being embedded in a broad cutaneous pad.
Camelid
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Bactrian camel
Camelid
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Wild camel
14.
Conquistadors
–
Conquistadors /kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz/ is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and they colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa, human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa. The spread of diseases, including smallpox, flu and typhus. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports, by the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one-fifth of Spains total budget. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms and their units would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans and they not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards, Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian, many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592, german-born Nikolaus Federmann, Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The origin of people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband, women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada, Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children, European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, Kings army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers
Conquistadors
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Conquistadors and their native
Tlaxcalan allies enter Tenochtitlan
Conquistadors
–
The surrender of
Granada in 1492. The last
Moorish sultan of Granada,
Muhammad XII, before
Ferdinand and Isabella.
Conquistadors
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Christopher Columbus 's first landing in the Americas in 1492
Conquistadors
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Hernando De Soto and Spanish Conquistadores seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.
15.
Francisco Pizarro
–
Francisco Pizarro González was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire. He captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa and claimed the lands for Spain, Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain in modern-day Extremadura, Spain. He was the son of infantry colonel Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González. His date of birth is uncertain, but it is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, little attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. His father was a colonel of infantry who served in Navarre and his mother married late in life and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, who was at the conquest of Peru with his half-brother from its inception. Through his father, Francisco was a cousin, once removed. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Gulf of Urabá in Tierra Firme, Pizarro became a participant in Ojedas failed colony, commanding the remnants until he abandoned it with the survivors. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso in 1513, in 1513, Pizarro accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his crossing of the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific coast. The following year, Pedrarias Dávila became the appointed governor of Castilla de Oro. During the next five years, Pizarro became an associate of Dávila. When Dávila decided to get rid of Balboa out of distrust, he instructed Pizarro to personally arrest him, Balboa was beheaded in January 1519. For his loyalty to Dávila, Pizarro was rewarded with the positions of mayor, on 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabá. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso and, in 1513, reports of Perus riches and Cortéss success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro. He undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526, both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, in April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan an expedition to conquer the area. He returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project, Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition and he was joined by family and friends and the expedition left Panama in 1530
Francisco Pizarro
–
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Francisco Pizarro
–
Marquess Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro
–
Francisco Pizarro's route of exploration during the conquest of Peru (1531–1533)
Francisco Pizarro
–
Pizarro and his followers in
Lima in 1535
16.
Inca Empire
–
The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
Inca Empire
–
Inca Empire
Inca Empire
–
Banner of the Tawantinsuyu
Inca Empire
–
The first image of the Inca in Europe,
Pedro Cieza de León, Cronica del Peru, 1553
Inca Empire
–
View of
Machu Picchu
17.
Aztec
–
The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to 16th centuries. The Nahuatl words aztecatl and aztecah mean people from Aztlan, a place for the Nahuatl-speaking culture of the time. Often the term Aztec refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan, situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, who referred to themselves as Mēxihcah Tenochcah or Cōlhuah Mexihcah. From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of Aztec civilization, here the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance, the Triple Alliance formed a tributary empire expanding its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city states throughout Mesoamerica. At its pinnacle, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, as well as achieving remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. Subsequently, the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of the ruined Aztec capital, the term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire such as the Acolhua and Tepanec and others that were incorporated into the empire. In older usage the term was used about modern Nahuatl speaking ethnic groups. In recent usage these ethnic groups are referred to as the Nahua peoples. Linguistically the term Aztecan is still used about the branch of the Uto-Aztecan languages that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives Pochutec, to the Aztecs themselves the word aztec was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather it was a term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl speaking. In the Nahuatl language aztecatl means person from Aztlan and this usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term Aztec is still more common. For the same reason the notion of Aztec civilization is best understood as a horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. Particular to the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan was the Mexica patron God Huitzilopochtli, twin pyramids, the Aztec Empire was a tribute empire based in Tenochtitlan that extended its power throughout Mesoamerica in the late postclassic period. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan became junior partners in the alliance, which was de facto led by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, the empire extended its power by a combination of trade and military conquest. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering cities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala, the Nahua peoples began to migrate into Mesoamerica from northern Mexico in the 6th century. They populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of Oto-Manguean languages as they spread their influence south. As the former nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples mixed with the civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices. During the Postclassic period they rose to power at such sites as Tula, in the 12th century the Nahua power center was in Azcapotzalco, from where the Tepanecs dominated the valley of Mexico
Aztec
–
The Aztec Pyramid at
St. Cecilia Acatitlan, State of Mexico
Aztec
–
Aztec
wood mask
Aztec
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Large ceramic statue of an Aztec Eagle Warrior
Aztec
–
Aztec cosmogram in the pre-Hispanic
Codex Fejérváry-Mayer —the fire god
Xiuhtecuhtli is in the center
18.
Muisca people
–
The Muisca are the Chibcha-speaking people that formed the Muisca Confederation of the central Andean highlands of present-day Colombias Eastern Range, in particular the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. As one out of four advanced civilizations of the Americas, they were encountered by the Spanish Empire in 1537 and it bordered the territories of the Panche and Pijao tribes. At the time of the conquest, the area had a large population, estimates vary from half a million to up to three million inhabitants. The Muisca spoke muysccubun, a dialect of Chibcha, also called Muysca and Mosca, the economy was based on agriculture, salt mining, metalworking and manufacturing. Today the Muisca population has almost died out, although in the municipalities and districts Cota, Chía, Tenjo, Suba, Engativá, Tocancipá, Gachancipá, a census by the Ministry of Interior Affairs in 2005 provided a total of 14,051 Muisca persons in Colombia. Excavations in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense show evidence of activity since the Archaic stage at the beginning of the Holocene era. Colombia has one of the most ancient archaeological sites of the Americas, El Abra, human skeletons were found that date to 5000 BCE. Analysis demonstrated that the people were members of the El Abra Culture, scholars agree that the group identified as Muisca migrated to the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the Formative stage, as shown by evidence found at Aguazuque and Soacha. Like the other cultures of America, the Muiscas were in a transition between being hunter-gatherers and becoming sedentary farmers. Around 1500 BCE, groups of agrarians with ceramic traditions came to the region from the lowlands and they had permanent housing and stationary camps, and worked the salty water to extract salt. In Zipacón there is evidence of agriculture and ceramics, the most ancient settlement of the highlands dates to 1270 BCE. Between 500 BCE and 800 BCE, a wave of migrants came to the highlands. Their presence is identified by multicolor ceramics, housing, and farms and these groups were still in residence upon the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. They left abundant traces of their occupation that have been studied since the 16th century and it is possible that the Muisca integrated with more ancient inhabitants, but the Muisca were the ones who molded the cultural profile and the social and political organization. Their language, a dialect of Chibcha, was similar to those peoples of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Zipa Saguamanchica was in a constant war against aggressive tribes such as the Sutagao, and especially the Panche, the Caribs were also a permanent threat as rivals of the zaque of Hunza, especially for the possession of the salt mines of Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa. The Muisca people were organized in a confederation that was a union of states that each retained sovereignty. The confederation was not a kingdom, as there was no monarch, nor was it an empire
Muisca people
–
Muisca raft (1200–1500 CE), representation of the initiation of the new
Zipa in the
lake of Guatavita
Muisca people
–
Muisca people.
Muisca people
–
Ruins of an ancient Muisca temple at
El Infiernito (the little hell) near
Villa de Leyva
Muisca people
–
Monument to
Bochica in the town of Cuitiva (Boyacá).
19.
Bochica
–
Bochica is a figure in the religion of the Muisca, who inhabited the Altiplano Cundiboyacense during the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the central Andean highlands of present-day Colombia. He was the hero of their civilization, who according to legend brought morals and laws to the people and taught them agriculture. Similarly to the Incan god Viracocha, the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl and several other deities from Central and South American pantheons, the Anales de Cuauhtitlan is a very important early source which is particularly valuable for having been originally written in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec. In this quote the beard is represented as a dressing of feathers, the connotation of the word beard by Spanish colonizers was grossly abused as foundation for embellishment and fabrication of an original European influence in Mesoamerica. Not one cultural representation of either of these gods, painted, sculpted, et cetera, there is no evidence in the abundance of Mesoamerican art of European influence, most stridently ruled out by the likenesses they gave themselves and their gods. According to Chibcha legends, Bochica was a man who came from the east. He taught the primitive Chibcha people ethical and moral norms and gave them a model by which to organize their states, with one spiritual, Bochica also taught the people agriculture, metalworking and other crafts before leaving for the west to live as an ascetic. When the Muisca later forsook the teachings of Bochica and turned to a life of excess, a flood engulfed the Savannah of Bogotá, where they lived. Upon appealing for aid from their hero, Bochica returned on a rainbow and with a strike from his staff, created the Tequendama Falls, Bochica appeared in Pasca in Cundinamarca and later in Gámeza, Boyacá where the people showed him hospitability. He retreated in the Toya cave where many caciques visited him for wisdom, caciques from Tópaga, Tota, Pesca, Firavitoba and others consulted Bochica. Muisca religion, Tequendama Falls, Idacansás Herrmann, Paul, mitos y leyendas indígenas de Colombia - Indigenous myths and legends of Colombia, 1-219. Plaza & Janes Editores Colombia S. A. Silverberg, Robert, the Golden Dream, Seekers of El Dorado, 98–99. A Dictionary of World Mythology,204
Bochica
–
Monument to Bochica in
Cuitiva, Boyacá,
Colombia
20.
Moche culture
–
The Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru with its capital near present-day Moche, Trujillo, Peru from about 100 to 800 during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography. Moche society was based, with a significant level of investment in the construction of a network of irrigation canals for the diversion of river water to supply their crops. Their culture was sophisticated, and their artifacts express their lives, with detailed scenes of hunting, fishing, fighting, sacrifice, sexual encounters, the Moche are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions and irrigation systems. The Salinar culture reigned on the north coast of Peru in 200 BC-200 AD, according to some scholars this was a short transition period between the Cupisnique and the Moche cultures. Theres considerable parallelism between Moche and Cupisnique iconography and ceramic designs, including the iconography of the Spider god, the nearby Huaca de la Luna is better preserved. Its interior walls contains many colorful murals with complex iconography, the site has been under professional archaeological excavation since the early 1990s. Other major Moche sites include Sipan, Loma Negra, Dos Cabezas, Pacatnamu, the El Brujo complex, Mocollope, Cerro Mayal, Galindo, Huanchaco and their adobe huacas have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1300 years. The surviving ones show that the coloring of their murals was very vibrant, two distinct regions of the Moche civilization have been identified, Southern and Northern Moche, with each area probably corresponding to a different political entity. The Southern Moche region, believed to be the heartland of the culture, originally comprised the Chicama and Moche valleys, the Huaca del Sol-Huaca de la Luna site was probably the capital of this region. It appears that there was a lot of independent development among these various Moche centres and they all likely had ruling dynasties of their own, related to each other. Centralized control of the whole Moche area may have taken place from time to time, pampa Grande, in the Lambayeque Valley, on the shore of the Chancay River, became one of the largest Moche sites anywhere, and occupied the area of more than 400 ha. It was prominent in the Moche V period, and features an abundance of Moche V ceramics, the site was laid out and built in a short period of time, and has an enormous ceremonial complex. It includes Huaca Fortaleza, which is the tallest ceremonial platform in Peru, San Jose de Moro is another northern site in the Jequetepeque valley. It was prominent in the Middle and Late Moche Periods, numerous Moche tombs have been excavated here, including several burials containing high status female individuals. These women were depicted in Moche iconography as the Priestess, Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. The use of technology is evident
Moche culture
–
Huaca del Sol (Temple of the Sun), Mochica cultural capital, 4 km south of the modern city of
Trujillo
Moche culture
–
A map of Moche cultural influence.
Moche culture
–
Moche portrait vessel,
Musée du quai Branly in Paris
Moche culture
–
Resting
deer,
Larco Museum Collection
21.
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
–
Two classical cases of pre-Columbian contact have widespread support amongst the scientific and scholarly mainstream. There is considerable evidence in support of successful explorations which led to Norse settlement of Greenland, the scientific and scholarly responses to other pre-Columbian contact claims have varied. Some such contact claims are examined in reputable peer-reviewed sources, Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978 and it is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas. Few sources describing contact between peoples and Norse people exist. Contact between the Thule people and Norse between the 12th or 13th centuries is known, the Norse Greenlanders called these incoming settlers skrælingar. Conflict between the Greenlanders and the skrælings is recorded in the Icelandic Annals, the term skrælings is also used in the Vínland sagas, which relate to events during the 10th century, when describing trade and conflict with native peoples. The sweet potato, which is native to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia when Europeans first reached the Pacific. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to 1000 CE and it has been suggested that it was brought by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back, or that South Americans brought it to the Pacific. It is possible that the plant could successfully float across the ocean if discarded from the cargo of a boat, phylogenetic analysis supports the hypothesis of at least two separate introductions of sweet potatoes from South America into Polynesia, including one before and one after European contact. A team of academics headed by the University of Yorks Mummy Research Group and BioArch, while examining a Peruvian mummy at the Bolton Museum, before this it was thought that Peruvian mummies were naturally preserved. The resin, found to be that of an Araucaria conifer related to the monkey puzzle tree, was from a variety found only in Oceania and probably New Guinea. Radiocarbon dating of both the resin and body by the University of Oxfords radiocarbon laboratory confirmed they were essentially contemporary, researchers including Kathryn Klar and Terry Jones have proposed a theory of contact between Hawaiians and the Chumash people of Southern California between 400 and 800 CE. Tomoloo, the Chumash word for such a craft, may derive from kumulaau, the analogous Tongva term, tiiat, is unrelated. If it occurred, this left no genetic legacy in California or Hawaii. In recent years, evidence has emerged suggesting a possibility of contact between the Mapuche people of south-central Chile and Polynesians. Chicken bones found at the site El Arenal in the Arauco Peninsula, the bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, before the arrival of the Spanish. Chicken DNA sequences taken were matched to those of chickens in American Samoa and Tonga, dutch linguists and specialists in Amerindian languages Willem Adelaar and Pieter Muysken have suggested that two lexical items may be shared by Polynesian languages and languages of South America
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
–
Co-discoverer
Anne Stine Ingstad examines a fire pit at
L'Anse aux Meadows in 1963.
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
–
For the prevailing model(s) describing the geographic origins and early migrations of humans in the Americas see
Settlement of the Americas.
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
–
Mocha Island off the coast of
Arauco Peninsula, Chile.
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
–
Sweet potatoes for sale, Thames, New Zealand. The name "kumara" has entered
New Zealand English from
Māori, and is in wide use.
22.
Paraguay
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Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the country from north to south. Due to its location in South America, it is sometimes referred to as Corazón de Sudamérica. Paraguay is one of the two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia, Paraguay is the smallest landlocked country in the Americas. The indigenous Guaraní had been living in Paraguay for at least a millennium before the Spanish conquered the territory in the 16th century, Spanish settlers and Jesuit missions introduced Christianity and Spanish culture to the region. Paraguay was a colony of the Spanish Empire, with few urban centers and settlers. Following independence from Spain in 1811, Paraguay was ruled by a series of dictators who generally implemented isolationist and protectionist policies and he was toppled in an internal military coup, and free multi-party elections were organized and held for the first time in 1993. A year later, Paraguay joined Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay to found Mercosur, as of 2009, Paraguays population was estimated to be at around 6.5 million, most of whom are concentrated in the southeast region of the country. The capital and largest city is Asunción, of which the area is home to nearly a third of Paraguays population. In contrast to most Latin American nations, Paraguays indigenous language and culture, Guaraní, in each census, residents predominantly identify as mestizo, reflecting years of intermarriage among the different ethnic groups. Guaraní is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, and both languages are spoken in the country. There is no consensus for the derivation or meaning of the name Paraguay, the most common interpretations include, Born from water Riverine of many varieties River which originates a sea Fray Antonio Ruiz de Montoya said that it meant river crowned. The Spanish officer and scientist Félix de Azara suggests two derivations, the Payaguas, referring to the tribe who lived along the river. The French-Argentine historian and writer Paul Groussac argued that it meant river that flows through the sea, Paraguayan poet and ex-president Juan Natalicio González said it meant river of the inhabitants of the sea. Indigenous peoples have inhabited this area for thousands of years, pre-Columbian society in the region which is now Paraguay consisted of semi-nomadic tribes that were known for their warrior traditions. These indigenous tribes belonged to five language families, which was the basis of their major divisions. Differing language groups were generally competitive over resources and territories and they were further divided into tribes by speaking languages in branches of these families. Today 17 separate ethnolinguistic groups remain, the first Europeans in the area were Spanish explorers in 1516. The Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar de Espinosa founded the settlement of Asunción on 15 August 1537, the city eventually became the center of a Spanish colonial province of Paraguay
Paraguay
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José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguay's first president.
Paraguay
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Flag (obverse)
Paraguay
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Francisco Solano López
Paraguay
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The
Battle of Tuyutí, May 1866.
23.
Paiute
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Paiute refers to three closely related groups of indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, Northern Paiute of California, Idaho, Nevada and Oregon. Owens Valley Paiute of California and Nevada, Southern Paiute of Arizona, southeastern California, Nevada and Utah. Their peoples have become members of federally recognized tribes, as noted in the sections below. In many locations they have colocated with peoples of the Shoshone and Washoe tribes, the Northern and Southern Paiute peoples both speak languages belonging to the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan family of Native American languages. The terms Paiute, Northern Paiute and Southern Paiute are most correctly applied to refer to groups of people with similar language and it does not imply a political connection or even an especially close genetic relationship. The Northern Paiute speak the Northern Paiute language, while the Southern Paiute speak the Colorado River Numic language and these languages are not as closely related to each other as they are to other Numic languages. The Bannock, Mono, Coso, Timbisha and Kawaiisu peoples, the Bannock speak a dialect of Northern Paiute. But, the Mono Tribe and other three peoples speak distinctly separate Numic languages, Mono is related closely to Northern Paiute. The Timbisha language is related closely to the Shoshoni language. The Kawaiisu language is closely related to Colorado River Numic of the Southern Paiute. The Northern Paiute traditionally have lived in the Great Basin in eastern California, western Nevada, the Northern Paiutes pre-contact lifestyle was well adapted to the harsh desert environment in which they lived. Each tribe or band occupied a territory, generally centered on a lake or wetland that supplied fish. Communal hunt drives, which often involved neighboring bands, would take rabbits, individuals and families appear to have moved freely among the bands. They gathered Pinyon nuts in the mountains in the fall as a winter food source. Women also gathered grass seeds and roots as important parts of their diet, the name of each band was derived from a characteristic food source. For example, the people at Pyramid Lake were known as the Cui Ui Ticutta, the people of the Lovelock area were known as the Koop Ticutta, meaning ground-squirrel eaters, and the people of the Carson Sink were known as the Toi Ticutta, meaning tule eaters. The Kucadikadi of Mono County, California are the brine fly eaters, relations among the Northern Paiute bands and their Shoshone neighbors were generally peaceful. There is no distinction between the Northern Paiute and Western Shoshone or Sosone
Paiute
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Angie Bulletts (
Kaibab Paiute) weaves a Paiute
cradleboard, Arizona, 2011
Paiute
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Sarah Winnemucca, Paiute writer and lecturer
Paiute
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Captain John, Leader of the
Yosemite-Mono Lake Paiutes
Paiute
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Chief Winnemucca, Chief of the Paiutes. He was also named Poito.
24.
Ollantaytambo
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Ollantaytambo is a town and an Inca archaeological site in southern Peru some 72 kilometres by road northwest of the city of Cusco. It is located at an altitude of 2,792 metres above sea level in the district of Ollantaytambo, province of Urubamba, during the Inca Empire, Ollantaytambo was the royal estate of Emperor Pachacuti who conquered the region, built the town and a ceremonial center. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru it served as a stronghold for Manco Inca Yupanqui, around the mid-15th century, the Inca emperor Pachacuti conquered and razed Ollantaytambo, the town and the nearby region were incorporated into his personal estate. After Pachacutis death, the estate came under the administration of his panaqa, during the Spanish conquest of Peru Ollantaytambo served as a temporary capital for Manco Inca, leader of the native resistance against the conquistadors. He fortified the town and its approaches in the direction of the former Inca capital of Cusco, in 1536, on the plain of Mascabamba, near Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca defeated a Spanish expedition, blocking their advance from a set of high terraces and flooding the plain. Despite his victory, however, Manco Inca did not consider his position tenable, so the year he withdrew to the heavily forested site of Vilcabamba. In 1540, the population of Ollantaytambo was assigned in encomienda to Hernando Pizarro. The town of Ollantaytambo is located along the Patakancha River, close to the point where it joins the Willkanuta River, the main settlement is located on the left margin of the Patakancha with a smaller compound called Araqhama on the right margin. The main Inca ceremonial center is located beyond Araqhama on a hill called Cerro Bandolista, there are several Inca structures on the surroundings, what follows is a brief description of the main sites. The main settlement at Ollantaytambo has a layout with four longitudinal streets crossed by seven parallel streets. At the center of grid, the Incas built a large plaza that may have been up to four blocks large, it was open to the east and surrounded by halls. All blocks on the half of the town were built to the same design. Buildings in the northern half are more varied in design, however, Ollantaytambo dates from the late 15th century and has some of the oldest continuously occupied dwellings in South America. The plaza at the center of the town also disappeared as several buildings were built over it in colonial times. Araqhama is a prolongation of the main settlement, across the Patakancha River, it features a large plaza, called Manyaraki, surrounded by constructions made out of adobe. These buildings have a larger area than their counterparts in the main settlement, they also have very tall walls. To the south there are structures, but smaller and built out of fieldstones. Araqhama has been occupied since Inca times, as evidenced by the Roman Catholic church on the eastern side of the plaza
Ollantaytambo
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Ollantaytambo Ullantaytampu
Ollantaytambo
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Wiracocha 's or Tunupa's image in stone on the mountain
Pinkuylluna overlooks Ollantaytambo. Wiracochan was the messenger of
Viracocha the creater god of pre-Incan and Incan mythology.
Ollantaytambo
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' Araqhama and the plaza of Manyaraki
Ollantaytambo
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A typical Inca doorway still used in the town. Note the single stone lintel, a sign of importance.
25.
Cusco Region
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Cusco is a region in Peru. It is bordered by the Ucayali Region on the north, the Madre de Dios and Puno regions on the east, the Arequipa Region on the south, and its capital is Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire. It is located about 3,000 metres above sea level and is used to cultivate mainly high altitude such as potatoes, tarwi, barley. According to the 2007 Peru Census, the language learnt first by most of the residents was Quechua, the Quechua variety spoken in this region is Cusco Quechua
Cusco Region
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Machu Picchu, the lost city of the
Inca
Cusco Region
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Political division of the Cusco Region
Cusco Region
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Balconies at the main square in Cusco
26.
Sacred Valley
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The Sacred Valley of the Incas or the Urubamba Valley is a valley in the Andes of Peru,20 kilometres at its closest north of the Inca capital of Cusco. It is located in the present-day Peruvian region of Cusco, in colonial documents it was referred to as the Valley of Yucay. The Sacred Valley was incorporated slowly into the incipient Inca Empire during the period from 1000 to 1400 CE, the scenic and historical Sacred Valley is a major tourist destination. In 2013,1.2 million people,800,000 of them non-Peruvians, are estimated to have visited Machu Picchu, many of the same tourists also visited other archaeological sites and modern towns in the Sacred Valley. The valley, running generally west to east, is understood to include everything along the Urubamba River between the town and Inca ruins at Písac westward to Machu Piccu,100 kilometres distant. The Sacred Valley has elevations above sea level along the river ranging from 3,000 metres at Pisac to 2,050 metres at the Urubamba River below the citadel of Macchu Piccu, the intensely cultivated valley floor is about 1 kilometre wide on average. Side valleys and agricultural terraces expand the cultivatable area, the valley was formed by the Urubamba river, also known as the Vilcanota River, Willkanuta River or Willkamayu. The latter, in Quechua, the still spoken lingua franca of the Inca Empire and it is fed by numerous tributaries which descend through adjoining valleys and gorges, and contains numerous archaeological remains and villages. The climate of Urubamba is typical of the valley, the Incas built extensive irrigation works throughout the valley to counter deficiencies and seasonality in precipitation. The early Incas lived in the Cuzco area, by conquest or diplomacy, during the period 1000 to 1400 CE, the Inca achieved administrative control over the various ethnic groups living in or near the Sacred Valley. The attraction of the Sacred Valley to the Inca, in addition to its proximity to Cuzco, was probably that it was lower in elevation, the lower elevation permitted maize to be grown in the Sacred Valley. Large scale maize production in the Sacred Valley was apparently facilitated by varieties bred in nearby Moray, the Inca customarily divided conquered lands into three more-or-less equal parts. One part was for the emperor, one part for the religious establishment, in the 1400s, the Sacred Valley became an area of royal estates and country homes. Once a royal estate was created by an emperor it continued to be owned by descendants of the emperor after his death, the estate of the emperor Huayna Capac, are in the town of Urubamba. Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Pachacuti, agricultural terraces, called andenes, were built up hillsides flanking the valley floor and are today the most visible and widespread signs of the Inca civilization in the Sacred Valley. In 1537, the Inca Emperor Manco Inca Yupanqui fought and won the Battle of Ollantaytambo against a Spanish army headed by Hernando Pizarro, nevertheless, Manco soon withdrew from the Sacred Valley and the area came under the control of the Spanish colonialists
Sacred Valley
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The Sacred Valley of the Incas, El Valle Sagrado de los Incas
Sacred Valley
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Machu Picchu
Sacred Valley
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Sacred Valley of the Incas
27.
Blas Valera
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Blas Valera was born in Levanto, Chachapoyas, Peru, in 1545. Valera is considered to be the son of Luis Valera, one of the men who accompanied Pizarro in the conquest of the Inca Empire and he established himself in this city since its foundation. The mother of this outstanding Chachapoyano writer was Francisca Pérez, a native who had taken this name after being baptized and he did his first studies in Trujillo and then continued them in Lima. He took a part in the III Concilio Limense of 1583. Father Valera died in Alcalá de Henares, Spain on 2 April 1597 and his priestly vocation made him travel to Lima when he was still a teenager. When he was 17, he joined the Compañía de Jesús and he became the biggest authority of his time in this subject. Valera was a case in those times, a bilingual mestizo. Because of his knowledge of languages, he was a valuable collaborator of father José de Acosta. These catechisms deserved the approval of Toribio de Mogrovejo, on the other hand, there are evidences that Valera was accused of heresy because he include some favourable comments to the Inca Empire. He was shut in by the Jesuits for a brief period, father Luis Valera was a Spanish conquistador born of Bartolome Garcia Roman and Catalina Hernandez in the small town of Aracena in western Andalucia. He left for the new world on April 28,1534, leaving his wife Catalina Rodriguez de Aldana and he would later ask her to rjoin him in the new world 25 years later, and she did so in 1559. It is likely that he was a companion of Francisco Pizarro during the conquest. He later served as a captain of crossbowmen under one of Pizarros lieutenants, after his service, Alvarado granted Valera the encomiendas of Chibalta and Tiapullu, where he mainly raised livestock for sale in Santiago. He was regional leader and served on the cabildo, or city council of the region Mother A native Peruvian who was most likely of Inca ancestry who is known by the Christian name Francisca Perez. She may have been an Inca princess in the court of the late Inca emperor Atahualpa, details of her are still relatively unknown, but she either died or left Luis when her son Blas was 15. Brother Jeronimo Valera was born years after his brother Blas Valera in the Nieva region of Chachapoyas in the late 1550s. He traveled to Spain as a child but returned in September 1559. He was raised by Catalina Rodriguez, the first wife of Luis Valera and he studied at the Jesuit College of San Martin in Lima, and became a Jesuit on February 25,1580
Blas Valera
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Three signatures of Blas Valera (private collection, C. Miccinelli - Naples (Italy))
