1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
Virginia Landmarks Register
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The Virginia Landmarks Register is a list of historic properties in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The states official list of important historic sites, it was created in 1966, the Register serves the same purpose as the National Register of Historic Places. The nomination form for any Virginia site listed on the VLR is sent forward to the National Park Service for consideration for listing on the National Register, the Virginia Landmarks Register is maintained by the Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Almost all of the over 2800 sites listed on the register are also listed on the state register. For those listings see, National Register of Historic Places listings in Virginia
4.
Richmond, Virginia
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Richmond is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. It is the center of the Richmond Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Greater Richmond Region and it was incorporated in 1742, and has been an independent city since 1871. As of the 2010 census, the population was 204,214, in 2015, the population was estimated to be 220,289, the Richmond Metropolitan Area has a population of 1,260,029, the third-most populous metro in the state. Richmond is located at the line of the James River,44 miles west of Williamsburg,66 miles east of Charlottesville. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is located at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, Major suburbs include Midlothian to the southwest, Glen Allen to the north and west, Short Pump to the west and Mechanicsville to the northeast. The site of Richmond had been an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609. The present city of Richmond was founded in 1737 and it became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America, the city entered the 20th century with one of the worlds first successful electric streetcar systems. The Jackson Ward neighborhood is a hub of African-American commerce. Richmonds economy is driven by law, finance, and government, with federal, state. Dominion Resources and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, are headquartered in the city, in 1737, planter William Byrd II commissioned Major William Mayo to lay out the original town grid. The settlement was laid out in April 1737, and was incorporated as a town in 1742, Richmond recovered quickly from the war, and by 1782 was once again a thriving city. A permanent home for the new government, the Virginia State Capitol building, was designed by Thomas Jefferson with the assistance of Charles-Louis Clérisseau, after the American Revolutionary War, Richmond emerged as an important industrial center. The legacy of the canal boatmen is represented by the figure in the center of the city flag, on April 17,1861, five days after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, the legislature voted to secede from the United States and joined the Confederacy. Official action came in May, after the Confederacy promised to move its capital to Richmond. It became the target of Union armies, especially in the campaigns of 1862. The Seven Days Battles followed in late June and early July 1862, during which Union General McClellan threatened to take Richmond, three years later, as March 1865 ended, the Confederate capitol became indefensible. On March 25, Confederate General John B, gordons desperate attack on Fort Stedman east of Petersburg failed
5.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
6.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
7.
Palladian architecture
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Palladian architecture is a European style of architecture derived from and inspired by the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio. That which is recognised as Palladian architecture today is an evolution of Palladios original concepts, Palladios work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 17th century Palladios interpretation of classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century, Palladianism became popular briefly in Britain during the mid-17th century, but its flowering was cut short by the onset of the Civil War and the imposition of austerity which followed. In the early 18th century it returned to fashion, not only in England but also, the style continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings. However, as a style it has continued to be popular and to evolve, its pediments, symmetry. Buildings entirely designed by Palladio are all in Venice and the Veneto, with an especially rich grouping of palazzi in Vicenza and they include villas, and churches such as Redentore in Venice. Palladio always designed his villas with reference to their setting, if on a hill, such as Villa Capra, facades were frequently designed to be of equal value so that occupants could have fine views in all directions. Also, in cases, porticos were built on all sides so that occupants could fully appreciate the countryside while being protected from the sun. Palladio sometimes used a loggia as an alternative to the portico and this can most simply be described as a recessed portico, or an internal single storey room, with pierced walls that are open to the elements. Occasionally a loggia would be placed at floor level over the top of a loggia below. Loggias were sometimes given significance in a facade by being surmounted by a pediment, Villa Godi has as its focal point a loggia rather than a portico, plus loggias terminating each end of the main building. Palladio would often model his villa elevations on Roman temple facades, the temple influence, often in a cruciform design, later became a trademark of his work. Palladian villas are built with three floors, a rusticated basement or ground floor, containing the service and minor rooms. The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3,4 and 4,5, earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade, however, Palladios designs related to the whole, usually square, villa. Palladio deeply considered the purpose of his villas as both farmhouses and palatial weekend retreats for wealthy merchant owners. These symmetrical temple-like houses often have symmetrical, but low, wings sweeping away from them to accommodate horses, farm animals. The wings, sometimes detached and connected to the villa by colonnades, were designed not only to be functional but also to complement, the Palladian, Serlian, or Venetian window features largely in Palladios work and is almost a trademark of his early career
8.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
9.
Virginia General Assembly
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The Virginia General Assembly is the legislative body of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World, established on July 30,1619. The General Assembly is a body consisting of a lower house, the Virginia House of Delegates, with 100 members, and an upper house. Combined together, the General Assembly consists of 140 elected representatives from a number of constituent districts across the commonwealth. The House of Delegates is presided over by the Speaker of the House, the House and Senate each elect a clerk and sergeant-at-arms. The Senate of Virginias clerk is known as the Clerk of the Senate, the Republican Party currently holds the majority in both the House of Delegates and the Senate. The General Assembly meets in Virginias capital of Richmond, when sitting in Richmond, the General Assembly holds sessions in the Virginia State Capitol, designed by Thomas Jefferson in 1788 and expanded in 1904. During the American Civil War, the building was used as the capitol of the Confederate States of America, the building was renovated between 2005 and 2006. Senators and Delegates have their offices in the General Assembly Building across the street north of the Capitol. The Governor of Virginia lives across the street directly east of the Capitol in the Virginia Executive Mansion, the Virginia General Assembly is described as the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. Its existence dates from the establishment of the Virginia Governors Council, at various times it may have been referred to as the Grand Assembly of Virginia. The General Assembly met in Jamestown from 1619 until 1699, when it moved to Williamsburg, Virginia and it became the General Assembly in 1776 with the ratification of the Virginia Constitution. The government was moved to Richmond in 1780 during the administration of Governor Thomas Jefferson, the annual salary for senators is $18,000. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640, under the Constitution, a senator or delegate who moves his residence from the district for which he is elected shall thereby vacate his office. Article II, section 6 on apportionment states, Members of the, Senate and of the House of Delegates of the General Assembly shall be elected from electoral districts established by the General Assembly. The Redistricting Coalition of Virginia proposes either an independent commission or a commission that is not polarized. Member organizations include the League of Women Voters of Virginia, AARP of Virginia, OneVirginia2021, the Virginia Chamber of Commerce, Governor Bob McDonnells Independent Bipartisan Advisory Commission on Redistricting for the Commonwealth of Virginia made its report on April 1,2011. It made two recommendations for state legislative house that showed maps of districts more compact and contiguous than those adopted by the General Assembly. In 2011, the Virginia College and University Redistricting Competition was organized by Professors Michael McDonald of George Mason University, about 150 students on sixteen teams from thirteen schools submitted plans for legislative and U. S
10.
House of Burgesses
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The Virginia House of Burgesses /ˈbɜːrdʒəsɪz/ was the first legislative assembly of elected representatives in North America. From 1619 to 1776, the branch of the legislature of Virginia was the House of Burgesses. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, when the government was moved to Williamsburg, in 1776 the colony became the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates. Originally a synonym of burgher or bourgeois, the word came to mean a borough representative in local or parliamentary government. The Colony of Virginia was founded by an English stock company, early governors provided the stern leadership and harsh judgments required for the colony to survive its early difficulties. To encourage settlers to come to Virginia, in 1618–1619, the Virginia Companys leaders drew up a great charter, emigrants who paid their own way to Virginia would receive fifty acres of land. They would not be mere tenants, civil authority would control the military. A council of burgesses, representatives chosen by the inhabitants of the colony for their government, the House of Assembly was created at the same time in Bermuda and held its first session in 1620. A handful of Polish craftsmen, brought to the colony to supply skill in the manufacture of pitch, tar, potash and they downed tools in protest, but returned to work after being declared free and enfranchised, apparently by agreement with the Virginia Company. On July 30,1619, the first European-style legislative assembly in the Americas convened for a meeting at the church on Jamestown Island. Together, the House of Burgesses and the Council would be the Virginia General Assembly, the Houses first session of July 30,1619, accomplished little, being cut short by an outbreak of malaria. By 1624, the government in London had heard enough about the problems of the colony. Virginia became a colony and the governor and council would be chosen by the king. Nonetheless, the form of government of the colony was retained. In 1634, the General Assembly divided the colony into eight shires for purposes of government, administration, by 1643, the expanding colony had 15 counties. All of the county offices, including a board of commissioners, judges, sheriff, constable, only the members of the House of Burgesses were elected by a vote of the people. Women had no right to vote, while all free men originally were given the right to vote, by 1670 only property owners were allowed to vote. In 1652, the forces of Oliver Cromwell forced the colony to submit to their takeover of the English government
11.
Capitol (Williamsburg, Virginia)
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Two capitol buildings served the colony on the same site, the first from 1705 until its destruction by fire in 1747, the second from 1753 to 1779. The earlier capitol was reconstructed in the early 1930s as part of the restoration of Colonial Williamsburg, the reconstruction has thus lasted longer than the combined total of both original capitol buildings. In 1698, the Capitol building in Jamestown, Virginia burned, following the fire, the government of Virginia decided to relocate inland, away from the swamps at the Jamestown site. A better Capitol building was constructed by Henry Cary, a contractor finishing work on the College of William, begun in 1701, the Capitol was completed in 1705, although the legislature moved in during 1704. In 1714, the Governors Palace was constructed between the College and the Capitol, the Colonial Capitol was a two-story H-shaped structure, functionally two buildings connected by an arcade. Each wing served one of the two houses of the Virginia legislature, the Council and the House of Burgesses. The first floor of the west building was for the General Court and the colonys secretary, as a result of the fires that had destroyed several prior Virginia capitols, Cary built the first Capitol without fireplaces. In 1723, chimneys were added for fireplaces to keep the Capitol dry. On January 30,1747, the burned and only some walls. Governor William Gooch urged that the Capitol be rebuilt, but many legislators preferred relocating the government to a city more accessible to trade, in the meantime, the burgesses met again at the nearby Wren Building. Finally, in November 1748, reconstruction of the Capitol was approved, the burgesses met inside for the first time on November 1,1753. In this building, Patrick Henry delivered his Caesar-Brutus speech against the Stamp Act on May 29,1765, Henry, George Washington, George Mason, George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, and others played parts in the legislative maneuvering that ended in revolution. The Capitol at Williamsburg served until the American Revolutionary War began, the building was last used as a capitol on December 24,1779, when the Virginia General Assembly adjourned to reconvene in 1780 at the new capital, Richmond. After the capital of Virginia was moved to Richmond in 1780, after the Battle of Yorktown, and the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, it fell into disrepair and was dismantled for its materials. The building that now in Colonial Williamsburg is the third Capitol on that site. Early in the 20th century, the Reverend Dr. W. A. R. Goodwin undertook restoration of historic Bruton Parish Church where he was rector. The reconstructed Capitol and Governors Palace join the Wren Building of the College of William & Mary as the three structures of the restoration. The reconstruction opened to the public on February 24,1934, Virginia State Capitol Colonial Williamsburg, Capitol web page
12.
Jamestown, Virginia
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The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. William Kelso writes that Jamestown is where the British Empire began, Jamestown was established by the Virginia Company of London as James Fort on May 4,1607, and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke, Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years, from 1616 until 1699. The settlement was located within the country of Tsenacommacah, which was ruled by the Powhatan Confederacy, the natives initially welcomed and provided crucial provisions and support for the colonists, who were not agriculturally inclined. Relations with the newcomers soured fairly early on, leading to the annihilation of the Paspahegh in warfare within 3 years. Mortality at Jamestown itself was very high due to disease and starvation, the Second Supply also brought the first two European women to the settlement. They most likely worked in the fields as indentured servants. The modern conception of slavery in the future United States was formalized in 1640 and was entrenched in Virginia by 1660. In 1676, the town was burned during Bacons Rebellion. In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations comprising the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites, Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site on Jamestown Island, is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site and Preservation Virginia. Jamestown Settlement, a living history site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation. Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, the English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590. Late in 1606, English entrepreneurs set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World, the fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a long voyage of four months, including a stop in Puerto Rico. The expedition made landfall on April 26,1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry, Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25,1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a peninsula some 40 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian tribes, the island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking
13.
Governor's Palace (Williamsburg, Virginia)
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The Governors Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia was the official residence of the Royal Governors of the Colony of Virginia. It was also a home for two of Virginias post-colonial governors, Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson, until the capital was moved to Richmond in 1780, the main house burned down in 1781, though the outbuildings survived for some time after. The Governors Palace was reconstructed in the 1930s on its original site and it is one of the two largest buildings at Colonial Williamsburg, the other being the Capitol. Williamsburg was established as the new capital of the Virginia colony in 1699, during most of that period, the Governors Palace was the official residence of the royal governor. The palace was funded by the House of Burgesses in 1706 at the behest of Lt and it was built from 1706 onward. In 1710, its first official resident was Lt, governor Alexander Spotswood who served as acting governor, the governor proper, George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney was absentee and is not known to have visited Virginia. Spottwood continued to improve on it until ca, 1720–1722, adding the forecourt, gardens, and various decorations. Under Lt. Gov. Robert Dinwiddie, from 1751 to 52, it was repaired and renovated, the proposal would have added a temple-like portico to the front and back. However, in 1780, Jefferson urged that the capital of Virginia be relocated to Richmond for security reasons during the American Revolution. The new lodging for the adjacent to the current Virginia State Capitol building in Richmond is more modest in size and style. On December 22,1781, the building was destroyed by a fire. At the time, it was being used as a hospital for wounded American soldiers following the nearby Siege of Yorktown, some brick outbuildings survived the fire, but were demolished during the American Civil War so they could be salvaged for building materials by occupying forces. The possible architectural influence of the Governors Palace could be Nether Lypiatt Manor, Gloucestershire, through the efforts of Reverend Dr. W. A. R. The reconstruction was based on numerous surviving pieces of evidence, archaeological excavations of the site revealed the original foundations and cellar, together with architectural remnants that had fallen in during the fire. Jeffersons drawings and plans from his proposed renovation have survived, conveying the interior plan, in 1929, while the project was already in planning, a copperplate engraving nicknamed the Bodleian Plate was discovered in Englands Bodleian Library. The plate included renderings c.1740 of the exterior of the palace, along with the Capitol, additional evidence included original artifacts and Virginia General Assembly records. The house, outbuildings, and gardens opened as an exhibition on April 23,1934, in early 1981, the Governors Palace underwent significant interior renovation and refurnishing to reflect updated scholarship of the building and its furnishings. The renovation reduced the influence of the Colonial Revival style in favor of historical evidence, Colonial Williamsburg, Governors Palace web page
14.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
15.
United States Declaration of Independence
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Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all
16.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
17.
Richmond Theatre fire
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The Richmond Theatre fire occurred in Richmond, Virginia, United States on December 26,1811. It devastated the Richmond Theatre, located on the side of Broad Street between what is now Twelfth and College Streets. The fire, which killed 72 people including many government officials, was the worst urban disaster in American history at the time, a monument church was erected on the site as a memorial to the fire. A previous building at the location was known initially as the first Academy of Fine Arts and Sciences in America. Chevalier Quesnay de Beaurepaire, a French officer who served in the American Revolutionary War, had developed the idea for the academy, richmonds first theatre, a barn-like building, opened its doors on October 10,1786 for the first time with a performance of School for Scandal. The Virginia Ratifying Convention of 1788 was held in this building beginning on June 3 for three weeks after first convening in the capitol at Cary and fourteenth streets. This building was destroyed by fire in 1811, a new multi-storey brick theatre was erected around 1810 on what was at the time the north side of H Street. There was a section, a first balcony, and an upper balcony. The performance on the evening of December 26,1811 at the Richmond Theatre was a benefit for Alexander Placide and his daughter. The program was a billing, first, a play entitled The Father, or Family Feuds, and after it. The benefit originally had been scheduled for December 23, but was postponed due to the death of Mrs. Poe, Placides own illness, and foul weather. The fire started after the curtain fell following the first act of the pantomime, the lamp became entangled in the cords used to lift the chandelier and it touched one of the items used in the front scenes, which caught fire. As soon as the boy worker who was operating the saw the flames. The flames rose up the scenery and spread from one hanging scene to the other, in addition to the hangings were also the borders that provided the outlines of buildings and skies, among other set pieces, these, too, caught fire sequentially. Pine planks fixed over rafters with no plastering and ceiling spread the flames, the impact of the fire was worsened because the stage curtain hid the initial flames from the audience. The theatre had multiple exits, a little known side-door was used by those in the orchestra, in the panic of the fire, many people were pushed and fell, and they were unable to escape. Many people jumped out of the windows of the theatre, others who were assembled near the window were afraid to do so. The editor of the Richmond Standard, present at the scene, urged people to jump, he, with help from others on the ground
18.
Virginia Ratifying Convention
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The Convention met and deliberated from June 2 through June 27 in Richmond at the Richmond Theatre, presently the site of Monumental Church. Judge Edmund Pendleton, Virginia delegate to the Constitutional Convention, served as the president by unanimous consent. The Convention met from June 2–27,1788, in the wooden Old Capitol building at Richmond VA, the Virginia Ratifying Convention narrowly approved joining the proposed United States under a Constitution of supreme national law as authorized by “We, the people” of the United States. James Madison led those in favor, Patrick Henry, delegate to the First Continental Convention and Revolutionary wartime governor, governor Edmund Randolph, who had refused to sign the Constitution in the Philadelphia Convention, chose in Virginias Ratifying Convention to support adoption. George Mason had refused to sign due to the lack of a Bill of Rights in Philadelphia, the Virginia ratification included a recommendation for a Bill of Rights, and Madison subsequently led the First Congress to send the Bill of Rights to the states for ratification. An early estimate gave the Federalists seeking ratification a slim margin of 86 to Anti-Federalists rejecting at 80, the Anti-federalists found strength in the central Piedmont, Southside and southwest counties. Unlike the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention, the Virginia Federal Constitution was open to the public, delegates changed sides over the debates, demonstrators paraded in the streets, and the press churned out accounts of the proceedings along with commentary pamphlets. The Federalist Papers first became a factor in state ratification conventions outside New York in Virginia, Patrick Henry questioned the authority of the Philadelphia Convention to presume to speak for “We, the people” instead of “We, the states”. In his view, delegates should have only recommended amendments to the Articles of Confederation, consolidated government would put an end to Virginia’s liberties and state government. Nine states making a new nation without the rest would abrogate treaties, Edmund Randolph had changed from his opposition in the Philadelphia Convention to now supporting adoption for the sake of preserving the Union. He noted that the Confederation was “totally inadequate” and leading to American downfall, the new Constitution would repair the inadequacies of the Articles. If something were not done, the Union would be lost, the new government should be based on the people who would be governed by it, not the intermediary states. The Constitution should be ratified, along with any “practical” amendments and they brought anarchy and confusion, disharmony and foreign invasion. Efficient government can only come from direct operation on individuals, it can never flow from negotiations among a confederation’s constituent states, the proposed Constitution creates a republic with each branch of government grounded in the people without hereditary offices. Its mixed nature was both federated and consolidated, but in all cases was based on superior power of the people”. The states would remain important because the House of Representatives were chosen by people in state. The Constitution limited the national government to enumerated powers, the Virginia Ratification Convention made a final vote on George Wythe’s motion to ratify, passing it 89 to 79. Virginia was the state to ratify the new Constitution
19.
James River
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The James River is a river in the U. S. state of Virginia. It is 348 miles long, extending to 444 miles if one includes the Jackson River, the James River drains a catchment comprising 10,432 square miles. The watershed includes about 4% open water and an area with a population of 2.5 million people and it is the 12th longest river in the United States that remains entirely within a single state. Tidal waters extend west to Richmond, the capital of Virginia, larger tributaries draining to the tidal portion include the Appomattox River, Chickahominy River, Warwick River, Pagan River, and the Nansemond River. At its mouth near Newport News Point, the Elizabeth River, many boats pass through this river to import and export Virginia products. The navigable portion of the river was the highway of the Colony of Virginia during its first 15 years, facilitating supply ships delivering supplies. However, for the first five years, despite many hopes of gold and riches, in 1612, businessman John Rolfe successfully cultivated a non-native strain of tobacco which proved popular in England. Soon, the became the primary means of exporting the large hogsheads of this cash crop from an ever-growing number of plantations with wharfs along its banks. This development made the efforts of the Virginia Company of London successful financially, spurring even more development, investments. The upper reaches of the river above the head of navigation at the line were explored by fur trading parties sent by Abraham Wood during the late 17th century. Although ocean-going ships were unable to navigate beyond present-day Richmond, portage of products, produce from the Piedmont and Great Valley regions traveled down the river to seaports at Richmond and Manchester through such port towns as Lynchburg, Scottsville, Columbia and Buchanan. The James River was considered as a route for transport of produce from the Ohio Valley, the James River and Kanawha Canal was built for this purpose, to provide a navigable portion of the Kanawha River, a tributary of the Ohio River. For the most mountainous section between the two points, the James River and Kanawha Turnpike was built to provide a link via wagons. However, before the canal could be completed, in the mid-19th century, railroads emerged as a more practical technology. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway was completed between Richmond and the Ohio River at the new city of Huntington, West Virginia by 1873, dooming the canals economic prospects. In the 1880s, the Richmond and Alleghany Railroad was laid along the portion of the canals towpath. In modern times, this line is used primarily in transporting West Virginia coal to export coal piers at Newport News. The James River contains numerous parks and other recreational attractions, canoeing, fishing, kayaking, hiking, and swimming are some of the activities that people enjoy along the river during the summer
20.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
21.
Roman temple
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Ancient Roman temples were among the most important buildings in Roman culture, and some of the richest buildings in Roman architecture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Today they remain the most obvious symbol of Roman architecture and their construction and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman religion, and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room housed the image of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. Behind the cella was a room or rooms used by attendants for storage of equipment. The ordinary worshipper rarely entered the cella, and most public ceremonies were performed outside, on the portico, with a crowd gathered in the temple precinct. The most common architectural plan had a rectangular temple raised on a podium, with a clear front with a portico at the top of steps. The sides and rear of the building had much less architectural emphasis, there were also circular plans, generally with columns all round, and outside Italy there were many compromises with traditional local styles. The Roman form of temple developed initially from Etruscan temples, themselves influenced by the Greeks, public religious ceremonies of the official Roman religion took place outdoors, and not within the temple building. Some ceremonies were processions that started at, visited, or ended with a temple or shrine, sacrifices, chiefly of animals, would take place at an open-air altar within the templum. Especially under the Empire, exotic foreign cults gained followers in Rome and these often had very different practices, some preferring underground places of worship, while others, like Early Christians, worshipped in houses. The decline of Roman religion was relatively slow, and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor Honorius in 415. Santi Cosma e Damiano, in the Roman Forum, originally the Temple of Romulus, was not dedicated as a church until 527. The best known is the Pantheon, Rome, which is however highly untypical, being a large circular temple with a magnificent concrete roof. The English word temple derives from the Latin templum, which was not the building itself. The Roman architect Vitruvius always uses the word templum to refer to the sacred precinct, the more common Latin words for a temple or shrine were sacellum, aedes, delubrum, and fanum. The Etruscans were a people of northern Italy, whose civilization was at its peak in the seventh century BC, the Etruscans were already influenced by early Greek architecture, so Roman temples were distinctive but with both Etruscan and Greek features. Especially in the periods, further statuary might be placed on the roof. As in the Maison Carrée, columns at the side might be half-columns and these steps were normally only at the front, and typically not the whole width of that
22.
Vermont State House
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The Vermont State House, located in Montpelier, is the state capitol of Vermont, in the United States. It is the seat of the Vermont General Assembly, the current Greek Revival structure is the third building on the same site to be used as the State House. Designed by Thomas Silloway in 1857–1858, it was occupied in 1859, a careful restoration of the Vermont State House began in the early 1980s led by curator David Schütz and the Friends of the Vermont State House, a citizens advisory committee. The general style of the building is Neoclassical and Greek Revival and is furnished in American Empire, Renaissance Revival, some rooms have been restored to represent latter-19th-century styles including the Aesthetic Movement style. The Vermont State House is located on State Street on the edge of downtown Montpelier. Set against a hillside, the building and its distinctive gold leaf dome are easily visible while approaching Montpelier. The current structure was designed by architect Thomas Silloway amplifying the design of a structure designed by Ammi B. Young, later supervising architect of the U. S. Treasury, the first State House built in 1808 by Sylvanus Baldwin was replaced by the current Vermont Supreme Court Building completed in 1918. The prior edifice, known as the second State House, was constructed on the site between 1833–1838. Youngs structure was of a more reserved Greek Revival design based upon the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, gray Barre granite is used for the two-story cruciform design with a Doric portico and a low saucer dome echoing William Thorntons earliest design for the United States Capitol. Youngs structure was almost entirely destroyed by a fire in January 1857, Silloway was able to salvage the Doric portico, as well as portions of the granite walls. Silloway added a bay of windows on each side of the central portico. This may have been done to imitate the increased height of the new Capitol dome in Washington designed by Thomas U. Walter which was being constructed during the same time, the dome and roofs were originally painted a dark terracotta red to suggest Tuscan tile. The dome was not gilded until the early 20th century, when states did so as a part of the Colonial Revival style. The dome is topped by a statue named Agriculture, a representation of Ceres, the original statue was carved by Vermont artist Larkin Goldsmith Mead, who also carved the large bust of Lincoln in the Hall of Inscriptions on the State Houses ground floor. The current statue is a replacement, and something of a piece of folk art and it was carved in 1938 by then 87-year-old Dwight Dwinell, Sergeant-at-Arms. The Doric portico, the ceremonial entrance, houses a granite statue of Ethan Allen. Ethan Allen was a founder of Vermont and commander of the Green Mountain Boys, the statue was carved by Aristide Piccini in 1941, to replace the original marble version carved by Larkin Goldsmith Mead in 1858
23.
Temple of Hephaestus
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The Temple of Hephaestus or Hephaisteion or earlier as the Theseion, is a well-preserved Greek temple, it remains standing largely as built. It is a Doric peripteral temple, and is located at the north-west side of the Agora of Athens, from the 7th century until 1834, it served as the Greek Orthodox church of Saint George Akamates. The buildings condition has been maintained due to its history of varied use, Hephaestus was the patron god of metal working, craftsmanship, and fire. There were numerous potters workshops and metal-working shops in the vicinity of the temple, archaeological evidence suggests that there was no earlier building on the site except for a small sanctuary that was burned when the Persians occupied Athens in 480 BC. The Athenians directed their funds towards rebuilding their economy and strengthening their influence in the Delian League, when Pericles came to power, he envisioned a grand plan for transforming Athens into the centre of Greek power and culture. Construction started in 449 BCE, and some believe the building not to have been completed for some three decades, funds and workers having been redirected towards the Parthenon. It was only during the Peace of Nicias that the roof was completed, the temple was officially inaugurated in 416–415 BC. Many architects have been suggested, but without firm evidence one refers simply to The Hephaisteion Master, the temple is built of marble from the nearby Mt. Penteli, excepting the bottom step of the krepis or platform. The architectural sculpture is in both Pentelic and Parian marble. The dimensions of the temple are 13.708 m north to south and 31.776 m east to west, with six columns on the short east and west sides and thirteen columns along the longer north and south sides. The building has a pronaos, a cella housing cult images at the centre of the structure, the alignment of the antae of the pronaos with the third flank columns of the peristyle is a design element unique middle of the 5th century BC. There is also an inner Doric colonnade with five columns on the north and south side, the decorative sculptures highlight the extent of mixture of the two styles in the construction of the temple. Both the pronaos and the opisthodomos are decorated with continuous Ionic friezes (instead of the more typical Doric triglyphs, supplementing the sculptures at the pediments and the metopes. The frieze of the pronaos depicts a scene from the battle of Theseus with the Pallantides in the presence of gods while the frieze of the shows the battle of Centaurs. Reconstructing the themes of the pediments is difficult due to the nature of the surviving remnants. An earlier interpretation identified the birth of Erichthonios in the east pediment, only 18 of the 68 metopes of the temple of Hephaestus were sculptured, concentrated especially on the east side of the temple, the rest were perhaps painted. The ten metopes on the east side depict the Labours of Heracles, the four easternmost metopes on the long north and south sides depict the Labours of Theseus. According to Pausanias, the temple housed the bronze statues of Athena, an inscription records payments between 421 BC and 415 BC for two bronze statues but it does not mention the sculptor
24.
Andrea Palladio
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Andrea Palladio was an Italian architect active in the Republic of Venice. Palladio, influenced by Roman and Greek architecture, primarily by Vitruvius, is considered to be the most influential individual in the history of architecture. All of his buildings are located in what was the Venetian Republic, the city of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Palladio was born on 30 November 1508 in Padua and was given the name and his father, Pietro, called Della Gondola, was a miller. From early on, Andrea Palladio was introduced into the work of building, in Padua he gained his first experiences as a stonecutter in the sculpture workshop of Bartolomeo Cavazza da Sossano, who is said to have imposed particularly hard working conditions. At the age of sixteen he moved to Vicenza where he would reside for most of his life, here he became an assistant in the Pedemuro studio, a leading workshop of stonecutters and masons. He joined a guild of stonemasons and bricklayers and he was employed as a stonemason to make monuments and decorative sculptures. These sculptures reflected the Mannerist style of the architect Michele Sanmicheli, perhaps the key moment that sparked Palladios career was being employed by the Humanist poet and scholar, Gian Giorgio Trissino, from 1538 to 1539. While Trissino was reconstructing the Villa Cricoli, he took interest in Palladios work, Trissino was heavily influenced by the studies of Vitruvius, who later influenced Palladios own ideals and attitudes toward classical architecture. It was also Trissino who gave him the name by which he became known, Palladio, indeed, the word Palladio means Wise one. The powerful Barbaros introduced Palladio to Venice, where he finally became Proto della Serenissima after Jacopo Sansovino, in addition to the Barbaros, the Corner, Foscari, and Pisani families supported Palladios career. Andrea Palladio began to develop his own architectural style around 1541, the Palladian style, named after him, adhered to classical Roman principles he rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works. Andrea Palladio is known to be one of the most influential architects in Western architecture and his architectural works have been valued for centuries as the quintessence of High Renaissance calm and harmony. He designed many palaces, villas, and churches, but Palladios reputation, initially, the palladian villas are located mainly in the province of Vicenza, while the palazzi are concentrated in the city of Vicenza and the churches in Venice. A number of his works are now protected as part of the World Heritage Site City of Vicenza, other buildings by Palladio are to be found within the Venice and its Lagoon World Heritage Site. Palladios first major public project began when his designs for building the loggias for the town hall and he proposed an addition of two-storey stone buttresses reflecting the Gothic style of the existing hall while using classical proportions. The construction was completed in 1617 after Palladios death, aside from Palladios designs, his publications contributed to Palladianism. During the second half of his life, Palladio published many books, above all, Palladio is most known for his designs of villas and palaces as well as his books
25.
Vincenzo Scamozzi
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Vincenzo Scamozzi was an Italian architect and a writer on architecture, active mainly in Vicenza and Republic of Venice area in the second half of the 16th century. He was perhaps the most important figure there between Andrea Palladio, whose unfinished projects he inherited at Palladios death in 1580, and Baldassarre Longhena, Scamozzis only pupil. The great public project of Palladios that Scamozzi inherited early in the process of construction was the Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza, which Palladio had designed in the last months of his life. His father was the surveyor and building contractor Gian Domenico Scamozzi, he was Scamozzis first teacher, imbuing him with the principles of Sebastiano Serlio, vincenzo visited Rome in 1579–1580, and then moved to Venice in 1581. In 1600, he visited France and left a record of his impressions of French architecture. Scamozzi is famous for having inherited several unfinished projects from Andrea Palladio at the time of Palladios death in 1580 and it was originally published with woodcut illustrations at Venice in 1615. Scamozzi depended for sections of his treatment of Vitruvius on Daniele Barbaros commentary, published in 1556 with illustrations by Palladio, at that time, such treatises were becoming a vehicle for self-promotion. His first book entitled Discorsi sopra Lantichita di Roma had been cobbled together with some illustrated commentary on the ruins of Rome. According to his preface to the volumes, the images were stock productions that already existed, over half were copied from a volume published by Hieronymus Cock in Antwerp in 1551. His major book came out one year before his death and was too late to influence his own success, Scamozzis practice is sometimes spoken of as being a source of the neo-Palladian architecture as it was introduced by Inigo Jones, another follower of Andrea Palladios own example. Rudolf Wittkower referred to him as among the father of neo-classicism. Scamozzi moved to Venice in 1581, where he had invited to design the Procuratie Nuove on the Piazza San Marco itself. Eleven bays of this project were completed, and later were extended by Baldassare Longhena to fill the south flank of the piazza. The A. Everett Austin House in Hartford, Connecticut, U. S. A. is an homage to the Villa Ferreti. cesr. univ-tours. fr/Traite/Auteur/Scamozzi. asp
26.
Patrick Henry
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Patrick Henry was an American attorney, planter and politician who became known as an orator during the movement for independence in Virginia. A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779, Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act 1765 and is remembered for his Give me liberty, or give me death. After the Revolution, Henry was a leader of the anti-federalists in Virginia and he opposed the United States Constitution, fearing that it endangered the rights of the States as well as the freedoms of individuals, he helped gain adoption of the Bill of Rights. However, by 1798 he supported President John Adams and the Federalists and he denounced passage of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions as he feared the social unrest and widespread executions that had followed the increasing radicalism of the French Revolution. After he married, Henry began acquiring extensive land holdings, by 1779, along with his cousin and her husband, Henry owned a 10, 000-acre plantation known as Leatherwood. He is also recorded having purchased up to 78 slaves, in 1794, he and his wife retired to Red Hill Plantation, comprising 520 acres in Charlotte County, which was also a functioning tobacco plantation. Henry was born at Studley, the farm, in Hanover County in the Colony of Virginia. His father was John Henry, an immigrant from Aberdeenshire, Scotland, settling in Hanover County, in about 1732 John Henry married Sarah Winston Syme, a wealthy widow from a prominent Hanover County family of English ancestry. Patrick Henry was once thought to have been of humble origins, Henry attended local schools for a few years, and then was tutored by his father. He tried to start in business but was not successful, in 1754 Henry married Sarah Shelton, reportedly in the parlor of her family house, Rural Plains. As a wedding gift, her father gave the couple six slaves, with his marriage, he became a slaveholder and landowner. Henry worked with his slaves on the land because it was a property, it was exhausted from tobacco cultivation. After the main house burned, the moved for a short time with their two children into the 20 by 60 foot Honeymoon Cottage, a one-story building with attic. They later moved to the Hanover Tavern, owned by Sarahs father and they sold Pine Slash Plantation in 1764, after Henry started working as a lawyer. The Henrys had six children together, one of whom married a brother of poet Thomas Campbell, in 1771 the family moved to Scotchtown Plantation, also in Hanover County. Sarah became mentally ill and died there in 1775, on October 25,1777, 41-year-old Henry married his second wife, 22-year-old Dorothea Dandridge. The next year moved to Williamsburg after his election as governor. In 1779 they moved to the 10, 000-acre Leatherwood Plantation, Henry began a career as a planter, but the soil was poor and their main house was destroyed by fire in 1757
27.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
28.
Alaska State Capitol
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The Alaska State Capitol is located in the state capital of Juneau at the corner of East 4th Street and Main Street. It houses the Alaska Legislature and the offices for the governor of Alaska, in 1792, the first capital of Russian America was established at Kodiak. In 1808, the capital was relocated to New Archangel, later known as Sitka, with the United States Alaska Purchase of 1867, Sitka became the headquarters of the Military Department of Alaska under U. S. Army Major General Jefferson C. In 1877, the army was redeployed from Alaska to the Nez Perce War, and no administration was present until 1879, in 1900, Congress passed a Civil Code transferring the seat from Sitka to Juneau, which had surpassed Sitka in economic growth and importance. The first home for the Alaska Territorial Legislature was Elks Lodge Hall in Juneau in 1913, the United States Congress authorized funds to construct a capitol building for what was then the Alaska Territory in 1911. Construction was delayed by World War I and difficulty purchasing the necessary land, local citizens donated some of the funds required, and construction began on September 18,1929. The building, originally named the Federal and Territorial Building, was dedicated on February 14,1931 and it was designed by Treasury Department architects under Acting Supervising Architect James A. Wetmore in the Art Deco architectural style. The building was used initially by the government and housed a federal courthouse. Since Alaska gained statehood in 1959 with the Alaska Statehood Act the building has been used by the state government, in 1960, Anchorage Daily Times publisher Robert Atwood began an editorial push to relocate the capital somewhere nearer to commerce and the Alaskan mainstream. This effort culminated in ballot initiatives to relocate the capital to the Cook Inlet-Railbelt area, not within thirty miles of Anchorage. Both measures were defeated at the polls, but an initiative in 1974 passed, followed by a 1976 ballot which selected the town Willow as the site of the new capital. In 1978 and 1982, however, measures to fund the relocation of the capital were defeated, outgoing governor Jay Hammond, describing his administrations management of the capital relocation question, said that in the end he was able to lance this boil. In 1994, an initiative to relocate the capital to Wasilla was defeated. Alaska-born architect Marianne Cusato submitted a plan for a traditional Capitol that garnered much friendly attention. Cusatos design involved a mixture of Federal architecture and Russian church architecture to celebrate Alaskas American and Russian heritage, the winning design by Morphosis and mmenseArchitects was a glass and steel complex with an egg-shaped atrium. The building is six stories high and made from brick-faced reinforced concrete, the portico has four columns made of Tokeen marble from Prince of Wales Island, which is also used for interior trim. Because it lacks the large landscaped grounds of most state capitols and it is one of only twelve state capitols that do not feature a dome. Outside the building is a replica of the Liberty Bell, of the given to all states and territories by the federal government in 1950 to help raise support for savings bond drives
29.
Delaware Legislative Hall
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The Delaware Legislative Hall is the state capitol building of Delaware located in the state capital of Dover on Legislative Avenue. It houses the chambers and offices of the Delaware General Assembly and it was designed in the Colonial Revival architecture style by E. William Martin and Norman M. Isham. Initially the commission was awarded to Isham, but his appointment was protested by Alfred Victor Du Pont, therefore, local architect Martin was brought in. The influence of Isham is clear when one notes the resemblance of many details to Old Colony House in Newport, Rhode Island. The original capitol of Delaware was the State House, located on The Green in Dover and it was commissioned originally by Kent County as the Kent County Court House, and was constructed from 1787 to 1791, when it became the State House. Kent County and the government shared the building until 1873. The State House was used until the completion of Legislative Hall, today, the Old State House has been restored to its 18th-century appearance and is now a museum that includes the site of a former courtroom and the former chambers of the state legislature. The House chamber contains portraits by Thomas Sully of Commodore Jacob Jones and Commodore Thomas Macdonough, Legislative Hall is opposite the Old State House on the mall. The structure was completed and dedicated in 1933, from 1965 to 1970, north and south wings were added on the sides of the building, giving each member of the Assembly an office in addition to a desk in one of the legislative chambers. The architect George Fletcher Bennet of Dover designed the expansion, two more wings, providing more office space for legislators and staff as well as hearing and caucus rooms, were added to the east side of the building in 1994. This expansion was designed by the Wilmington-based firm The Architects Studio and this project was designed by the Wilmington firm Moeckel Carbonell Associates. Legislative Hall is the home of the Hall of Governors, which includes portraits of all of Delawares governors, the building also houses other portraits, including of political and military figures such as James Frank Allee, James A. Bayard the elder, Bradford B
30.
Florida State Capitol
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On the site of the Capitol Complex, in Tallahassee, Florida, US, are four very different buildings. The oldest is the nineteenth-century Old Capitol, restored and shrunken to its 1902 state, the other three are the House and Senate chambers and a 22-story Executive Office Building, sometimes called the New Capitol. The Old Capitol is an architecturally and historically significant building, having been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the capitol is located at the intersection of Apalachee Parkway and Monroe Street in downtown Tallahassee, Florida, the state capital. Apalachee Parkway, a major east–west road built in 1957, dead-ends at the Capitol Complex, figuratively providing access from central, when the New Capitol was built in the 1970s, demolition of the Old Capitol was planned, and the design of the New Capitol reflects this. However, a preservation movement spontaneously arose. The decision was made to restore it to its 1902 state, the Historic Capitol is located directly behind the new Capitol building. It is now a museum, the Florida Historic Capitol Museum, the Museum is managed by the Florida Legislature. On April 18,2012, the AIAs Florida Chapter placed the Historic Capitol Building on its list of Florida Architecture,100 Years, the New Tower houses executive and legislative offices. Adjacent to it are the chambers of the Florida Legislature, the Capitol Complex, which is open to the public Monday through Friday,8 a. m. to 5 p. m. is maintained by the Florida Department of Management Services. The buildings are universally, though informally, known as the Old Capitol and the New Capitol, the former is called the Historic Capitol, or also, confusingly. The latter was its name prior to the construction of the New Capitol in 1977. Its legal name today, however, is the Florida Historic Capitol Museum, the New Capitol, as a whole, does not have a legal name. When it was planned, the Capitol Complex was going to consist of the House and Senate chambers, and the executive office building. Tallahassee was named Floridas capital in 1824, midway between the then-largest cities in the state, St. Augustine and Pensacola, the first territorial government met in log cabins. A capitol building was constructed in 1826 but never completely finished and it was torn down in 1839 to make room for the erection of the present structure, which was completed in 1845, just prior to Florida’s entry into the United States as the 27th state. Several additions to the capitol have been made throughout the years. Frank Millburn made the first expansion in 1902 by adding the classical style dome, in 1923, Henry Klutho additions included two new wings and a marble interior. Finally, large wings for the House and Senate chambers were added to the north and south ends of the building in 1936 and 1947, the 1902 Capitol building was the last statehouse in which all of Floridas political business was housed under one roof
31.
Hawaii State Capitol
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The Hawaii State Capitol is the official statehouse or capitol building of the U. S. state of Hawaii. From its chambers, the executive and legislative branches perform the duties involved in governing the state and its principal tenants are the Governor of Hawaii and Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, as well as all legislative offices and the Legislative Reference Bureau. Located in downtown Honolulu, the Hawaii State Capitol was commissioned and dedicated by John A. Burns and it opened on March 15,1969, replacing the former statehouse, the ʻIolani Palace. The site was once Haimoeipo, the residence of Queen Dowager Kalama and later King Lunalilo. Several other capitol building monuments decorate the statehouse grounds, father Damien was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1995, and canonized on October 11,2009, by Pope Benedict XVI. His feast Day is celebrated on May 10, in Hawaiʻi, it is celebrated on the day of his death, April 15. Likewise, the Korean-Vietnam War Memorial pays tribute to members who died in those conflicts. Dedicated on July 24,1994 by Benjamin J. Cayetano, fifth Governor of Hawaii, a larger marble slab bears a Hawaiian language inscription of remembrance. The Hawaii State Capitol is an American adaptation of the Hakonya style termed Hawaiian international architecture and it was designed by a partnership between the firms of Belt, Lemon and Lo, and John Carl Warnecke and Associates. Unlike other state capitols modeled after the United States Capitol, the Hawaii State Capitols distinct architectural features symbolize various aspects of Hawaii. Among them, The building is surrounded by a reflecting pool, the two legislative chambers are cone-shaped, symbolizing volcanoes that formed the Hawaiian Islands. The columns around the perimeter of the building have shapes resembling royal palm trees. The Capitol is built with a design, allowing sun, wind, and rain to enter. Four kukui nut trees are a reference to the four main counties in the State of Hawaii. Sets of four appear in many other places in the building. It is said that the sky is Hawaiis capitol dome, from the time the Capitol was completed in 1969, the reflecting pool has had a persistent algae growth problem, due partly to the fact the pool is fed with brackish water from on-site wells. Attempts by the state to fix the problem included introducing tilapia fish into the pool, the state currently has the pool lining scrubbed manually with enzymes added to the water to combat growth. Some Capitol regulars say the growth has come to represent the pollution of the Pacific Ocean
32.
Louisiana State Capitol
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The Louisiana State Capitol is the seat of government for the U. S. state of Louisiana and is located in downtown Baton Rouge. The capitol houses the chambers for the Louisiana State Legislature, made up of the House of Representatives, at 450 feet tall and with 34 stories, it is the tallest building in Baton Rouge, the seventh tallest building in Louisiana, and tallest capitol in the United States. It is located on a 27-acre tract, which includes the capitol gardens, the Louisiana State Capitol is often thought of as Huey Longs monument due to the influence of the former Governor and U. S. Senator in getting the capitol built and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1982. In order to secure the mouth of the Mississippi River for the French, the French reclaimed Louisiana from the Spanish in 1803 after the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800, the territory was then sold as the Louisiana Purchase to the United States. New Orleans continued to be the location of the capital of the Territory of Orleans, the State Legislature passed a resolution declaring that the seat of government be moved to a more convenient place than New Orleans. No action was taken until 1829 when the Legislature voted to move to Donaldsonville and it convened for the first time in Donaldsonville in January 1831, became dissatisfied with the quarters there, and adjourned shortly thereafter to return to New Orleans. Included in the Louisiana State Constitution of 1845 was a clause that required the state capital to be moved from New Orleans by 1849. A committee was formed to prepare a site for the move and. The city of Baton Rouge donated a plot of land situated on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi River to the state on September 7 for the construction of the new capitol. Dakins design for the capitol consisted of a castellated Gothic Revival building, the capitol was dedicated on December 1,1849 in what was planned to be a grand ceremony. However, a fire in Baton Rouge a week prior saw the funds reallocated as aid for the victims. The portion of Louisiana that was occupied by Union troops was governed out of New Orleans, the vacant Old State Capitol was originally used as a prison by the Union Army and, then, as a garrison for its colored troops. On December 28,1862, it was gutted by an accidental fire, after the war, the state government returned to New Orleans and utilized a mechanics institute as a meeting place until the state purchased an old hotel in 1875. The State Legislature appropriated money to rebuild the Old State Capitol in 1880, under Freret, the capitols famous spiral staircase and stained glass dome were added, as well as a fourth floor. The State Legislature returned to Baton Rouge, after the completion of the renovations, by the 1920s, the Old State Capitol was starting to show its age and proving to be too small for the expanding state government. Proposals were drawn up for a new building, but were never acted upon due to the lack of money, in 1928, Huey Long was elected Governor of Louisiana as a populist candidate. Long seized upon the idea of using a new capitol as a way to symbolize the end of the domination of Louisianas traditional social
33.
Nebraska State Capitol
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The Nebraska State Capitol is the seat of government for the U. S. State of Nebraska and is located in downtown Lincoln. It was designed by New York architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue in 1920 and was constructed of Indiana limestone from 1922 to 1932, the capitol houses the primary executive and judicial offices of Nebraska and is home to the Nebraska Legislature—the only state unicameral legislature in the United States. The Nebraska State Capitol is often known as the Tower on the Plains and it was the first state capitol to incorporate a functional tower into its design. The structure is anchored by a three-story, 437-foot square base and this square base houses offices most frequently visited by the public. The second floor is home to the office of the Governor of Nebraska, the Nebraska Supreme Court, the Nebraska Court of Appeals, from the center of the base, a tower rises 362 feet, crowned by a gold-tiled dome. The finial—The Sower and its pedestal—add an additional 32 feet to the buildings height, common measurements list the capitol at 400 feet, making it the second-tallest U. S. statehouse, surpassed only by the 450-foot Louisiana State Capitol. As the tower was intended for expansion of the Nebraska State Library, by 1925, with government increasing in size, the State of Nebraska decided to repurpose the tower to house offices. Tower floors continue to various offices today. In total, there are 15 stories in the capitol, Memorial Chamber on the 14th floor—the highest publicly accessible level—has four observation decks that offer views of Lincoln from 245 feet above the ground. Lincoln Municipal Code places height restrictions on structures within the designated Capitol Environs District and this code helps to maintain the capitols title as the tallest building in Lincoln. The capitol held the title of tallest building in Nebraska until 1969 with the completion of the 478-foot Woodmen Tower in downtown Omaha, with the completion of Omahas 634-foot First National Bank Tower in 2002, the capitol became the third-tallest building in Nebraska. Congress officially opened Nebraska Territory with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, almost instantly a factional divide between North Platters and South Platters arose over the question of capital location. Much to the chagrin of the South Platters, Acting Governor Thomas B, cuming selected the small northern village of Omaha City for the seat of government. Cuming was from Iowa, and as his allies were investors in the Council Bluffs and Nebraska Ferry Company. Results from the first territorial census, however, revealed 914 North Platters and 1,818 South Platters, the North Platters, with greater political power, confirmed Omaha as the capital. In Omaha, two served the Territory of Nebraska. The first was a brick building donated by the Council Bluffs. This building, formerly located on 9th Street between Douglas and Farnam, served the Territorial Legislature for the sessions of 1855 and 1857, on July 29,1867, the Capitol Commission selected the village of Lancaster as the capital city and renamed it Lincoln
34.
New Mexico State Capitol
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The New Mexico State Capitol, located in Santa Fe, New Mexico, is the house of government of the U. S. state of New Mexico. It is the only state capitol in the United States. The building was designed to resemble the Zia Sun Symbol when viewed from above, architecturally, the Capitol is a blend of New Mexico Territorial Revival style and neoclassical influences. Above each entrance is a carving of the State Seal of New Mexico. The building has four levels, one of which is below ground, dedicated on December 8,1966, the building was designed by W. C. Kruger and constructed by Robert E. McKee and its extensive marble-work was installed by the New Mexico Marble and Tile Company. The capitol contains 232,346 square feet and was built for the cost of $4,676,860, the capitol houses the New Mexico State Legislature. The first floor contains the semicircular House and Senate chambers, which are not accessible to the public, the second story, which is the ground floor, includes galleries where visitors can view the House and Senate chambers. The House gallery seats 281 people and is located on the side of the building. The Senate gallery, which seats 206 people, is on the side of the building. The Rotunda in the center of the building is 49 feet in diameter and 60 feet high, spanning the second, third, the Rotunda is finished with Travertine marble native to New Mexico and inlaid with a turquoise and brass mosaic of the Great Seal of New Mexico. The ceiling skylight is designed to resemble an Indian basket weave, with blue and pale pink stained glass representing the sky, the flags of New Mexico’s 33 counties are on permanent display on the fourth floor balcony. Surrounding the capitol is a lush 6. 5-acre garden boasting more than 100 varieties of plants, including roses, plums, almonds, nectarines, Russian olive trees, statues of native Pueblo peoples carrying pottery and hunting dot the property. A renovation in 1992 included expansion of the rooms, asbestos abatement, mechanical and electrical improvements. The building was rededicated on December 4,1992, the Legislature created the Capitol Art Foundation in 1991, which has since become one of the buildings most endearing features. The Foundation was created to assist in the acquisition of art for permanent, the Collection features contemporary masterworks by artists who live and work in New Mexico. The Capitol Art collection is housed throughout the areas of the building on all four floors. The Collection consists of a range of media, styles and traditions
35.
New York State Capitol
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The New York State Capitol, the seat of New York State government, is located in Albany, the capital city of the U. S. state of New York. The capitol building is part of the Empire State Plaza complex on State Street in Capitol Park, housing the New York State Legislature, the building was completed in 1899 at a cost of US$25 million, making it the most expensive government building of its time. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971, the New York State Capitol was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1979. Legislative sessions had been held at different buildings in different places before Albany was declared the State capital in 1797, from that time until 1811, the State Legislature met at the Old Albany City Hall. The first State Capitol was inaugurated in 1812 and remained in use until 1879 when the current building was inaugurated, the present Capitol was built between 1867 and 1899. Three teams of architects worked on the design of the Capitol during the 32 years of its construction and they were managed by, 1867-75, Thomas Fuller, 1875–83, Leopold Eidlitz and Henry Hobson Richardson, 1883-99, Isaac G. Perry. Fuller, the architect, was an Englishman who also designed the Canadian Parliament buildings of Parliament Hill. The ground floor of the capitol was built in the Classical/Romanesque style. The increasing construction costs became a source of conflict in the legislature. Eidlitz and Richardson, were dismissed by Grover Cleveland upon his election to governorship and he hired Perry to complete the project. The legislative chambers, the floor and roof work were all finished in Victorian-modified Romanesque that was distinctively Richardsons design. It was Richardson who dominated the final outcome of the grand building and it is claimed that Richardson was imitating the Hôtel de Ville in Paris, France. The Chazy limestone for its construction was quarried at the Clark Quarry in Essex County, the central open court is dominated by a shaft intended to support a massive dome. The dome and tower were never completed, as it was found that the weight of the building was already causing stress fractures, to stop this movement, a very large, 166-foot long exterior Eastern Staircase was added to support the front facade. The Capitol exterior is made of granite from Hallowell, Maine. The granite structure is 220 feet tall at its highest point, underground tunnels connect it to the Empire State Plaza and Alfred E. Smith Building. The buildings exterior underwent restoration from 2000 until fall 2014, the Assembly Chamber was built with the largest open arched span in the world. However, this produced very inconvenient acoustic results, a more serious problem was that the shifting foundations of the whole structure made the vaults unstable
36.
North Dakota State Capitol
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The North Dakota State Capitol is the house of government of the U. S. state of North Dakota. The Capitol, a 21 story tower, is located in Bismarck at 600 East Boulevard Avenue, the capitol building itself and the surrounding office buildings house the states legislative and judicial branches, as well as many government agencies. The State Capitol is largely surrounded by government buildings. The numerous parks, walking trails, and monuments on the grounds give visitors information concerning the states history, six buildings currently exist on the grounds, all were built during various time periods as the government grew. Not all state agencies are housed on the grounds, however, plans for a massive expansion and improvement of the grounds were developed in 2000, but very little of the plan has been implemented as of 2012. The original North Dakota State Capitol building, built between 1883 and 1884, expanded in 1894 and 1903 and which burned to the ground the morning of December 28,1930. The fire was said to have started by oily rags in a janitors closet on the top floor of the main part of the building. The rags had been used to clean and varnish the legislators desks in preparation for the legislative session. North Dakota Secretary of State Robert Byrne was able to save the original copy of the states constitution, another state employee, Jennie Ulsrud, burned her hands when she attempted to save records in the North Dakota State Treasurers office. Governor George F. Shafer came back from his visit to St. Paul, upon arrival, he immediately assembled a team of state legislators and officials to discuss plans for coping with the loss of records and work space. The day after the fire, in an effort to save as many records as possible,40 state prison inmates went to trying to salvage materials from the ruins. The Legislature met temporarily in Bismarcks War Memorial Building and the City Auditorium, the disaster required the construction of a new building during the Great Depression. The tower and wing were built between 1931 and 1934, at a cost of US$2 million, ground was broken for the building by Governor George F. Shafer on August 13,1932. Workers on the building were paid only 30 cents an hour and, after multiple worker strikes, while the new 19-story Capitol building was expected to have plenty of space for years to come, the space quickly filled as the Government of the state expanded. The building originally housed the Bismarck Junior College, but the Legislature purchased it in 1959, the 1960s was a period of rapid development of the grounds. In 1960, the new North Dakota Governors Residence was built on the grounds to replace the old residence which was beginning to deteriorate and it is the last new building built as of 2007, although a Judicial Wing was added onto the base of the Capitol tower in 1977. While the space needed by state government has increased since the construction of the Capitol in the 1930s. Additionally, two parks, Myron Atkinson Park and the Capitol Park, are located on the campus
37.
Ohio Statehouse
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The Ohio Statehouse, located in Columbus, Ohio, is the house of government for the state of Ohio. The Greek Revival building houses the Ohio General Assembly and the offices of the governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer. When the state government relocated to the new city of Columbus in 1816, it occupied a modest two-story building on the corner of High and State Streets. This early capitol had chambers for the Ohio House of Representatives and Ohio Senate, efforts to relieve the cramped quarters with additional small buildings were ineffective and it soon became apparent that the government would require a larger facility. In 1838, Ohios government announced a competition to select the design for a new Statehouse and this strategy was not unusual at the time, as important public buildings such as the U. S. Capitol had resulted from similar contests. However, the commission responsible for choosing the winners was unable to agree on a final design for construction. When the cornerstone was laid on July 4,1839, the commission was still without a final design. Consultation with New York architect Alexander Jackson Davis resulted in a design that merged some key features of the three winning entries, but it was rejected as being too expensive. Cole had a friendship with one of the commissioners, a man named William A. Adams who was from Steubenville. Coles nephew, William Henry Bayless, coincidentally a Steubenville native, was apprenticed in the office of Alexander Jackson Davis, work on the buildings foundation and lower level had only just begun when the Statehouse project encountered the first of many difficulties. The legislation that made Columbus the official city of Ohio was set to expire. While various factions within the government engaged in debate over relocating the capitol to another city, open excavations were refilled with earth, and Capitol Square became open pasture for livestock. The Statehouse remained neglected until February,1848, when William Russell West and J. O. Sawyer of Cincinnati were appointed architects, by May of that same year construction had resumed. Unfortunately, an epidemic began in Columbus, prompting widespread flight to the countryside by residents. Once the epidemic subsided, work on the Statehouse continued, interrupted only by intermissions during the harsh Ohio winters, while some suspected arson, the exact cause of the fire remains a mystery to this day. With the Statehouse exterior nearing completion by 1854, Columbus architect Nathan Kelley was hired to supervise the design, one of his major tasks would be to provide a system for heating and ventilation in the building, which had not been considered previously. With great fanfare, the new Statehouse opened to the public on January 7,1857, by now, most of the building was completed, with the notable exception of the rotunda. Although actual work on the building was proceeding smoothly, government officials were deeply dissatisfied with Mr. Kelley, citing problems with his working methods and aesthetic choices
38.
Tennessee State Capitol
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The Tennessee State Capitol, located in Nashville, Tennessee, is the home of the Tennessee legislature, the location of the governors office, and a National Historic Landmark. Designed by architect William Strickland, it is one of Nashvilles most prominent examples of Greek Revival architecture and it is one of only twelve state capitols that does not have a dome. The prominent Nashville hill top site of what is now the Tennessee State Capitol was formerly occupied by the Holy Rosary Cathedral, the State Capitol was designed by renowned Philadelphia architect William Strickland, who modeled it after a Greek Ionic temple. The cornerstone of the Tennessee state capitol was laid on July 4,1845. Both the interior and exterior are built with limestone from a quarry about 1 mile from the site, some interior columns were built from single pieces of stone, requiring massive wooden derricks to hoist them into place. Wrought iron, instead of wood, was used for the trusses to reduce the buildings vulnerability to fire. Commercial, convict, and slave labor were used in the project, fifteen enslaved Black men worked on carving the Capitols limestone cellar from 1845 to 1847, Nashville stonemason A. G. Payne was paid $18 a month for their labor. It is believed to be the most significant project where the government rented slave labor. Strickland died five years before the completion and was entombed in its northeast wall. His son, F. W. Strickland, supervised completion of the structure, William Strickland also designed the St. Mary’s Cathedral, as well as Downtown Presbyterian church located just a few blocks away from the state capitol. Samuel Dold Morgan, chairman of the State Building Commission overseeing the construction of the Tennessee State Capitol, is entombed in the southeast corner near the south entrance. Monuments on the Capitol grounds include statues of two of the three Tennessee residents who served as President of the United States, Andrew Jackson by Clark Mills and Andrew Johnson by Jim Gray. The third President from Tennessee, James K. Polk, is buried in a tomb on the grounds, together with his wife, other monuments on the grounds include the Sgt
39.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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Alabama State Capitol
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The Alabama State Capitol, listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the First Confederate Capitol, is the state capitol building for Alabama. It is located on Capitol Hill, originally Goat Hill, in Montgomery and it was declared a National Historic Landmark on December 19,1960. Alabama has had five capitals during its history. The first was the capital in St. Stephens in 1817, followed by the state convention in Huntsville in 1819. It was then moved to Tuscaloosa in 1826, until coming to rest in Montgomery in 1846, the current structure is the states fourth purpose-built capitol building, with the first at Cahaba, the second at Tuscaloosa, and the last two in Montgomery. The first capitol building in Montgomery, located where the current building stands, the current building was completed in 1851, although additional wings were added over the course of the following 140 years. Meeting in the Senate Chamber, the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States was drawn up by the Montgomery Convention on February 4,1861, the convention also adopted the Permanent Constitution here on March 11,1861. Architecturally, the building is Greek Revival in style with some Beaux-Arts influences, the central core of the building, as well as the east wing to the rear of the structure, is three-stories over a below-grade basement. The north and south wings are two-stories over a raised basement, the front facade that is seen today is approximately 350 feet wide and 119 feet tall from ground level to the top of the lantern on the dome. The first capitol building to be built in Montgomery was designed by Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia, andrew Dexter, one of Montgomerys founders, kept a prime piece of property empty in anticipation of the capital eventually being moved to Montgomery from Tuscaloosa. This property, atop what was known as Goat Hill due to its use as a pasture, was chosen as the site for the new capitol building. Construction began in 1846, with the new building presented to the state on December 6,1847, Button credited much of his architectural inspiration to Minard Lafevers Beauties of Modern Architecture. Buttons building was stuccoed brick, with two stories set over a rusticated raised basement. A two story portico with six Composite columns, topped by a broad pediment, was centered on the middle five bays of the front elevation. A central dome,40 feet in diameter, sat directly on a ring at the main roof level behind the portico. The dome was crowned with an elaborate lantern patterned after the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates and this first capitol building burned on December 14,1849, little more than two years after its completion. The ruins were cleared by March 1850, with a new building soon to follow, the current capitol building was built from 1850 to 1851, with Barachias Holt as supervising architect. Holt, originally from Exeter, Maine, was a mechanic by trade
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Montgomery, Alabama
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Montgomery /mɒntˈɡʌməri/ is the capital of the U. S. state of Alabama and is the county seat of Montgomery County. Named for Richard Montgomery, it is located on the Alabama River, as of the 2013 Census, Montgomery has a population of 201,332. It is the second-largest city in Alabama, after Birmingham, and is the 115th largest in the United States, the Montgomery Metropolitan Statistical Area had a 2010 estimated population of 374,536. It is the fourth-largest in the state and 136th among United States metropolitan areas, the city was incorporated in 1819 as a merger of two towns situated along the Alabama River. In February 1861, Montgomery was selected as the first capital of the Confederate States of America, until the seat of government moved to Richmond, Virginia, in May of that year. During the mid-20th century, Montgomery was a center of events and protests in the Civil Rights Movement, including the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Two ships of the United States Navy have been named after the city, Montgomery has also been recognized nationally for its downtown revitalization and new urbanism projects. It was one of the first cities in the nation to implement Smart Code Zoning, prior to European colonization, the east bank of the Alabama River was inhabited by the Alibamu tribe of Native Americans. The Alibamu and the Coushatta, who lived on the west side of the river, were descended from the Mississippian culture. This civilization had numerous chiefdoms throughout the Midwest and South along the Mississippi and its tributaries and its largest location was at Cahokia, in present-day Illinois east of St. Louis. The historic tribes spoke mutually intelligible Muskogean languages, which were closely related, present-day Montgomery is built on the site of two Alibamu towns, Ikanatchati, meaning red earth, and Towassa, built on a bluff called Chunnaanaauga Chatty. The first Europeans to travel through central Alabama were Hernando de Soto and his expedition, the next recorded European encounter occurred more than a century later, when an English expedition from Carolina went down the Alabama River in 1697. The first permanent European settler in the Montgomery area was James McQueen and he married a high-status woman in the Coushatta or Alabama tribe. Their mixed-race children were considered Muskogean, as both tribes had a system of property and descent. The children were considered born into their mothers clan. In 1785, Abraham Mordecai, a war veteran from a Sephardic Jewish family of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Coushatta and Alabama had gradually moved south and west in the tidal plain. By the time Mordecai arrived, Creek had migrated into and settled in the area, as they were moving away from Cherokee, when her people had to cede most of their lands after the 1813-14 Creek War, she joined them in removal to Indian Territory. Mordecai brought the first cotton gin to Alabama, the Upper Creek were able to discourage most European-American immigration until after the conclusion of the Creek War
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Confederate States dollar
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The Confederate States of America dollar was first issued just before the outbreak of the American Civil War by the newly formed Confederacy. It was not backed by assets, but simply by a promise to pay the bearer after the war, on the prospect of Southern victory. As the war began to tilt against the Confederates, confidence in the currency diminished, by the end of 1863, the Confederate dollar was quoted at just six cents in gold, and fell further still. The Greyback is now a collectors item, in its many versions, including those issued by individual states. The Confederate dollar, often called a Greyback, was first issued into circulation in April 1861, at first, Confederate currency was accepted throughout the South as a medium of exchange with high purchasing power. As the war progressed, however, confidence in the ultimate success waned, the amount of paper money increased, as the war progressed, the currency underwent the depreciation and soaring prices characteristic of inflation. For example, by the end of the war, a cake of soap could sell for as much as $50, near the end of the war, the currency became practically worthless as a medium of exchange. This was because Confederate currency were bills of credit, as in the Revolutionary War, just as the currency issued by the Continental Congress was deemed worthless because they were not backed by any hard assets, so, too, this became the case with Confederate currency. When the Confederacy ceased to exist as an entity at the end of the war. The Confederacy, being limited in skilled engravers and printers as well as printing facilities. Some such were abstract depictions of gods and goddesses, such as the Goddess of Liberty. Confederate themes did prevail with designs of black slaves, naval ships and historical figures, images of slaves often had them depicted as smiling or happily carrying about their work. Many variations in plates, printing and papers also appear in most of the issues, some of the people featured on banknotes include Andrew Jackson, John C. There was also a bill featuring George Washington, Confederate Treasury Notes were hand signed by various clerks, with exception of the 50 cent issues that had the printed signatures of Robert Tyler and Edward C. The first six notes issued were hand signed by the Register and Treasurer themselves, while hand signatures were considered an anti-counterfeiting tool, the sheer number of bills being produced could not reasonably be signed individually by two men each. Women were often hired as clerks to sign for Register and for Treasurer, as the Civil War continued, the cost of the war loomed large. Any precious metals available in the South often made their way to Europe to procure war goods, but the CSA did manage to mint a few coins. In 1861, Mr. Robert Lovett Jr. of Philadelphia was commissioned to design, engrave, on the obverse, he used the head of Minerva, which he had used on several store cards
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Executive Mansion (Virginia)
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Designed by Alexander Parris, it is the oldest occupied governors mansion in the United States. It has served as the home of Virginia governors and their families since 1813 and this mansion is both a Virginia and a National Historic Landmark, and has had a number of successive renovations and expansions during the 20th century. Adjacent and immediately north of Capitol Square is the Court End neighborhood, during the Civil War, Virginias statehouse, also in Richmond, housed offices of the Confederacy. When Richmond became the capital of Virginia during 1779, there was no residence for the governor, the state was so poor that it could not pay the rent in time and blamed Jefferson for the problem. The state finally paid its rent and built a residence for the governor on the site of the present building, the law that provided for the construction of the current building was signed on February 13,1811 by James Monroe, with the building being completed in 1813. He was succeeded by George William Smith, Smith, however, was not the first governor to live in the mansion because he lost his life in the Richmond Theatre fire while he was saving others on December 26,1811. His successor, James Barbour, was the first governor to live in the mansion, the term mansion was not used in the law authorizing it to be built, but it has been used ever since. The gardens were redesigned in the 1950s, at the request of Governor Thomas B, stanley, by noted landscape architect Charles Gillette. Under Governor James S. Currently, Governor Terry McAuliffe occupies the mansion, Governor Tim Kaines wife, Anne Holton, lived in the mansion during the 1970s when her father, A. Linwood Holton Jr. was governor. It was featured on American Idol when Kaine and his wife, Anne Holton, welcomed Richmond-native and Idol-finalist Elliott Yamin, restoration and remodeling work on the Mansion was shown on Bob Vilas Home Again television shows tenth season, which aired in early 2000. The Mansions most notable appearance occurred on January 31,2006. The address was delivered from the Mansions historic ballroom, tours of the mansion are offered several days a week. HRH The Prince Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II President Rutherford B
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White House of the Confederacy
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The White House of the Confederacy is a historic house located in the Court End neighborhood of Richmond, Virginia. Built in 1818, it was the executive residence of the sole President of the Confederate States of America, Jefferson Davis. It was viewed as the Confederate States counterpart to the White House in Washington, since the late 19th-century, it has been a house museum operated by the American Civil War Museum and is known as the White House and Museum of the Confederacy. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960, the original First White House of the Confederacy in Montgomery, Alabama was their early residence. The second White House of the Confederacy is a gray stuccoed neoclassical mansion built in 1818 by John Brockenbrough, chief Justice John Marshall, Aaron Burr, defense attorney John Wickham, and future U. S. Sold by the Brockenbrough family in 1844, the house passed through a succession of families throughout the antebellum period. Congressman and future Confederate Secretary of War James Seddon, just prior to the American Civil War, Lewis Dabney Crenshaw purchased the house and added a third floor. He sold the home to the City of Richmond, which in turn rented it to the Confederate government as its Executive Mansion, Jefferson Davis, his wife Varina, and their children moved into the house in August 1861, and lived there for the remainder of the war. Davis suffered from recurring bouts with malaria, facial neuralgia, cataracts, unhealed wounds from the Mexican War, consequently, President Davis maintained an at-home office on the second floor of the White House. This was not a practice at that time – the West Wing of the White House in Washington. President Davis personal secretary, Colonel Burton Harrison, also lived in the house, the Davis family was quite young during their stay at the White House of the Confederacy. When they moved in the Family consisted of the President and First Lady, six-year-old Margaret, four-year-old Jefferson Davis, Jr. the two youngest Davis children, William and Varina Anne, were born in the White House, in 1861 and 1864, respectively. Among their neighborhood playmates was George Smith Patton, Sr. whose father commanded the 22nd Virginia Infantry, third Army in World War Two. Joseph Davis died in the spring of 1864, after a 15-foot fall from the railing on the White Houses east portico, mrs. Davis mother and sister were occasional visitors to the Confederate executive mansion. The house was abandoned during the evacuation of Richmond on April 2,1865, within twelve hours, soldiers from Major General Godfrey Weitzels XVIII Corps seized the former Confederate White House, intact. Admiral David Dixon Porter accompanied Lincoln during the visit to the former Confederate executive mansion and they held a number of meetings with local officials in the White House. Among them was Confederate Brigadier General Joseph Reid Anderson, who owned the Tredegar Iron Works, among those who served there were Major Generals Edward O. C. Ord, Alfred Terry, Henry Halleck, and Edward R. S, when Reconstruction ended in Virginia, the City of Richmond retook possession of the house, and subsequently used it as Richmond Central School, one of the first public schools in postwar Richmond
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Flag of the United States
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The flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the current design of the U. S. flag is its 27th, the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4,1959, the 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21,1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the version of the U. S. flag and has been in use for over 56 years. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the flag contemporaneously known as the Continental Colors has historically been referred to as the first national flag. The name Grand Union was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag, the flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign. However, an East India Company flag could have nine to 13 stripes. In any case, both the stripes and the stars have precedents in classical heraldry, Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The first official U. S. flag flown during battle was on August 3,1777, Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag, the 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a flag did not yet exist. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee, on May 10,1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. However, the term, Standard, referred to a standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag, the appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows, one arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag
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Johnston de Peyster
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Johnston Livingston de Peyster was a soldier in the Union Army during the American Civil War and later a member of the New York State Assembly from Dutchess County, New York. The son of a wealthy old Dutchess County family, de Peyster joined the Union Army at the age of eighteen. He saw service in the theater, and is best remembered for raising the first Union flag over the Confederate capitol of Richmond, Virginia. After the war, de Peyster served overseas as a dignitary, when he returned to the United States, he ran for office and was elected to the State Assembly. His father disagreed with many of his positions, and they eventually stopped speaking to each other. In 1900, the feud culminated in a race for the office of Mayor of their native town. After defeating his father, who owned the hall, he was forced to move the Mayors office to a new building. He died in 1903, survived by his three daughters, de Peyster was born in Tivoli, New York at his familys estate. He was a member of the wealthy de Peyster family of New York, at the start of the war in 1861, Johnston was fifteen years old and attending Highland Military College in Newburg, New York. He remained in school through 1862, but then left to raise a company for a regiment being organized in New York, de Peysters father paid ten-dollar bounties to the men who signed the muster roll of his company. He was not able to assume command because of his age, however, in the winter of 1863, he threatened to travel to Washington, D. C. and stand for examination for an officership with a colored regiment. In 1864, at the age of eighteen, his family allowed him to join the Union Army as a second lieutenant. He was assigned to Company H of the 13th New York Heavy Artillery Regiment, assigned to the division of XVIII Corps, Army of the James. The division was part of Major General Benjamin Butlers disastrous Bermuda Hundred Campaign and was engaged at Swift Creek on May 9. It was left behind at Bermuda Hundred while the first and second divisions traveled to join Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant at Cold Harbor with two divisions from the X Corps, the illness he contracted would plague him for the next eighteen years. Upon his return, he joined the staff of Brigadier General George F. Shepley, when General Shepley was assigned as Chief of Staff to the XXV Corps commanded by Major General Godfrey Weitzel, de Peyster became an aide to Weitzel, and eventually his Chief of Staff. The unit de Peyster had originally joined, the 13th New York, was assigned in the XXV Corps. He is credited with raising the first Union flag over the Confederate capitol of Richmond, the flag was the same one that had been raised over the city of New Orleans, Louisiana after its fall
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