1.
Simulated reality
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Simulated reality is the hypothesis that reality could be simulated—for example by computer simulation—to a degree indistinguishable from true reality. It could contain conscious minds which may or may not be aware that they are living inside a simulation. This is quite different from the current, technologically achievable concept of virtual reality, virtual reality is easily distinguished from the experience of actuality, participants are never in doubt about the nature of what they experience. Simulated reality, by contrast, would be hard or impossible to separate from true reality, there has been much debate over this topic, ranging from philosophical discourse to practical applications in computing. The simulation hypothesis was first published by Hans Moravec, later, the philosopher Nick Bostrom developed an expanded argument examining the probability of our reality being a simulation. His argument states that at least one of the statements is very likely to be true,1. Human civilization is unlikely to reach a level of technological maturity capable of producing simulated realities, any entities with our general set of experiences are almost certainly living in a simulation. In greater detail, Bostrom is attempting to prove a tripartite disjunction, epistemologically, it is not impossible to tell whether we are living in a simulation. For example, Bostrom suggests that a window could pop up saying, nonetheless, should any evidence come to light, either for or against the skeptical hypothesis, it would radically alter the aforementioned probability. Computationalism is a philosophy of mind theory stating that cognition is a form of computation and it is relevant to the Simulation hypothesis in that it illustrates how a simulation could contain conscious subjects, as required by a virtual people simulation. For example, it is known that physical systems can be simulated to some degree of accuracy. If computationalism is correct, and if there is no problem in generating artificial consciousness or cognition, however, the relationship between cognition and phenomenal qualia of consciousness is disputed. It is possible that consciousness requires a vital substrate that a computer cannot provide, and this would undermine Nick Bostroms simulation argument, we cannot be a simulated consciousness, if consciousness, as we know it, cannot be simulated. However, the hypothesis remains intact, we could still be envatted brains, existing as conscious beings within a simulated environment. This argument states that a Platonic realm or ultimate ensemble would contain every algorithm, Hans Moravec has explored the simulation hypothesis and has argued for a kind of mathematical Platonism according to which every object can be regarded as implementing every possible computation. A dream could be considered a type of simulation capable of fooling someone who is asleep, as a result, the dream hypothesis cannot be ruled out, although it has been argued that common sense and considerations of simplicity rule against it. One of the first philosophers to question the distinction between reality and dreams was Zhuangzi, a Chinese philosopher from the 4th century BC and he didnt know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi, but he didnt know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi
2.
European Space Agency
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The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
3.
Darmstadt
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Darmstadt is a city in the state of Hesse in Germany, located in the southern part of the Rhine-Main-Area. Darmstadt has a population around 150,000, the Darmstadt Larger Urban Zone has 430,993 inhabitants. Darmstadt holds the official title City of Science as it is a centre of scientific institutions, universities. The existence of the elements were also confirmed at GSI Centre for Heavy Ion Research, nihonium, flerovium, moscovium, livermorium. Darmstadt is also the seat of the worlds oldest pharmaceutical company, Merck, Darmstadt was formerly the capital of a sovereign country, the Grand Duchy of Hesse and its successor, the Peoples State of Hesse, a federal state of Germany. As the capital of an increasingly prosperous duchy, the city gained some international prominence, in the 20th century, industry, as well as large science and electronics sectors became increasingly important, and are still a major part of the citys economy. It is also home to the football club SV Darmstadt 98, Darmstadt, Indiana was named after Darmstadt and for the former Royal Family. The name Darmstadt first appears towards the end of the 11th century, the origins of the name are unknown. Dar-mund in Middle Low German is translated as Boggy Headlands, even locals often believe, incorrectly, that the name derives from the Darmbach. In fact, the received its current name much later, after the city. Darmstadt was chartered as a city by the Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig the Bavarian in 1330, the city, then called Darmstait, became a secondary residence for the counts, with a small castle established at the site of the current, much larger edifice. When the house of Katzenelnbogen became extinct in 1479, the city was passed to the Landgraviate of Hesse, the city grew in population during the 19th century from little over 10,000 to 72,000 inhabitants. A polytechnical school, which became a Technical University now known as TU Darmstadt, was established in 1877. In the beginning of the 20th century, Darmstadt was an important centre for the art movement of Jugendstil, annual architectural competitions led to the building of many architectural treasures of this period. Also during this period, in 1912 the chemist Anton Kollisch, working for the pharmaceutical company Merck, Darmstadts municipal area was extended in 1937 to include the neighbouring localities of Arheilgen and Eberstadt, and in 1938 the city was separated administratively from the surrounding district. Darmstadt was the first city in Germany to force Jewish shops to close in early 1933, the shops were only closed for one day, for endangering communal order and tranquility. In 1942, over 3,000 Jews from Darmstadt were first forced into a camp located in the Liebigschule. Darmstadt was first bombed on 30 July 1940, and 34 other air raids would follow before the wars end, the old city centre was largely destroyed in a British bombing raid on 11 September 1944
4.
Rover (space exploration)
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A rover is a space exploration vehicle designed to move across the surface of a planet or other celestial body. Some rovers have been designed to transport members of a human spaceflight crew, Rovers usually arrive at the planetary surface on a lander-style spacecraft. Rovers are created to land on another planet, besides Earth, to find out information and they can collect dust, rocks, and even take pictures. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers, they examine more territory, if they are solar powered, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months. They can also advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control which is necessarily semi-autonomous due to the speed of light. Their advantages over orbiting spacecraft are that they can make observations to a microscopic level, Rovers arrive on spacecraft and are used in conditions very distinct from those on the Earth, which makes some demands on their design. Rovers have to high levels of acceleration, high and low temperatures, pressure, dust, corrosion, cosmic rays. Rovers are usually packed for placing in a spacecraft, because it has limited capacity and they are also attached to a spacecraft, so devices for removing these connections are installed. For example, sending a signal from Mars to Earth takes between 3 and 21 minutes, giving a rover some rudimentary visual identification capabilities to make simple distinctions can allow engineers to speed up the reconnaissance. Other rover designs that do not use wheeled approaches are possible, mechanisms that utilize walking on robotic legs, hopping, rolling, etc. are possible. The Soviet rover was intended to be the first roving remote-controlled robot on the Moon, the Lunokhod 1 rover landed on the Moon in November 1970. It was the first roving remote-controlled robot to land on any celestial body, the Soviet Union launched Lunokhod 1 aboard the Luna 17 spacecraft on November 10,1970, and it entered lunar orbit on November 15. The spacecraft soft-landed in the Sea of Rains region on November 17, the lander had dual ramps from which Lunokhod 1 could descend to the lunar surface, which it did at 06,28 UT. From November 17,1970 to November 22,1970 the rover drove 197 m and it also analyzed the lunar soil. The last successful communications session with Lunokhod 1 was on September 14,1971, having worked for 11 months, Lunokhod 1 held the durability record for space rovers for more than 30 years, until a new record was set by the Mars Exploration Rovers. NASA included Lunar Roving Vehicles in three Apollo missions, Apollo 15, Apollo 16 and Apollo 17, the Lunokhod 2 was the second of two unmanned lunar rovers landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union as part of the Lunokhod program. The rover became operational on the Moon on January 16,1973 and it was the second roving remote-controlled robot to land on any celestial body. The Soviet Union launched Lunokhod 2 aboard the Luna 21 spacecraft on January 8,1973, the spacecraft soft-landed in the eastern edge of the Mare Serenitatis region on January 15,1973
5.
Satellite
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In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
6.
Simulation
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Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time, Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, testing, training, education, and video games. Often, computer experiments are used to study simulation models, Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning, as in economics. Simulation can be used to show the real effects of alternative conditions. Physical simulation refers to simulation in which objects are substituted for the real thing. These physical objects are chosen because they are smaller or cheaper than the actual object or system. Simulation Fidelity is used to describe the accuracy of a simulation, Fidelity is broadly classified as 1 of 3 categories, low, medium, and high. Simulation in failure analysis refers to simulation in which we create environment/conditions to identify the cause of equipment failure and this was the best and fastest method to identify the failure cause. A computer simulation is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see how the system works, by changing variables in the simulation, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to investigate the behaviour of the system under study. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to simulate can be found in the field of network traffic simulation, in such simulations, the model behaviour will change each simulation according to the set of initial parameters assumed for the environment. Computer simulation is used as an adjunct to, or substitution for. Several software packages exist for running computer-based simulation modeling that makes all the modeling almost effortless, modern usage of the term computer simulation may encompass virtually any computer-based representation. The computer simulates the subject machine, accordingly, in theoretical computer science the term simulation is a relation between state transition systems, useful in the study of operational semantics. Less theoretically, an application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers. For example, simulators have been used to debug a microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees, or test VLSI logic designs before they are constructed. Symbolic simulation uses variables to stand for unknown values, in the field of optimization, simulations of physical processes are often used in conjunction with evolutionary computation to optimize control strategies. Simulation is extensively used for educational purposes and it is frequently used by way of adaptive hypermedia
7.
Perception
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Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention. Perception can be split into two processes, firstly, processing sensory input, which transforms these low-level information to higher-level information. Secondly, processing which is connected with a persons concepts and expectations, Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of psychology in the 19th Century, psychologys understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process, Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the information is typically incomplete. Human and animal brains are structured in a way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brains surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other, for instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell. The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, by means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the bodys sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the energy into neural activity—a process called transduction. This raw pattern of activity is called the proximal stimulus. These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed, the resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept. An example would be a shoe, the shoe itself is the distal stimulus
8.
Augmented reality
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Augmented reality is a live direct or indirect view of a physical, real-world environment whose elements are augmented by computer-generated sensory input such as sound, video, graphics or GPS data. It is related to a general concept called mediated reality. As a result, the functions by enhancing one’s current perception of reality. By contrast, virtual reality replaces the real world with a simulated one, augmentation is conventionally in real time and in semantic context with environmental elements, such as sports scores on TV during a match. With the help of advanced AR technology the information about the real world of the user becomes interactive. Information about the environment and its objects is overlaid on the real world and this information can be virtual or real, e. g. seeing other real sensed or measured information such as electromagnetic radio waves overlaid in exact alignment with where they actually are in space. Augmented reality brings out the components of the world into a persons perceived real world. One example is an AR Helmet for construction workers which displays information about the construction sites, hardware components for augmented reality are, processor, display, sensors and input devices. Various technologies are used in Augmented Reality rendering including optical projection systems, monitors, hand held devices, a head-mounted display is a display device paired to the forehead such as a harness or helmet. HMDs place images of both the world and virtual objects over the users field of view. Modern HMDs often employ sensors for six degrees of freedom monitoring that allow the system to align virtual information to the physical world, HMDs can provide VR users mobile and collaborative experiences. Specific providers, such as uSens and Gestigon, are even including gesture controls for full virtual immersion, in January 2015, Meta launched a project led by Horizons Ventures, Tim Draper, Alexis Ohanian, BOE Optoelectronics and Garry Tan. On February 17,2016, Meta announced their product at TED. AR displays can be rendered on devices resembling eyeglasses, a head-up display, also known as a HUD, is a transparent display that presents data without requiring users to look away from their usual viewpoints. Near eye augmented reality devices can be used as portable head-up displays as they can show data, information, many definitions of augmented reality only define it as overlaying the information. CrowdOptic technology can be used by Google Glass users to learn where to look at a point in time. In January 2015, Microsoft introduced HoloLens, which is an independent smartglasses unit, First impressions and opinions have been generally that HoloLens is a superior device to the Google Glass, and manages to do several things right in which Glass failed. Contact lenses that display AR imaging are in development and these bionic contact lenses might contain the elements for display embedded into the lens including integrated circuitry, LEDs and an antenna for wireless communication
9.
Smartphone
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A smartphone is a mobile phone with an advanced mobile operating system that combines features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use. Smartphones can access the Internet and can run a variety of third-party software components and they typically have a color display with a graphical user interface that covers more than 76% of the front surface. In 1999, the Japanese firm NTT DoCoMo released the first smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a country, smartphones became widespread in the late 2000s. Most of those produced from 2012 onward have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE, motion sensors, in the third quarter of 2012, one billion smartphones were in use worldwide. Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for regular cell phones in early 2013, devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized by Nikola Tesla in 1909 and Theodore Paraskevakos in 1971 and patented in 1974, and were offered for sale beginning in 1993. Paraskevakos was the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and they were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. The original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos, the first mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was a prototype developed by Frank Canova in 1992 while at IBM and demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show. It included PDA features and other mobile applications such as maps, stock reports. A refined version was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator, the Simon was the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a smartphone, although it was not called that in 1994. The term smart phone appeared in print as early as 1995, in the mid-late 1990s, many mobile phone users carried a separate dedicated PDA device, running early versions of operating systems such as Palm OS, BlackBerry OS or Windows CE/Pocket PC. These operating systems would later evolve into mobile operating systems, in March 1996, Hewlett-Packard released the OmniGo 700LX, a modified HP 200LX palmtop PC that supported a Nokia 2110 phone with ROM-based software to support it. It had a 640×200 resolution CGA compatible four-shade gray-scale LCD screen and could be used to place and receive calls and it was also 100% DOS5.0 compatible, allowing it to run thousands of existing software titles, including early versions of Windows. In August 1996, Nokia released the Nokia 9000 Communicator, a cellular phone based on the Nokia 2110 with an integrated PDA based on the PEN/GEOS3.0 operating system from Geoworks. The two components were attached by a hinge in what known as a clamshell design, with the display above. The PDA provided e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook applications, text-based Web browsing, when closed, the device could be used as a digital cellular phone. In June 1999 Qualcomm released the pdQ Smartphone, a CDMA digital PCS Smartphone with an integrated Palm PDA, subsequent landmark devices included, The Ericsson R380 by Ericsson Mobile Communications. The first device marketed as a smartphone, it combined the functions of a phone and PDA. The Kyocera 6035 introduced by Palm, Inc, combining a PDA with a mobile phone, it operated on the Verizon network, and supported limited Web browsing
10.
Virtual reality headset
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A virtual reality headset provides virtual reality for the wearer. VR headsets are used with computer games but they are also used in other applications. They comprise a stereoscopic head-mounted display, stereo sound, and head motion tracking sensors, some VR headsets also have eye tracking sensors and gaming controllers. An early VR headset, the Forte VFX1, was announced at CES in 1994, the VFX-1 has stereoscopic displays, 3-axis head-tracking, and stereo headphones. These VR headsets gave MechWarrior 2 players a new perspective of seeing the battlefield from inside the cockpit of their craft. However, these early headsets failed commercially due to their technology and were described by John Carmack as like looking through toilet paper tubes. In 2012, a campaign began for a VR headset known as Oculus Rift. In March 2014, the parent company Oculus VR was acquired by Facebook for US$2 billion. The final consumer-oriented release of Oculus Rift began shipping on 28 March 2016, in March 2014, Sony demonstrated a prototype headset for PlayStation 4, which was later named PlayStation VR. The Vive was released in April 2016 and PlayStation VR in October 2016, virtual reality headsets and viewers have also been designed for smartphones. Unlike headsets with integrated displays, these units are essentially enclosures which a smartphone can be inserted into, VR content is viewed from the screen of the device itself through lenses acting as a stereoscope, rather than using dedicated internal displays. Samsung Electronics parterned with Oculus VR to co-develop the Samsung Gear VR, virtual reality headsets have significantly higher requirements for latency—the time it takes from a change in input to have a visual effect—than ordinary video games. If the system is too sluggish to react to movement, then it can cause the user to experience virtual reality sickness. According to a Valve engineer, the ideal latency would be 7-15 milliseconds, a major component of this latency is the refresh rate of the display, which has driven the adoption of displays with a refresh rate from 90 Hz to 120 Hz. The graphics processing unit also needs to be powerful to render frames more frequently. Oculus cited the limited processing power of Xbox One and PlayStation 4 as the reason why they are targeting the PC gaming market with their first devices and this is called asynchronous reprojection or asynchronous time warp in Oculus jargon. PlayStation VR synthesizes in-between frames in such manner, so games that render at 60 fps natively result in 120 updates per second, steamVR will also use interleaved reprojection for games that cannot keep up with its 90 Hz refresh rate, dropping down to 45 fps. The simplest technique is applying only projective transformation to the images for each eye, the downsides are that this approach cannot take into account the translation of the head
11.
Head-mounted display
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A head-mounted display, both abbreviated HMD, is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet, that has a small display optic in front of one or each eye. A HMD has many uses including in gaming, aviation, engineering, there is also an optical head-mounted display, which is a wearable display that can reflect projected images and allows a user to see through it. A typical HMD has one or two small displays, with lenses and semi-transparent mirrors embedded in eyeglasses, a visor, or a helmet, the display units are miniaturised and may include cathode ray tubes, liquid crystal displays, liquid crystal on silicon, or organic light-emitting diodes. Some vendors employ multiple micro-displays to increase resolution and field of view. HMDs differ in whether they can display only computer-generated imagery, or only live imagery from the physical world, most HMDs can display only a computer-generated image, sometimes referred to as a virtual image. Some HMDs can allow a CGI to be superimposed on a real-world view and this is sometimes referred to as augmented reality or mixed reality. Combining real-world view with CGI can be done by projecting the CGI through a partially reflective mirror and this method is often called optical see-through. Combining real-world view with CGI can also be done electronically by accepting video from a camera and this method is often called video see-through. An optical head-mounted display uses an optical mixer which is made of partly silvered mirrors and it can reflect artificial images, and let real images cross the lens, and let a user look through it. Various methods have existed for see-through HMDs, most of which can be summarized into two families based on curved mirrors or waveguides. Curved mirrors have been used by Laster Technologies, and by Vuzix in their Star 1200 product, various waveguide methods have existed for years. These include diffraction optics, holographic optics, polarized optics, major HMD applications include military, government, and civilian-commercial. In 1962, Hughes Aircraft Company revealed the Electrocular, a compact CRT, ruggedized HMDs are increasingly being integrated into the cockpits of modern helicopters and fighter aircraft. These are usually integrated with the pilots flying helmet and may include protective visors, night vision devices. Military, police, and firefighters use HMDs to display information such as maps or thermal imaging data while viewing a real scene. Recent applications have included the use of HMD for paratroopers, in 2005, the Liteye HMD was introduced for ground combat troops as a rugged, waterproof lightweight display that clips into a standard US PVS-14 military helmet mount. The self-contained color monocular organic light-emitting diode display replaces the NVG tube, the LE has see-through ability and can be used as a standard HMD or for augmented reality applications. The design is optimized to provide high definition data under all lighting conditions, the LE has a low power consumption, operating on four AA batteries for 35 hours or receiving power via standard Universal Serial Bus connection
12.
Game controller
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A game controller is a device used with games or entertainment systems to provide input to a video game, typically to control an object or character in the game. A controller is connected to a game console or computer by means of a wire or cord, although, since the mid-2000s. Input devices that have been classified as game controllers include keyboards, mouses, gamepads, joysticks, special purpose devices, such as steering wheels for driving games and light guns for shooting games, are also game controllers. Game controllers have been designed and improved over the years to be as user friendly as possible, the Microsoft Xbox controller, with its shoulder triggers that mimic actual triggers such as those found on guns, has become popular for shooting games. Some controllers are designed to be deliberately best for one type of game, such as steering wheels for driving games, One of the first video game controllers was a simple dial and single button, used to control the game Tennis for Two. Controllers have since evolved to include directional pads, multiple buttons, analog sticks, joysticks, motion detection, touch screens, a gamepad, also known as a joypad, is held in both hands with thumbs and fingers used to provide input. Gamepads can have a number of action buttons combined with one or more omnidirectional control sticks or buttons, action buttons are generally handled with the digits on the right hand, and the directional input handled with the left. Gamepads are the means of input on most modern video game consoles. Most modern game controllers are a variation of a standard gamepad, common additions include shoulder buttons placed along the edges of the pad, centrally placed buttons labeled start, select, and mode, and an internal motor to provide haptic feedback. As modern game controllers advance, so to does their user ability qualities, typically, the controllers become smaller and more compact as to more easily, and comfortably, fit within the users hand. Modern examples can be drawn from such as Xbox, whose controller has transformed subtly, yet dramatically. A paddle is a controller that features a wheel and one or more fire buttons. The wheel is used to control movement of the player or of an object along one axis of the video screen. Paddle controllers were the first analog controllers and they lost popularity when paddle, a variation, the Atari driving controller, appeared on the Atari 2600. Designed specifically for the game Indy 500, it functioned almost identically in operation, the exceptions were that its wheel can be continuously rotated in either direction, and it was missing the extra paddle included on the previous model. Unlike a spinner, friction prevented the wheel from gaining momentum, a joystick is a peripheral that consists of a handheld stick that can be tilted around either of two axes and twisted around a third. The joystick is used for flight simulators. HOTAS controllers, composed of a joystick and throttle quadrant are a combination for flight simulation among its most fanatic devotees
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Haptic technology
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Haptic or kinesthetic communication recreates the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user. Haptic devices may incorporate tactile sensors that measure forces exerted by the user on the interface, most researchers distinguish three sensory systems related to sense of touch in humans, cutaneous, kinesthetic and haptic. All perceptions mediated by cutaneous and/or kinesthetic sensibility are referred to as tactual perception, the sense of touch may be classified as passive and active, and the term haptic is often associated with active touch to communicate or recognize objects. Haptic technology has made it possible to investigate how the sense of touch works by allowing the creation of carefully controlled haptic virtual objects. The word haptic, from the Greek, ἁπτικός, means pertaining to the sense of touch and comes from the Greek verb ἅπτεσθαι haptesthai, One of the earliest applications of haptic technology was in large aircraft that use servomechanism systems to operate control surfaces. Such systems tend to be one-way, meaning external forces applied aerodynamically to the surfaces are not perceived at the controls. Here, the normal forces are simulated with springs and weights. In lighter aircraft without servo systems, as the aircraft approached a stall the aerodynamic buffeting was felt in the pilots controls and this was a useful warning of a dangerous flight condition. This control shake is not felt when servo control systems are used, alternatively, the servo force may be measured and the signal directed to a servo system on the control, known as force feedback. Force feedback has been implemented experimentally in some excavators and is useful when excavating mixed material such as large rocks embedded in silt or clay and it allows the operator to feel and work around unseen obstacles, enabling significant increases in productivity and less risk of damage to the machine. The first US patent for a telephone was granted to Thomas D. Shannon in 1973. An early tactile man-machine communication system was constructed by A. Michael Noll at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. in the early 1970s, the Interactor Vest is worn over the upper torso and the audio signal is reproduced through a speaker embedded in the vest. Both the Vest and the Cushion were launched with a tag of $99. In 1995 Norwegian Geir Jensen described a wrist watch haptic device with a skin tap mechanism and it would connect to a mobile phone via Bluetooth. Tapping-frequency patterns would identify callers to a mobile and enable the wearer to respond by selected short messages and it was submitted for a governmental innovation contest and received no award. It was not pursued or published until recovered in 2015, the Tap-in device by Jensen was devised facing the user to avoid twisting of the wrist, see image. It would adapt across all mobile phone and watch brands, in 2015 Apple started to sell a wrist watch which included skin tap sensing of notifications and alerts to mobile phone of the watch wearer. A tactile electronic display is a kind of device that presents information in tactile form
14.
Video game
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A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device such as a TV screen or computer monitor. The word video in video game referred to a raster display device. Some theorists categorize video games as an art form, but this designation is controversial, the electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms, examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld computing devices, the input device used for games, the game controller, varies across platforms. Common controllers include gamepads, joysticks, mouse devices, keyboards, the touchscreens of mobile devices, and buttons, or even, with the Kinect sensor, a persons hands and body. Players typically view the game on a screen or television or computer monitor, or sometimes on virtual reality head-mounted display goggles. There are often game sound effects, music and, in the 2010s, some games in the 2000s include haptic, vibration-creating effects, force feedback peripherals and virtual reality headsets. In the 2010s, the game industry is of increasing commercial importance, with growth driven particularly by the emerging Asian markets and mobile games. As of 2015, video games generated sales of USD74 billion annually worldwide, early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a Cathode ray tube Amusement Device was filed for a patent on 25 January 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on 14 December 1948, as U. S. Written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanens on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961, and the hit ping pong-style Pong, used the DEC PDP-1s vector display to have two spaceships battle each other. In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially sold and it used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips. The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green, Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the Brown Box and these were followed by two versions of Ataris Pong, an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975 that dramatically increased video game popularity. The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and their own systems, the game inspired arcade machines to become prevalent in mainstream locations such as shopping malls, traditional storefronts, restaurants, and convenience stores. The game also became the subject of articles and stories on television and in newspapers and magazines. Space Invaders was soon licensed for the Atari VCS, becoming the first killer app, the term platform refers to the specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware which, in conjunction with software, allows a video game to operate. The term system is commonly used
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Immersion (virtual reality)
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Immersion into virtual reality is a perception of being physically present in a non-physical world. The perception is created by surrounding the user of the VR system in images, the name is a metaphoric use of the experience of submersion applied to representation, fiction or simulation. The degree to which the virtual or artistic environment faithfully reproduces reality determines the degree of suspension of disbelief, the greater the suspension of disbelief, the greater the degree of presence achieved. According to Ernest W. Players feel in the zone while perfecting actions that result in success, Strategic immersion Strategic immersion is more cerebral, and is associated with mental challenge. Chess players experience strategic immersion when choosing a correct solution among an array of possibilities. Narrative immersion Narrative immersion occurs when players become invested in a story, in addition to these, they add a new category, Spatial immersion Spatial immersion occurs when a player feels the simulated world is perceptually convincing. The player feels that he or she is there and that a simulated world looks. It is defined as a subjective sensation of being there in a scene depicted by a medium. Most designers focus on the used to create a high-fidelity virtual environment, however. It is the perception, although generated by and/or filtered through human-made technology. Virtual reality glasses can produce a feeling of being in a simulated world. According to Oculus VR, the requirements to achieve this visceral reaction are low-latency. Michael Abrash gave a talk on VR at Steam Dev Days in 2014 and it consists of immersion in an artificial environment where the user feels just as immersed as they usually feel in consensus reality. The most considered method would be to induce the sensations that made up the reality in the nervous system directly. In functionalism/conventional biology we interact with consensus reality through the nervous system, thus we receive all input from all the senses as nerve impulses. It gives your neurons a feeling of heightened sensation and it would involve the user receiving inputs as artificially stimulated nerve impulses, the system would receive the CNS outputs and process them allowing the user to interact with the virtual reality. Natural impulses between the body and central nervous system would need to be prevented, a feedback system between the user and the computer which stores the information would also be needed. Considering how much information would be required for such a system and this will allow the correct sensations in the user, and actions in the virtual reality to occur
16.
Antonin Artaud
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Antoine Artaud was born 4 September 1896 in Marseille, France, to Euphrasie Nalpas and Antoine-Roi Artaud. Both his parents were natives of Smyrna, and he was affected by his Greek ancestry. His mother gave birth to nine children, four out of the nine were stillborn and he contracted spinal meningitis at the age of 4. This disease has no cure, but after a long struggle including a comatose period, Artauds parents arranged a long series of sanatorium stays for their temperamental son, which were both prolonged and expensive. This lasted five years, with a break of two months in June and July 1916, when Artaud was conscripted into the French Army and he was allegedly discharged due to his self-induced habit of sleepwalking. During Artauds rest cures at the sanatorium, he read Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire, in May 1919, the director of the sanatorium prescribed laudanum for Artaud, precipitating a lifelong addiction to that and other opiates. In March 1920, Artaud moved to Paris to pursue a career as a writer, while training and performing with directors including Charles Dullin and Georges Pitoeff, he continued to write both poetry and essays. Their compilation into a work, Correspondance avec Jacques Rivière, was Artauds first major publication. Artaud cultivated a great interest in cinema as well, writing the scenario for the first surrealist film, The Seashell and this film influenced Salvador Dalí and Luis Buñuel, two key Spanish surrealists, when they made Un Chien Andalou. Artauds performance as Jean-Paul Marat in Abel Gances Napoleon used exaggerated movements to convey the fire of Marats personality and he also played the monk Massieu in Carl Theodor Dreyers The Passion of Joan of Arc. In 1926-28, Artaud ran the Alfred Jarry Theatre, along with Roger Vitrac and he produced and directed original works by Vitrac, as well as pieces by Claudel and Strindberg. The theatre advertised that they would produce Artauds play Jet de sang in their 1926-1927 season, the Theatre was extremely short-lived, but was attended by an enormous range of European artists, including André Gide, Arthur Adamov, and Paul Valéry. In 1931, Artaud saw Balinese dance performed at the Paris Colonial Exposition, although he did not fully understand the intentions and ideas behind traditional Balinese performance, it influenced many of his ideas for theatre. Also during this year, Artauds First Manifesto for a Theatre of Cruelty was published in La Nouvelle Revue Française, it would appear as a chapter in The Theatre. In 1935, Artauds production of his adaptation of Shelleys The Cenci premiered, les Censi was a commercial failure, although it employed innovative sound effects-including the first theatrical use of the electronic instrument the Ondes Martenot—and had a set designed by Balthus. Artaud also studied and lived with the Tarahumaran people and experimented with peyote, recording his experiences, the content of this work closely resembles the poems of his later days, concerned primarily with the supernatural. Artaud also recorded his horrific withdrawal from heroin upon entering the land of the Tarahumaras, having deserted his last supply of the drug at a mountainside, he literally had to be hoisted onto his horse and soon resembled, in his words, a giant, inflamed gum. Artaud would return to later in life
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Theatre
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The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence, the specific place of the performance is also named by the word theatre as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον, itself from θεάομαι. Modern theatre, broadly defined, includes performances of plays and musical theatre, there are connections between theatre and the art forms of ballet, opera and various other forms. The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated, participation in the city-states many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the City Dionysia as an audience member in particular—was an important part of citizenship. The Greeks also developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre architecture, Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional. The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama, tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play, the origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to Aristotle, the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10, the stage consisted of a dancing floor, dressing room and scene-building area. Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics, the actors wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts. Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the culture of the city-state. Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE, no tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived. We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was institution alised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating Dionysus. As contestants in the City Dionysias competition playwrights were required to present a tetralogy of plays, the performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE, official records begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced. More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his Poetics, Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy. Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the surviving plays of Aristophanes. New Comedy is known primarily from the papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster. In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyrs themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal companions, often engaging in drunken revelry
18.
Myron W. Krueger
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Myron Krueger is an American computer artist who developed early interactive works. He is also considered to be one of the first generation virtual reality, while earning a Ph. D. in Computer Science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Krueger worked on a number of early interactive computer artworks. Krueger went on to develop Metaplay, an integration of visuals, sounds, in this, the computer was used to create a unique real-time relationship between the participants in the gallery and the artist in another building. In 1971, his Psychic space used a sensory floor to perceive the participants movements around the environment, a later project, Videoplace, was funded by the National Endowment for the arts and a two-way exhibit was shown at the Milwaukee Art Museum in 1975. In 1978, joined the science faculty at the University of Connecticut. Videoplace has been exhibited widely in both art and science contexts in the United States and Canada, and it was shown in Japan. It was included in the SIGGRAPH Art Show in 1985 and 1990, Videoplace was also the featured exhibit at SIGCHI in 1985 and 1989, and at the 1990 Ars Electronica Festival. Instead of taking the virtual reality track of head-mounted display and data glove, Krueger later used the hardware from Videoplace for another piece, Small Planet. In this work, participants are able to fly over a small, computer-generated, flying is done by holding ones arms out, like a child pretending to fly, and leaning left or right and moving up or down. Small Planet was shown at SIGGRAPH93, Interaction 97, Mediartech 98 and he envisioned the art of interactivity, as opposed to art that happens to be interactive. That is, the idea that exploring the space of interactions between humans and computers was interesting, the focus was on the possibilities of interaction itself, rather than on an art project, which happens to have some response to the user. Artificial Reality 2, Addison-Wesley Professional,1991
19.
Damien Broderick
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Damien Francis Broderick is an Australian science fiction and popular science writer and editor of some 70 books. Broderick holds a Ph. D. in Literary Studies from Deakin University, Australia, with a dissertation comparing the semiotics of scientific, literary and he was for several years a Senior Fellow in the School of Culture and Communication at the University of Melbourne. Broderick lives in San Antonio, Texas, with his wife and he was the founding science fiction editor of the Australian popular-science magazine Cosmos from mid-2005 to December 2010. Five of Brodericks books have won Ditmar Awards, the first and he has also won the Aurealis award four times. In November 2003, Broderick was awarded a grant for 2004–05 by the Australia Council to write fiction exploring the technological singularity, in 2005 he received the Distinguished Scholarship Award of the International Association for the Fantastic in the Arts. His recent critical studies, x, y, z, t, Dimensions of Science Fiction, Ferocious Minds, Polymathy, in 2012, with Paul Di Filippo, he published Science Fiction, The 101 Best Novels, 1985–2010, which was short-listed for a 2013 Locus Award. With his wife, Barbara Lamar, he wrote the near-future sf thriller Post Mortal Syndrome and his work has been translated into French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Danish, Polish, Czech, Hungarian, Lithuanian and Russian. In 2009, he returned to fiction, with five stories published in Asimovs magazine, one online at Tor. com. Two of these stories were selected for three 2010 Years Best anthologies, another, Under the Moons of Venus, appeared in five 2011 Years Best anthologies. The novelette Walls of Flesh, Bars of Bone, co-written with Brodericks wife Barbara Lamar, appeared in the 2010 anthology Engineering Infinity, the Beancounters Cat was selected in Gardner Dozois 2012 Years Best volume. This Wind Blowing, and this Tide was reprinted on-line in Clarkesworld 100 in 2015 and it was selected to close Gardner Dozois 2014 Years Best volume. His first horror fiction, The Unheimlich Maneuver, opens an original collection edited by Luis Ortiz, The Monkeys Other Paw, Revised Classic Stories of Dread, sorcerers World revised and expanded, The Black Grail The Dreaming Dragons – Ditmar Award 1981, runner-up John W. The Carnell Era, Volume One—with John Boston New Worlds, Before the New Wave
20.
Microsoft HoloLens
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Microsoft HoloLens, known under development as Project Baraboo, is a pair of mixed reality smartglasses developed and manufactured by Microsoft. HoloLens gained popularity for being one of the first computers running the Windows Mixed Reality platform under the Windows 10 operating system, the HoloLens can trace its lineage to Kinect, an add-on for Microsofts Xbox gaming console that was introduced in 2010. The pre-production version of HoloLens, the Development Edition, shipped on March 30,2016, samsung and Asus have extended an offer to Microsoft to help produce their own mixed-reality products, in collaboration with Microsoft, based around the concept and hardware on HoloLens. The HoloLens is a display unit connected to an adjustable, cushioned inner headband. In the front is much of the sensors and related hardware, including the cameras, the visor is tinted, enclosed in the visor piece is a pair of transparent combiner lenses, in which the projected images are displayed in the lower half. The HoloLens must be calibrated to the distance, or accustomed vision of the user. Along the bottom edges of the side, located near the ears, are a pair of small. The speakers, competing against typical sound systems, do not obstruct external sounds, allowing the user to hear virtual sounds, on the top edge are two pairs of buttons, display brightness buttons above the left ear, and volume buttons above the right ear. Adjacent buttons are shaped differently—one concave, one convex—so that the user can distinguish them by touch, a USB2.0 micro-B receptacle is located along the bottom edge. A3.5 mm audio jack is located along the edge of the right arm. The SoC and the HPU each have 1GB LPDDR3 and share 8MB SRAM, with the SoC also controlling 64GB eMMC and running the Windows 10 operating system. The HPU uses 28 custom DSPs from Tensilica to process and integrate data from the sensors, as well as handling tasks such as mapping, gesture recognition. According to Alex Kipman, the HPU processes terabytes of information, the HoloLens contains an internal rechargeable battery, with average life rated at 2–3 hours of active use, or 2 weeks of standby time. The HoloLens can be operated while charging, HoloLens features IEEE802. 11ac Wi-Fi and Bluetooth 4.1 Low Energy wireless connectivity. The headset uses Bluetooth LE to pair with the included Clicker, the Clicker features a clickable surface for selecting, and an orientation sensor which provides for scrolling functions via tilting and panning of the unit. The Clicker features an elastic finger loop for holding the device, as of 2016, a number of augmented-reality applications have been announced or showcased for Microsoft HoloLens. A collection of applications will be provided for free for developers purchasing the Microsoft HoloLens Developer Edition, any user with skype of his regular devices like PC, Mobile etc. can dial user on HoloLens and communicate with each other. OnSight can be used in planning, with users able to program rover activities by looking at a target within the simulation
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Open-source model
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
22.
Gyroscope
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A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum, because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses, a gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis. In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the frame so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame. This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis, which is perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied to the axis by a reaction force to the output axis. The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the moves to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis, a gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free or fixed configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll, the centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, for example, the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals. In some special cases, the outer gimbal may be omitted so that the rotor has two degrees of freedom. Essentially, a gyroscope is a top combined with a pair of gimbals, Tops were invented in many different civilizations, including classical Greece, Rome, and China
23.
Stereoscopy
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Stereoscopy is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives from Greek στερεός, meaning firm, solid, any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of images which could be viewed using a stereoscope. Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer and these two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3D depth. Stereoscopy creates the illusion of depth from given two-dimensional images. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, the two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Although the term 3D is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of 3D displays, holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field with just two speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images 3D. The accurate term stereoscopic is more cumbersome than the common misnomer 3D, although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also. Most 3D displays use this method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838, but if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three-dimensional information, the three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images, anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images, Simultaneous perception Fusion Stereopsis These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision, a persons stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, according to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity
24.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
25.
Omnidirectional camera
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In photography, an omnidirectional camera is a camera with a 360-degree field of view in the horizontal plane, or with a visual field that covers the entire sphere. Omnidirectional cameras are important in areas where large visual field coverage is needed, such as in panoramic photography, a camera normally has a field of view that ranges from a few degrees to, at most, 180°. This means that it captures, at most, light falling onto the focal point through a hemisphere. In contrast, an omnidirectional camera captures light from all directions falling onto the focal point. In the case that they cover the sphere, the captured light rays do not intersect exactly in a single focal point. Traditional approaches to panoramic photography mainly consists of stitching shots taken separately into a single, in contrast, an omnidirectional camera can be used to create panoramic art in real time, without the need for post processing, and will typically give much better quality products. In 2015 Facebook began rolling out omnidirectional videos where the user can view the video at any arbitrary camera angle around a 360-degree radius, in robotics, omnidirectional cameras are frequently used for visual odometry and to solve the simultaneous localization and mapping problems visually. Due to its ability to capture a 360-degree view, better results can be obtained for optical flow and feature selection, applications of omnidirectional cameras also include surveillance, when it is important to cover an as large visual field as possible. Microsoft RoundTable was introduced in 2007 for videoconferencing, where all participants on one location can be in the same image,360 photography Immersive video Light-field camera Multiple-camera setup Stereo camera VR photography Whole sky camera UPenn Omnidirectional Vision page Wired introduction
26.
360-degree video
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During playback the viewer has control of the viewing direction like a panorama. 360-degree video is recorded using either a special rig of multiple cameras. The resulting footage is then stitched to form a single video and this process is done either by the camera itself, or using specialized video editing software that can analyze common visuals and audio to synchronize and link the different camera feeds together. Generally, the area that cannot be viewed is the view toward the camera support. In videoconferencing, 360° cameras are used, so all participants on one location can be recorded with one camera. Most 360-degree video is monoscopic, meaning that it is viewed as a one image directed to both eyes, stereoscopic video is viewed as two distinct images directed individually to each eye. 360-degree videos are viewed via personal computers, mobile devices such as smartphones. When viewed on PCs, the mouse is used to pan around the video by clicking and dragging. On smartphones, internal sensors such as the gyroscope are used to pan the video based on the orientation of the device. They emulate the operation of a dedicated head-mounted display, but utilizing the display of the phone itself and internal lenses, in March 2015, YouTube officially launched the ability for users to view and upload 360-degree videos, with playback on its website and its Android mobile apps. Parent company Google also announced that it would collaborate with camera manufacturers to make it easier for creators to upload 360-degree content recorded with their products to YouTube, facebook followed suit by adding 360-degree video support in September 2015. Unfortunately many 360-degree videos published are mistakenly labelled 3D or VR, if after stitching there is only one 360x180 equirectangular image than the resulting video is 2D and not 3D. It takes two distinct 360x180 equirectangular images to make a 3D video, most of the content is not VR. VR is defined as a computer generated simulation of reality, most of the time it is not computer generated and it is not a simulation of reality. It is a representation of reality, being made using a computer, and nothing more than that, nothing virtual, no simulation, therefore no VR
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Photogrammetry
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Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from photographs, especially for recovering the exact positions of surface points. It may also be used to recover the motion pathways of designated reference points on any moving object, on its components, and in the immediately adjacent environment. Photogrammetric analysis may be applied to one photograph, or may use high-speed photography and remote sensing to detect, measure, the quantitative results of photogrammetry are then used to guide and match the results of computational models of the natural systems. Photogrammetry is as old as photography, dating to the mid-19th century. Its detection component has been emerging from radiolocation, multilateration and radiometry and its 3-D positioning estimative component employs methods related to triangulation, trilateration and multidimensional scaling. This is done by multiplying the distance by 1/s. Photogrammetry uses methods from many disciplines, including optics and projective geometry, digital image capturing and photogrammetric processing includes several well defined stages, which allow to generate 2D or 3D digital models of the object as an end product. The data model on the right shows what type of information can go into, the 3-D co-ordinates define the locations of object points in the 3-D space. The image co-ordinates define the locations of the object points images on the film or an imaging device. The exterior orientation of a camera defines its location in space, the inner orientation defines the geometric parameters of the imaging process. This is primarily the focal length of the lens, but can include the description of lens distortions. Each of the four main variables can be an input or an output of a photogrammetric method, algorithms for photogrammetry typically attempt to minimize the sum of the squares of errors over the coordinates and relative displacements of the reference points. This minimization is known as bundle adjustment and is performed using the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm. Common points are identified on each image, a line of sight can be constructed from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of these rays determines the three-dimensional location of the point. Stereophotogrammetry is emerging as a robust non-contacting measurement technique to determine dynamic characteristics, photogrammetric data with a dense range data in which scanners complement each other. Photogrammetry is more accurate in the x and y direction while range data are more accurate in the z direction. Photos can clearly define the edges of buildings when the point cloud footprint can not and it is beneficial to incorporate the advantages of both systems and integrate them to create a better product
28.
View-Master
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It was manufactured and sold by Sawyers. The View-Master system was introduced in 1939, four years after the advent of Kodachrome color film made the use of small high-quality photographic color images practical. Tourist attraction and travel views predominated in View-Masters early lists of available reels, most current View-Master reels are intended for children. Edwin Eugene Mayer worked as a pharmacist at Owl Drug store in downtown Portland and he built up a photo-finishing business there, and bought into Sawyers Photo Finishing Service in 1919 with the help of his father August Mayer, his fiancee Eva McAnulty, and her sister Vi McAnulty. The company relocated to a large building at 181 Ella St. near Morrison Street in Portland. The company was producing photographic postcards and album sets as souvenirs by 1926, Graves handled marketing for the products while Mayer ran the business. Later, photographic greeting cards were added to the Sawyers product line, Sawyers was the nations largest producer of scenic postcards in the 1920s and the future View-Master viewer eventually became an extension of the two-dimensional cards. Mayer and Gruber had both developed devices for viewing images, but Gruber had made up a stereo imaging rig out of two Kodak Bantam Specials mounted together on a tripod. He designed a machine that mounted the tiny pieces of Kodachrome color transparency film into reels made from heavy paper stock, a special viewer was also designed and produced. He had the idea of updating the old-fashioned stereoscope by using the new Kodachrome 16-mm color film, a View-Master reel holds 14 film transparencies in seven pairs, making up the seven stereoscopic images. The components of each pair are viewed simultaneously, one by each eye, according to a 1960 court document, the Gruber-Sawyer partner venture began from that first meeting in 1938. Thereafter, Ed Mayer negotiated with Gruber while production methods and some marketing were developed, after three years, a formal agreement was entered into on February 24,1942 between Gruber and Sawyer partners, doing business as Sawyers. Ed Mayer and people within the Sawyer’s organization were uncertain what to call their new product, the View-Master was introduced at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair, marked Patent Applied For. It was intended as an alternative to the postcard, and was originally sold at photography shops, stationery stores. The main subjects of View-Master reels were Carlsbad Caverns and the Grand Canyon, the View-Master was marketed through Ed Mayers photo-finishing, postcard, and greeting card company Sawyers Service, Inc. known eventually as Sawyers, Inc. The partnership led to the sales of View-Master viewers and reels. The patent on the device was issued in 1940, on what came to be called the Model A viewer. Within a very time, the Viewmaster took over the postcard business at Sawyers.00 and Western Photo Supply Co. owning the buildings
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Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
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Sensorama
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The Sensorama was a machine that is one of the earliest known examples of immersive, multi-sensory technology. He dubbed it Experience Theater, and detailed his vision of multi-sensory theater in his 1955 paper entitled The Cinema of the Future, in 1962 he built a prototype of his vision, dubbed the Sensorama, along with five short films for it to display. The Sensorama was a device, which still functions today. The Sensorama was able to display stereoscopic 3-D images in a view, provide body tilting, supply stereo sound. Oddly enough in hindsight, Heilig was simply unable to obtain financial backing for his visions and patents, and so the Sensorama work was halted. The Sensorium, the worlds first commercial 4D film Heilig M. US Patent #3,050,870 Rheingold, H. Virtual Reality, Simon & Schuster, New York, N. Y. Robinett, W. Interactivity and Individual Viewpoint in Shared Virtual Worlds, The Big Screen vs. Networked Personal Displays
31.
Machine
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A machine is a tool containing one or more parts that uses energy to perform an intended action. Machines are usually powered by chemical, thermal, or electrical means, historically, a power tool also required moving parts to classify as a machine. However, the advent of electronics has led to the development of power tools without moving parts that are considered machines, a simple machine is a device that simply transforms the direction or magnitude of a force, but a large number of more complex machines exist. Examples include vehicles, electronic systems, molecular machines, computers, television, the word machine derives from the Latin word machina, which in turn derives from the Greek. The word mechanical comes from the same Greek roots, however, the Ancient Greeks probably have borrowed the word mekhane from the ancient Hebrews. The ancient Greeks were familiar with the Hebrew Scriptures and language, a wider meaning of fabric, structure is found in classical Latin, but not in Greek usage. This meaning is found in late medieval French, and is adopted from the French into English in the mid-16th century, in the 17th century, the word could also mean a scheme or plot, a meaning now expressed by the derived machination. The modern meaning develops out of specialized application of the term to stage engines used in theater and to siege engines. Simple Machines are commonly reckoned to be Six in Number, viz. the Ballance, Leaver, Pulley, Wheel, Wedge, compound Machines, or Engines, are innumerable. The word engine used as a synonym both by Harris and in later language derives ultimately from Latin ingenium ingenuity, an invention, perhaps the first example of a human made device designed to manage power is the hand axe, made by chipping flint to form a wedge. A wedge is a machine that transforms lateral force and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting force. The idea of a simple machine originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd century BC, who studied the Archimedean simple machines, lever, pulley and he discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. Later Greek philosophers defined the five simple machines and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. Heron of Alexandria in his work Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can set a load in motion, lever, windlass, pulley, wedge, and screw, however the Greeks understanding was limited to statics and did not include dynamics or the concept of work. In 1586 Flemish engineer Simon Stevin derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, the complete dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche. He was the first to understand that simple machines do not create energy, the classic rules of sliding friction in machines were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci, but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons and were developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. The word mechanical refers to the work that has produced by machines or the machinery
32.
Douglas Engelbart
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Douglas Carl Engelbart was an American engineer and inventor, and an early computer and Internet pioneer. These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968, Engelbarts Law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him. In the early 1950s, he decided instead of having a steady job – such as his position at NASAs Ames Research Center – he would focus on making the world a better place. He believed that the computer, which was at the thought of only as a tool for automation. He was a committed, vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and computer networks to help cope with the increasingly urgent. Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed bootstrapping and his belief was that when human systems and tool systems were aligned, such that workers spent time improving their tools for improving their tools it would lead to an accelerating rate of progress. The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, at both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them, and retired in 1986. In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, in December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 Mother of All Demos. Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon on January 30,1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and his ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent. He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne, and a brother David, the family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8. His father died one year later and he graduated from Portlands Franklin High School in 1942. On a small island, in a hut on stilts, he read Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think. He returned to Oregon State College and completed his bachelors degree in engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State College, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity and he was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing and it was there he met Ballard Fish who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married on May 5,1951 in Portola State Park, soon after, Engelbart left NACA to pursue a PhD at UC Berkeley. Engelbarts career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no goals other than a steady job, getting married. In 1945, Engelbart had read with interest Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think and he had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen
33.
Ivan Sutherland
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Ivan Edward Sutherland is an American computer scientist and Internet pioneer, widely regarded as the father of computer graphics. His early work in graphics as well as his teaching with David C. Evans in that subject at the University of Utah in the 1970s was pioneering in the field. Sutherland, Evans, and his students from that era invented several foundations of computer graphics. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, as well as the National Academy of Sciences among many major awards. In 2012 he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Advanced Technology for pioneering achievements in the development of computer graphics and interactive interfaces. Sutherland earned his Bachelors degree in engineering from the Carnegie Institute of Technology, his masters degree from Caltech. He invented Sketchpad in 1962 while at MIT, Professor Claude Shannon signed on to supervise Sutherland’s computer drawing thesis. Among others on his thesis committee were Marvin Minsky and Steven Coons, Sketchpad was an innovative program that influenced alternative forms of interaction with computers. Sketchpad could accept constraints and specified relationships among segments and arcs and it could draw both horizontal and vertical lines and combine them into figures and shapes. Figures could be copied, moved, rotated, or resized, Sketchpad also had the first window-drawing program and clipping algorithm, which allowed zooming. Sketchpad ran on the Lincoln TX-2 computer and influenced Douglas Engelbarts oN-Line System, Sketchpad, in turn, was influenced by the conceptual Memex as envisioned by Vannevar Bush in his influential paper As We May Think. Sutherland replaced J. C. R. Licklider as the head of the US Defense Department Advanced Research Project Agencys Information Processing Techniques Office, from 1965 to 1968, Sutherland was an Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering at Harvard University. Work with student Danny Cohen in 1967 led to the development of the Cohen–Sutherland computer graphics line clipping algorithm, in 1968, with the help of his student Bob Sproull, he created the first virtual reality and augmented reality head-mounted display system, named The Sword of Damocles. From 1968 to 1974, Sutherland was a professor at the University of Utah, in 1968 he co-founded Evans and Sutherland with his friend and colleague David C. Evans. The company has done pioneering work in the field of hardware, accelerated 3D computer graphics. Former employees of Evans and Sutherland included the founders of Adobe. From 1974 to 1978 he was the Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science at California Institute of Technology and he then founded a consulting firm, Sutherland, Sproull and Associates, which was purchased by Sun Microsystems to form the seed of its research division, Sun Labs. Sutherland was a Fellow and Vice President at Sun Microsystems, Sutherland was a visiting scholar in the Computer Science Division at University of California, Berkeley
34.
Bob Sproull
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Robert Fletcher Bob Sproull is an American computer scientist, who worked for Oracle Corporation where he was director of Oracle Labs in Burlington, Massachusetts. He is currently a professor at the College of Information and Computer Sciences. While working towards his B. A. in physics at Harvard College in 1967, together, they worked on head-mounted displays, which led the way for 3-dimensional virtual reality. Sproull received his masters degree in Computer Science from Stanford University in 1970, Sproull worked as a researcher for Xerox Palo Alto Research Center from December 1973 to August 1977. While at Xerox PARC, He worked on the design of the Alto personal computer, the first laser printers, page description languages, in 1973, Sproull and William M. Newman wrote Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, a second edition was published in 1979. This was the first comprehensive textbook on computer graphics, and was regarded as the bible, until it was succeeded by Foley. Sproull was an Associate Professor of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University, in 1980, Bob Sproull and Ivan Sutherland founded a consulting firm, Sutherland, Sproull and Associates. In 1990, Sun Microsystems bought out Sutherland, Sproull and Associates for its patents and this led to the creation of Sun Microsystems Laboratories, where Sproull worked on asynchronous processor design. In 2006 he became director of the laboratories, in 2010 after Sun was purchased by Oracle Corporation, it became Oracle Labs. Sproull is also a member of the National Academy of Engineering, a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and he currently chairs the United States National Research Councils Computer Science and Telecommunications Board. He has co-authored several books in addition to Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, such as Logical Effort, Newman, W. Sproull, R. Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, Mcgraw-Hill College, ISBN 0-07-046338-7. Counterflow Pipeline Processor Architecture, Sun Microsystems, Technical Report TR-94-25, origins of Spline-Based and Anti-Aliased Fonts Robert Fletcher Sproull at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
35.
User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
36.
Realism (arts)
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Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life
. PMID 23300515.
Virtual Reality, Computer Chronicles (1992)
