1.
Urea
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Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CO2. This amide has two groups joined by a carbonyl functional group. Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals and it is a colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic. Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline, the body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two molecules with a carbon dioxide molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and is an important raw material for the chemical industry, Friedrich Wöhlers discovery in 1828 that urea can be produced from inorganic starting materials was an important conceptual milestone in chemistry. More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a nitrogen-release fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use, therefore, it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient. The standard crop-nutrient rating of urea is 46-0-0, many soil bacteria possess the enzyme urease, which catalyzes conversion of urea to ammonia or ammonium ion and bicarbonate ion. Thus urea fertilizers rapidly transform to the form in soils. Ammonium and nitrate are readily absorbed by plants, and are the dominant sources of nitrogen for plant growth, Urea is also used in many multi-component solid fertilizer formulations. Urea is highly soluble in water and is also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because of their particle size distribution. The most common impurity of synthetic urea is biuret, which impairs plant growth, Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300 kg/ha but rates vary. Smaller applications incur lower losses due to leaching, during summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses from volatilization. Because of the nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. The application equipment must be calibrated and properly used. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems
2.
Inorganic chemistry
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Inorganic chemistry deals with the synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds, the distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels. Many inorganic compounds are compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Examples of salts are magnesium chloride MgCl2, which consists of magnesium cations Mg2+ and chloride anions Cl−, or sodium oxide Na2O, in any salt, the proportions of the ions are such that the electric charges cancel out, so that the bulk compound is electrically neutral. The ions are described by their state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential or from the electron affinity of the parent elements. Important classes of compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates. Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points, inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in the solid state. Other important features include their high meilting point and ease of crystallization, where some salts are very soluble in water, others are not. The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state, in redox reactions one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons, electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e. g. in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry. When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry, as a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions. Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals, soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules, as electrolytes, the first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrate for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as such as vanadium oxide and titanium chloride. Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry and these fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies. Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science, traditionally, the scale of a nations economy could be evaluated by their productivity of sulfuric acid. The manufacturing of fertilizers is another application of industrial inorganic chemistry
3.
Alternative medicine
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Alternative therapies or diagnoses are not part of medicine or science-based healthcare systems. Contrary to popular belief, significant expense is paid to test alternative medicine, almost none show any effect beyond that of false treatment. Alternative treatments are neither the same as experimental medicine, nor traditional medicine — although the latter, Alternative medicine has grown in popularity and is used by a significant percentage of the population in many countries. While it has rebranded itself, from quackery to complementary or integrative medicine—it promotes essentially the same practices. Newer proponents often suggest alternative medicine be used together with medical treatment. Despite being illegal to market alternative therapies for treatment in most of the developed world. Alternative therapies are based on religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural energies, pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud. Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine and health care providers varies between and within countries, Alternative medicine is criticized for being based on misleading statements, quackery, pseudoscience, antiscience, fraud, or poor scientific methodology. Promoting alternative medicine has been called dangerous and unethical, testing alternative medicine that has no scientific basis has been called a waste of scarce research resources. It has been suggested that the very idea of any alternative treatment that works is paradoxical. Practitioners of complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available alternative therapies, patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions. In addition to the underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine. One of the most critical is the placebo effect—a well-established observation in medicine, CAMs popularity may be related to other factors that Edzard Ernst mentioned in an interview in The Independent, Why is it so popular, then. Ernst blames the providers, customers and the doctors whose neglect, there are 40 million websites and 39.9 million tell lies, sometimes outrageous lies. They mislead cancer patients, who are encouraged not only to pay their last penny, at the same time, people are gullible. It needs gullibility for the industry to succeed and it doesnt make me popular with the public, but its the truth. An analysis of the reasons why this is so points towards the relationship as a key factor. Providers of CAM tend to build better therapeutic relationships than mainstream healthcare professionals, in turn, this implies that much of the popularity of CAM is a poignant criticism of the failure of mainstream healthcare
4.
Quackery
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Quackery is the promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices. The term quack is a form of the archaic term quacksalver, from Dutch. In the Middle Ages the term quack meant shouting, the quacksalvers sold their wares on the market shouting in a loud voice. Common elements of general quackery include questionable diagnoses using questionable diagnostic tests, as well as untested or refuted treatments, quackery is often described as health fraud with the salient characteristic of aggressive promotion. To be both quackery and fraud, the quack must know they are misrepresenting the benefits and risks of the services offered. This definition would include questionable ideas as well as products and services. In line with this definition, the word fraud would be reserved only for situations in which deliberate deception is involved, unproven, usually ineffective, and sometimes dangerous medicines and treatments have been peddled throughout human history. Theatrical performances were given to enhance the credibility of purported medicines. Even where no fraud was intended, quack remedies often contained no effective ingredients whatsoever, some remedies contained substances such as opium, alcohol and honey, which would have given symptomatic relief but had no curative properties. Some would have addictive qualities to entice the buyer to return, the few effective remedies sold by quacks included emetics, laxatives and diuretics. However, knowledge of appropriate uses and dosages was limited, R. W. Donnell coined the phrase quackademic medicine to describe this attention given to alternative medicine by academia. Referring to the Flexner Report, he said that medical education needs a good Flexnerian housecleaning, for example, David Gorski criticized Brian M. Daffys Elixir and Turlingtons Balsam were among the first products that used branding and mass marketing to create and maintain markets. A similar process occurred in countries of Europe around the same time, for example with the marketing of Eau de Cologne as a cure-all medicine by Johann Maria Farina. The number of internationally marketed quack medicines increased in the later 18th century, by 1830, British parliamentary records list over 1,300 different proprietary medicines, the majority of which were quack cures by modern standards. A Dutch organisation that opposes quackery, Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij was founded in 1881 and it has published its magazine Nederlands Tijdschrift tegen de Kwakzalverij ever since. In these early years the VtdK played a part in the professionalisation of medicine and its efforts in the public debate helped to make the Netherlands one of the first countries with governmental drug regulation. In 1909, in an attempt to stop the sale of quack medicines and this publication was originally a series of articles published in the British Medical Journal between 1904 and 1909. The publication was composed of 20 chapters, organising the work by sections according to the ailments the medicines claimed to treat, the book did lead to the end of some of the quack cures, but some survived the book by several decades
5.
History of alternative medicine
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It includes the histories of complementary medicine and of integrative medicine. Examples are Traditional Chinese medicine and the Ayurvedic medicine of India, homeopathy was developed prior to discovery of the basic principles of chemistry, which proved homeopathic remedies contained nothing but water. Practices such as chiropractic and osteopathic, each considered to be irregular by the establishment, also opposed each other. The description of non-conventional medicine as alternative reinforces both its marginality and the centrality of official medicine, in countries such as India and China traditional systems of medicine, in conjunction with Western biomedical science, may be considered conventional and mainstream. This would introduce a new line of division based upon medical validity, prior to the nineteenth century European medical training and practice was ostensibly self-regulated through a variety of antique corporations, guilds or colleges. Among regular practitioners, university trained physicians formed a medical elite while provincial surgeons and apothecaries, in Old Regime France, licenses for medical practitioners were granted by the medical faculties of the major universities, such as the Paris Faculty of Medicine. Access was restricted and successful candidates, amongst other requirements, had to pass examinations, in the Austrian Empire medical licences were granted by the Universities of Prague and Vienna. Amongst the German states the top physicians were academically qualified and typically attached to medical colleges associated with the royal court, outside of these formal medical structures there were myriad other medical practitioners, often termed irregulars, plying a range of services and goods. In the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries regular and irregular medical practitioners became more clearly differentiated throughout much of Europe, in part, this was achieved through processes of state-sanctioned medical regulation. The different types of regulatory medical markets created across nineteenth-century Europe, where states had traditionally enjoyed strong, centralised power, such as in the German states, government more easily assumed control of the medical regulation. This process was complicated in Britain by the enduring existence of the historical medical colleges. A similar process is observable in America from the 1870s but this was facilitated by the absence of medical corporations, throughout the nineteenth century, however, most Western states converged in the creation of legally delimited and semi-protected medical markets. While offering state protection to licensed doctors and establishing a monopoly in principal it did not, however. The variety of medical systems which developed during this period can be approximately categorised according to the form of treatment advocated. Non-conventional medicine might define health in terms of concepts of balance, mesmerism is the medical system proposed in the late eighteenth century by the Viennese-trained physician, Franz Anton Mesmer, for whom it is named. Animal magnetism was but one of series of postulated subtle fluids and substances, such as caloric, phlogiston, magnetism, and electricity, which then suffused the scientific literature. It also reflected Mesmers doctoral thesis, De Planatarum Influxu, which had investigated the impact of the effect of planetary movements on fluid-filled bodily tissues. His focus on magnetism and the potential of magnets was derived from his reading of Paracelsus, Athanasius Kircher
6.
History of medicine
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The history of medicine, as practiced by trained professionals, shows how societies have changed in their approach to illness and disease from ancient times to the present. Early medical traditions include those of Babylon, China, Egypt, Greece, Rest of Africa, the Greeks introduced the concepts of medical diagnosis, prognosis, and advanced medical ethics. The Hippocratic Oath, still taken by doctors up to today, was written in Greece in the 5th century BCE, in the medieval age, surgical practices inherited from the ancient masters were improved and then systematized in Rogeriuss The Practice of Surgery. Universities began systematic training of physicians around the years 1220 in Italy, during the Renaissance, understanding of anatomy improved, and the microscope was invented. The germ theory of disease in the 19th century led to cures for many infectious diseases, military doctors advanced the methods of trauma treatment and surgery. Public health measures were developed especially in the 19th century as the growth of cities required systematic sanitary measures. Advanced research centers opened in the early 20th century, often connected with major hospitals, the mid-20th century was characterized by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics. These advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, Medicine was heavily professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened to women as nurses and as physicians. The 21st century is characterized by highly advanced research involving numerous fields of science, although there is no record to establish when plants were first used for medicinal purposes, the use of plants as healing agents, as well as clays and soils is ancient. Over time through emulation of the behavior of fauna a medicinal knowledge base developed and passed between generations, as tribal culture specialized specific castes, shamans and apothecaries fulfilled the role of healer. The first known dentistry dates to about 7,000 B. C. E. in Baluchistan, the first known trepanning operation was carried out about 5,000 B. C. E. in Ensisheim, France. The earliest known surgery, an amputation was carried out about 4,900 B. C. E. in Buthiers-Bulancourt, Ancient Egypt developed a large, varied and fruitful medical tradition. Herodotus described the Egyptians as the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans, because of the dry climate, according to him, the practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more. Although Egyptian medicine, to an extent, dealt with the supernatural, it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public health. Medical information in the Edwin Smith Papyrus may date to a time as early as 3000 BC, the Edwin Smith Papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written c.1600 BC. It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of magical thinking and describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment. The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus treats womens complaints, including problems with conception, thirty four cases detailing diagnosis and treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily. Dating to 1800 BCE, it is the oldest surviving text of any kind
7.
Pseudoscience
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Pseudoscience consists of claims, beliefs, or practices presented as being plausible scientifically, but which are not justifiable by the scientific method. The term pseudoscience is often considered pejorative because it suggests something is being presented as science inaccurately or even deceptively, accordingly, those termed as practicing or advocating pseudoscience often dispute the characterization. The demarcation between science and pseudoscience has philosophical and scientific implications, differentiating science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of health care, expert testimony, environmental policies, and science education. The word pseudoscience is derived from the Greek root pseudo meaning false and the English word science, an earlier recorded use of the term was during 1843 by the French physiologist François Magendie. From time to time, though, the usage of the word occurred in a formal, technical manner around a perceived threat to individual and institutional security in a social and cultural setting. A number of principles are accepted by scientists as standards for determining whether a body of knowledge, method. Experimental results should be reproducible and verified by other researchers, statistical quantification of significance, confidence, and error are also important tools for the scientific method. During the mid-20th century, Karl Popper emphasized the criterion of falsifiability to distinguish science from nonscience, falsifiability means a result can be disproved. For example, a statement such as God exists may be true or false, Popper used astrology and psychoanalysis as examples of pseudoscience and Einsteins theory of relativity as an example of science. The point is made there is no physical test to refute the claim of the presence of this dragon. No matter what test you think you can devise, there is then a reason why this does not apply to the invisible dragon, sagan concludes, Now, whats the difference between an invisible, incorporeal, floating dragon who spits heatless fire and no dragon at all. During 1942, Robert K. Merton identified a set of five norms which he characterized as what makes a real science, If any of the norms were violated, Merton considered the enterprise to be nonscience. These are not broadly accepted by the scientific community and his norms were, Originality, The tests and research done must present something new to the scientific community. Detachment, The scientists reasons for practicing this science must be simply for the expansion of their knowledge, the scientists should not have personal reasons to expect certain results. Universality, No person should be able to easily obtain the information of a test than another person. Social class, religion, ethnicity, or any other factors should not be factors in someones ability to receive or perform a type of science. Skepticism, Scientific facts must not be based on faith, one should always question every case and argument and constantly check for errors or invalid claims. Public accessibility, Any scientific knowledge one obtains should be available to everyone
8.
Pseudomedicine
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Acupuncture – is a form of alternative medicine in which thin needles are inserted into the body. It is a key component of traditional Chinese medicine, chiropractic – a system of medicine based on beliefs of Daniel David Palmer, who proposed that the spine and musculature underpin all aspects of human health. Naturopathy – a system of medicine based on vitalism and so-called natural treatments that incorporates modalities found in branches of alternative medicine. Reiki – a pseudoscience based on the manipulation of qi, which practitioners say is a life force. Rife machine treatment – treatment using a device purported to cure cancer by transmitting radio waves. Pseudoscience List of forms of alternative medicine
9.
Skeptical movement
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The skeptical movement is a modern social movement promoting the idea of scientific skepticism. The process followed is referred to as skeptical inquiry. Medical quackery was also targeted by such as the Dutch Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij. The Belgian Comité Para has been deemed the oldest broad mandate skeptical organization, using that organization as a template, in 1976, Paul Kurtz and Marcello Truzzi founded the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry in Amherst, New York. The North American skeptical organization, which provides journals and publications, Scientific skepticism is different from philosophical skepticism, which questions our ability to claim any knowledge about the nature of the world and how we perceive it. Methodological skepticism, a process of being skeptical about the truth of ones beliefs, is similar. The New Skepticism described by Paul Kurtz is scientific skepticism, for example, Robert K. Merton asserts that all ideas must be tested and are subject to rigorous, structured community scrutiny. According to Hammer, the forebears of the modern skeptical movement are rather to be found among the many writers throughout history who have argued against beliefs they did not share. Skepticism values method over any particular conclusion, Skepticism is a provisional approach to claims. It is the application of reason to any and all ideas—no sacred cows allowed, in other words, skepticism is a method, not a position. With regard to the social movement, Loxton refers to other movements already promoting humanism, atheism, rationalism, science education. He saw the demand for the new movement of people called skeptics — being based on a lack of interest by the scientific community to address paranormal. In line with Kendrick Frazier, he describes the movement as a surrogate in that area for institutional science, the movement in so far set up a distinct field of study and provided an organizational structure, while long-standing genre of individual skeptical activities lacked such a community and background. However, skeptical organizations do typically tend to have education and promotion among their goals. Scientific skeptics maintain that empirical investigation of reality leads to the truth, Scientific skeptics attempt to evaluate claims based on verifiability and falsifiability and discourage accepting claims on faith or anecdotal evidence. Skeptics often focus their criticism on claims they consider to be implausible, Skepticism in general may be deemed part of the scientific method, for instance an experimental result is not regarded as established until it can be shown to be repeatable independently. Some leaders of the movement, including Harris, Hitchens, Dawkins, the movement has had issues with sexism. It was raised in a 1985 skeptic newsletter by Mary Coulman and this became known as Elevatorgate, based on Watsons discussion about being propositioned in a hotel elevator in the early morning after a skeptic event
10.
Acupressure
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Acupressure is an alternative medicine technique similar in principle to acupuncture. It is based on the concept of energy which flows through meridians in the body. In treatment, physical pressure is applied to points with the aim of clearing blockages in these meridians. Pressure may be applied by hand, by elbow, or with various devices, like many alternative medicines, it may benefit from a placebo effect. According to Quackwatch, acupressure is a practice and its practitioners use irrational methods. Acupoints used in treatment may or may not be in the area of the body as the targeted symptom. Many East Asian martial arts also make extensive study and use of acupressure for self-defense, the points or combinations of points are said to be used to manipulate or incapacitate an opponent. The authors of this systematic review concluded that this review of trials from the past decade did not provide rigorous support for the efficacy of acupressure for symptom management. Well-designed, randomized controlled studies are needed to determine the utility, the Cochrane Collaboration reviewed the use of P6 for nausea and vomiting, and found it to be effective for reducing post-operative nausea, but not vomiting. EBM reviewer Bandolier said that P6 in two studies showed 52% of patients with control having a success, compared with 75% with P6, clinical use of acupressure frequently relies on the conceptual framework of traditional Chinese medicine. There is no physically verifiable anatomical or histological basis for the existence of points or meridians. Proponents reply that TCM is a system that continues to have practical relevance. Acupuncturists tend to perceive TCM concepts in functional rather than structural terms, any benefit from acupressure may derive from the placebo effect. There are several different instruments for applying nonspecific pressure by rubbing, rolling, the acuball is a small ball made of rubber with protuberances that is heatable. It is used to pressure and relieve muscle and joint pain. The energy roller is a cylinder with protuberances. It is held between the hands and rolled back and forth to apply acupressure, the foot roller is a round, cylindrical roller with protuberances. It is placed on the floor and the foot is rolled back, the power mat is a mat with small pyramid-shaped bumps that you walk on
11.
Anthroposophic medicine
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Anthroposophic medicine is a form of alternative medicine. Devised in the 1920s by Rudolf Steiner in conjunction with Ita Wegman, anthroposophical medicine is based on occult notions and draws on Steiners spiritual philosophy, practitioners employ a variety of treatment techniques based upon anthroposophic precepts, including massage, exercise, counselling, and substances. Many drug preparations used in medicine are ultra-diluted substances, similar to those used in homeopathy. Homeopathic remedies are not medically effective and are considered harmless, except when used as a substitute for a scientifically proven. In certain European countries, people with cancer are sometimes prescribed remedies made from specially harvested mistletoe, some anthroposophic doctors oppose childhood vaccination, and this has led to preventable outbreaks of disease. Professor of complementary medicine Edzard Ernst and other critics have characterized anthroposophic medicine as having no basis in science, pseudoscientific, Anthroposophic medicine departs from fundamental biological principles in several respects. For example, it claims that the heart does not pump blood, Anthroposophic medicine also proposes that a patients past lives may influence their illness and that the course of an illness is subject to karmic destiny. In 1921, Ita Wegman opened the first anthroposophic medical clinic, now known as the Klinik Arlesheim, in Arlesheim, Wegman was soon joined by a number of other doctors. They then began to train the first anthroposophic nurses for the clinic, at Wegmans request, Steiner regularly visited the clinic and suggested treatment regimes for particular patients. Between 1920 and 1925, he gave several series of lectures on medicine. In 1925, Wegman and Steiner wrote the first book on the approach to medicine. The clinic expanded and soon opened a branch in Ascona, Wegman lectured widely, visiting the Netherlands and England particularly frequently, and an increasing number of doctors began to include the anthroposophic approach in their practices. A cancer clinic, the Lukas Clinic, opened in Arlesheim in 1963, the press described the appointment as a death sentence and the perception that pseudoscience was being taught damaged the universitys reputation, bringing it close to financial collapse. It was ultimately saved by an injection from Software AG. In 2006, anthroposophical medicine was practised in 80 countries.5 million of endowment, Edzard Ernst commented that any decent university should even consider an anthroposophical medicine unit seems incomprehensible. The fact that it would be backed by people who have a financial interest in this approach makes it even worse. The Universitys governance and nominations committee eventually decided not to proceed with the appointment, the categorization of anthroposophical medicine is complex since in part it complements conventional medicine, and in part it substitutes for it. In 2008, Ernst wrote that it was being promoted as an extension to conventional medicine, on this basis, Steiner proposed associations between four postulated dimensions of the human body, plants, minerals, and the cosmos
12.
Animal magnetism
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He believed that the force could have physical effects, including healing. He tried persistently but without success to achieve recognition of his theories. The theory attracted numerous followers in Europe and the United States and was popular into the 19th century, practitioners were often known as magnetizers, rather than mesmerists. For about 75 years from its beginnings in 1779 it was an important specialty in medicine, hundreds of books were written on the subject between 1766 and 1925. Today it is almost entirely forgotten, the terms magnetizer and mesmerizer have been applied to people who study and practice animal magnetism. The magnetiser and the hypnotist is, the first uses animal magnetism, the etymology of the word magnetizer comes from the French magnetiseur, which in turn is derived from the French verb magnetiser. The term refers to an individual who has the power to manipulate the magnetic fluid with effects upon other people present that were regarded as analogous to magnetic effects. This sense of the term is found, for example, in the expression of Antoine Joseph Gorsas, at the time, some magnetizers attempted to channel what they thought was a magnetic fluid, and sometimes they attempted this with a laying on of hands. Reported effects included various feelings, intense heat, trembling, trances, many practitioners took a scientific approach, such as Joseph Philippe François Deleuze, a French physician, anatomist, gynecologist, and physicist. One of his pupils was Théodore Léger, who wrote that the label mesmerism was most improper, the commission included Majault, Benjamin Franklin, Jean Sylvain Bailly, J. B. Le Roy, Sallin, Jean Darcet, de Borey, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, Antoine Lavoisier, Poissonnier, Caille, Mauduyt de la Varenne, Andry, and de Jussieu. The report says, Among the conclusions were, Abbé Faria was one of the disciples of Franz Anton Mesmer who continued with Mesmers work following the conclusions of the Royal Commission. Hypnotism, a designation coined by the Scottish surgeon, James Braid, originates in Braids the response to an exhibition of animal magnetism, by Charles Lafontaine, in Manchester. The purpose of the treatment was to shock the body into convulsion in order to remove obstructions in the system that were causing sicknesses. A patient under crisis was believed to be able to see through the body and find the cause of illness, the Marquis of Puységurs miraculous healing of a young man named Victor in 1784 was attributed to, and used as evidence in support of, this crisis treatment. The Marquis was allegedly able to hypnotize Victor and, while hypnotized, Victor was said to have been able to speak articulately, jacob Melo discusses in his books some mechanisms by which the perceived effects of animal magnetism have been claimed to operate. The study of animal magnetism spurred the creation of the Societies of Harmony in France, doctor John Bell was a member of the Philosophical Harmonic Society of Paris, and was certified by the society to lecture and teach on animal magnetism in England. Popularization of animal magnetism was denounced and ridiculed by newspaper journals, many deemed animal magnetism to be nothing more than a theatrical falsity or quackery. ”The novelist and playwrighter Elizabeth Inchbald wrote the farce Animal Magnetism in the late 1780s
13.
Naturopathy
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Naturopathy or naturopathic medicine is a form of pseudoscientific, alternative medicine that employs an array of practices branded as natural, non-invasive, and as promoting self-healing. The ideology and methods of naturopathy are based on vitalism and self-healing, Naturopathic practitioners generally recommend against modern medical practices, including but not limited to medical testing, drugs, vaccinations, and surgery. Instead, study and practice are focused on unscientific notions, often leading naturaphic doctors to diagnoses, Naturopathic medicine is considered by the medical profession to be ineffective and possibly harmful, raising ethical issues about its practice. Over the years, many practitioners of medicine have been found criminally liable in the courts of law around the world. In some countries, it is an offense for naturopaths. Naturopathic doctors are actively pushing for recognition in the U. S. The term naturopathy was created from natura and pathos to suggest natural healing, naturopaths claim the ancient Greek Father of Medicine, Hippocrates, as the first advocate of naturopathic medicine, before the term existed. Naturopathy has its roots in the 19th-century Natural Cure movement of Europe, in Scotland, Thomas Allinson started advocating his Hygienic Medicine in the 1880s, promoting a natural diet and exercise with avoidance of tobacco and overwork. The term naturopathy was coined in 1895 by John Scheel, and purchased by Benedict Lust, Lust had been schooled in hydrotherapy and other natural health practices in Germany by Father Sebastian Kneipp, Kneipp sent Lust to the United States to spread his drugless methods. He described the body in spiritual and vitalistic terms with absolute reliance upon the forces of mans nature. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the first known use of naturopathy in print is from 1901, from 1901, Lust founded the American School of Naturopathy in New York. In 1902, the original North American Kneipp Societies were discontinued and renamed Naturopathic Societies, in September 1919, the Naturopathic Society of America was dissolved and Benedict Lust founded the American Naturopathic Association to supplant it. Naturopaths became licensed under naturopathic or drugless practitioner laws in 25 states in the first three decades of the twentieth century, Naturopathy was adopted by many chiropractors, and several schools offered both Doctor of Naturopathy and Doctor of Chiropractic degrees. Estimates of the number of naturopathic schools active in the United States during this period vary from one to two dozen. After a period of growth, naturopathy went into decline for several decades after the 1930s. In 1910, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching published the Flexner Report, the advent of penicillin and other miracle drugs and the consequent popularity of modern medicine also contributed to naturopathys decline. In the 1940s and 1950s, a broadening in scope of practice laws led many chiropractic schools to drop their ND degrees, from 1940 to 1963, the American Medical Association campaigned against heterodox medical systems. By 1958, practice of naturopathy was licensed in five states
14.
Orgone
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Orgone is a pseudoscientific and spiritual concept described as an esoteric energy or hypothetical universal life force, originally proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich. Orgone was seen as a massless, omnipresent substance, similar to luminiferous aether and it could allegedly coalesce to create organization on all scales, from the smallest microscopic units—called bions in orgone theory—to macroscopic structures like organisms, clouds, or even galaxies. Reich stated that deficits or constrictions in bodily orgone were at the root of many diseases, Reich designed special orgone accumulators—devices ostensibly collecting and storing orgone energy from the environment—for improvement of general health or even for weather control. Ultimately, the U. S. Reich rescinded the claim that accumulator could provide orgastic potency, the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health lists orgone as a type of putative energy. There is no support for the concept of orgone in medicine or the physical sciences. The concept of orgone belongs to Reichs later work, after he immigrated to the US and he was expelled from the Institute of Psycho-analysis because of these disagreements over the nature of the libido and his increasingly political stance. He was forced to leave Germany very soon after Hitler came to power, Reich took an increasingly bioenergetic view of libido, perhaps influenced by his tutor Paul Kammerer and another biologist, Otto Heinrich Warburg. As a psycho-analyst Reich aligned such theories with the Freudian libido and he wrote in his best known book, The Function of the Orgasm, Between 1919 and 1921, I became familiar with Drieschs Philosophie des Organischen and his Ordnungslehre. Drieschs contention seemed incontestable to me and he argued that, in the sphere of the life function, the whole could be developed from a part, whereas a machine could not be made from a screw. However, I couldnt quite accept the transcendentalism of the life principle, seventeen years later I was able to resolve the contradiction on the basis of a formula pertaining to the function of energy. Drieschs theory was always present in my mind when I thought about vitalism, the vague feeling I had about the irrational nature of his assumption turned out to be justified in the end. The concept of orgone was the result of work in the psycho-physiology of libido. After his migration to the US, Reich began to speculate about biological development and evolution and this led him to the conception of bions, self-luminescent sub-cellular vesicles that he believed were observable in decaying materials, and presumably present universally. Orgone was closely associated with sexuality, Reich, following Freud, the term itself was chosen to share a root with the word orgasm, which both Reich and Freud took to be a fundamental expression of psychological health. In at least some cases, Reichs experimental techniques do not appear to have been very careful, Reich was concerned with experimental verification from other scientists. Through these experiments I regard the matter as completely solved, he wrote to Reich on 7 February 1941, upon further correspondence from Reich, Einstein replied that he could not devote any further time to the matter and asked that his name not be misused for advertising purposes. Orgone and its concepts were quickly denounced in the post-World War II American press. He was, as the New York Times later put it, the psychoanalytical community of the time saw his approach to healing diseases as quackery of the worst sort, partly because of his comments about UFOs
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Parapsychology
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It is identified as pseudoscience by the overwhelming majority of mainstream scientists. Parapsychology research is conducted by private institutions in several countries and funded through private donations. Most papers about parapsychology are published in a number of niche journals. Parapsychology has been criticised for continuing investigation despite being unable to provide convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomena after more than a century of research and it has been noted that most academics do not take the claims of parapsychology seriously. Para is from Greek, and means beside, closely related to, the term parapsychology was coined in or around 1889 by philosopher Max Dessoir. Rhine in the 1930s as a replacement for the psychical research in order to indicate a significant shift toward experimental methodology. The term originates from the Greek, παρά para meaning alongside, in parapsychology, psi is the unknown factor in extrasensory perception and psychokinesis experiences that is not explained by known physical or biological mechanisms. The term is derived from the Greek ψ psi, 23rd letter of the Greek alphabet, the term was coined by biologist Berthold P. Wiesner, and first used by psychologist Robert Thouless in a 1942 article published in the British Journal of Psychology. The Parapsychological Association divides psi into two categories, psi-gamma for extrasensory perception and psi-kappa for psychokinesis. In popular culture, psi has become more and more synonymous with special psychic, mental, in 1853, the chemist Robert Hare conducted experiments with mediums and reported positive results. Other researchers such as Frank Podmore highlighted flaws in his experiments, agenor de Gasparin conducted early experiments into table-tipping. Over a period of five months in 1853 he declared the experiments a success being the result of an ectenic force, critics noted that the conditions were insufficient to prevent trickery. For example the knees of the sitters may have been employed to move the table and no experimenter was watching above, the German astrophysicist Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner tested the medium Henry Slade in 1877. According to Zöllner some of the experiments were a success, however, flaws in the experiments were discovered and critics have suggested that Slade was a fraud who performed trickery in the experiments. The Society for Psychical Research was founded in London in 1882 and its formation was the first systematic effort to organize scientists and scholars to investigate paranormal phenomena. Early membership included philosophers, scholars, scientists, educators and politicians, such as Henry Sidgwick, Arthur Balfour, William Crookes, Rufus Osgood Mason and Nobel Laureate Charles Richet. Presidents of the Society included, in addition to Richet, Eleanor Sidgwick and William James, and subsequently Nobel Laureates Henri Bergson and Lord Rayleigh, and philosopher C. D. Broad. Areas of study included telepathy, hypnotism, Reichenbachs phenomena, apparitions, hauntings, in the 1880s the Society investigated apparitional experiences and hallucinations in the sane
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Phrenology
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Although both of those ideas have a basis in reality, phrenology extrapolated beyond empirical knowledge in a way that departed from science. Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796, the discipline was very popular in the 19th century, the principal British centre for phrenology was Edinburgh, where the Edinburgh Phrenological Society was established in 1820. Although now regarded as an amalgamation of primitive neuroanatomy with moral philosophy. Galls assumption that character, thoughts, and emotions are located in parts of the brain is considered an important historical advance toward neuropsychology. Phrenologists believe that the mind has a set of various mental faculties. For example, the faculty of philoprogenitiveness, from the Greek for love of offspring, was located centrally at the back of the head and these areas were said to be proportional to a persons propensities. The importance of an organ was derived from relative size compared to other organs, Phrenology, which focuses on personality and character, is distinct from craniometry, which is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and physiognomy, the study of facial features. Phrenology is a process involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individuals psychological attributes. Franz Joseph Gall believed that the brain was made up of 27 individual organs that determined personality, phrenologists would run their fingertips and palms over the skulls of their patients to feel for enlargements or indentations. The phrenologist would often take measurements with a measure of the overall head size and more rarely employ a craniometer. In general, instruments to measure sizes of cranium continued to be used after the mainstream phrenology had ended, the phrenologists put emphasis on using drawings of individuals with particular traits, to determine the character of the person and thus many phrenology books show pictures of subjects. From absolute and relative sizes of the skull the phrenologist would assess the character, Galls list of the brain organs was specific. An enlarged organ meant that the patient used that particular organ extensively, the number – and more detailed meanings – of organs were added later by other phrenologists. The 27 areas varied in function, from sense of color, to religiosity, each of the 27 brain organs was located under a specific area of the skull. As a phrenologist felt the skull, he would use his knowledge of the shapes of heads and organ positions to determine the overall natural strengths, phrenologists believed the head revealed natural tendencies but not absolute limitations or strengths of character. The first phrenological chart gave the names of the described by Gall, it was a single sheet. His work was translated into English and published in 1832 as The Pocket Lavater, or and he believed that thoughts of the mind and passions of the soul were connected with an individuals external frame. “Of the forehead, When the forehead is perfectly perpendicular, from the hair to the eyebrows and it was Galls collaborator Johann Gaspar Spurzheim who would popularize the term phrenology
17.
Radionics
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Radionics is an alternative medicine that claims disease can be diagnosed and treated with a kind of energy similar to radio waves. The concept behind radionics originated in the early 1900s with Albert Abrams, radionics contradicts some principles of physics and biology and, as such, is widely considered pseudoscientific. The United States Food and Drug Administration does not recognize any medical uses for radionic devices. Radionic devices purport to diagnose and heal by applying appropriate frequencies to balance the discordant frequencies of sickness, radionics uses frequency not in its standard meaning but to describe an imputed energy type, which does not correspond to any property of energy in the scientific sense. By tapping on his abdomen and searching for areas of dullness, handwriting analysis is also used to diagnose disease under this scheme. Having done this, the practitioner may use a device known as an oscilloclast or any of a range of other devices to broadcast vibrations at the patient in order to attempt to heal them. He developed thirteen devices and became a millionaire leasing his devices, and his devices were definitively proven useless by an independent investigation commissioned by Scientific American in 1924. Other notable quack devices in radionics have included the Ionaco and the Hieronymus machine, indeed, Abrams black boxes had no purpose of their own, being merely obfuscated collections of wires and electronic parts. Radionics plays an important part in the plot of the novel A Far Cry from Kensington by Muriel Spark, radiesthesia is the claimed paranormal or parapsychological ability to detect radiation within the human body. According to the theory, all human bodies give off unique or characteristic radiations as do all other bodies or objects. Such radiations are often termed an aura, a practitioner of radiesthesia claims to detect the interplay of these radiations. Thus radiesthesia is cited as the explanation of phenomena as dowsing by rods and pendulums in order to locate buried substances, diagnose illnesses. Radiesthesia has been described as a mixture of occultism and pseudoscience by critics, the claims for radionic devices contradict the accepted principles of biology and physics. No scientifically verifiable mechanisms of function for these devices has been posited, no plausible biophysical basis for the putative energy fields has been proposed, and neither the fields themselves nor their purported therapeutic effects have been convincingly demonstrated. No radionic device has been found efficacious in the diagnosis or treatment of any disease, according to David Helwig in The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine, most physicians dismiss radionics as quackery. Internally, a device is very simple, and may not even form a functional electrical circuit. The wiring in the device is simply used as a mystical conduit. A radionic device does not use or need electric power, though a power cord may be provided, typically, little attempt is made to define or describe what, if anything, is flowing along the wires and being measured
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Water fluoridation controversy
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The water fluoridation controversy arises from political, moral, ethical, economic, and safety concerns regarding the fluoridation of public water supplies. Public health authorities throughout the world find a consensus that water fluoridation at appropriate levels is a safe. Those opposed argue that water fluoridation has no or little cariostatic benefits, may cause health problems, is not effective enough to justify the costs. Water fluoridation pits the common good against individual rights, some say the common good overrides individual rights, and equate it to vaccination and food fortification. Opposition to fluoridation has existed since its initiation in the 1940s, during the 1950s and 1960s, conspiracy theorists claimed that fluoridation was a communist plot to undermine American public health. Organized political opposition has come from libertarians, the John Birch Society, proponents and opponents have been both criticized for overstating the benefits or overstating the risks, and understating the other, respectively. Systematic reviews have cited the lack of quality research for the benefits and risks of water fluoridation. Researchers who oppose the state this as well. According to a 2013 Congressional Research Service report on fluoride in drinking water, Public water fluoridation was first practiced in 1945, in the US. As of 2012,25 countries have water fluoridation to varying degrees,11 of them have more than 50% of their population drinking fluoridated water. A further 28 countries have water that is naturally fluoridated, though in many of them the fluoride is above the safe level. As of 2012 about 435 million people worldwide received water fluoridated at the recommended level, national and international health agencies and dental associations throughout the world have endorsed water fluoridation as safe and effective. The views on the most effective method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed, the Australian government states that water fluoridation is the most effective means of achieving fluoride exposure that is community-wide. FDI World Dental Federation supports water fluoridation as safe and effective, the European Academy of Paediatric Dentistry, and the national dental associations of Australia, Canada, and the U. S. S.5 mg/L. In Israel, the Israeli Association of Public Health Physicians, the Israel Pediatric Association, proponents and opponents have been both criticized for overstating the benefits or overstating the risks, and understating the other, respectively. Systematic reviews have cited the lack of quality research for the benefits and risks of water fluoridation. A2007 Nuffield Council on Bioethics report concluded that evidence for or against water fluoridation is lacking. Researchers who oppose the state this as well
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Vaccine controversies
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Vaccine controversies have occurred since almost 80 years before the terms vaccine and vaccination were introduced, and continue to this day. Opponents question the effectiveness, safety, and necessity of recommended vaccines and they also argue that mandatory vaccinations violate individual rights to medical decisions and religious principles. These arguments have reduced vaccination rates in communities, resulting in outbreaks. Evidence surrounding vaccination shows that prevented suffering and death from infectious diseases outweigh any adverse effects, immunization programs depend on public confidence to be effective. A modern and notable example involved Andrew Wakefields discredited claims of MMR vaccines causing autism, Public reaction has contributed to a significant increase in preventable diseases, notably measles. In 2011 the vaccine-autism connection was described as perhaps, the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years, early attempts to prevent smallpox involved deliberate inoculation of the disease in hopes that a mild result would confer immunity. Originally called inoculation, this technique was later called variolation to avoid confusion with cowpox inoculation when that was introduced by Edward Jenner, although variolation had a long history in China and India, it was first used in North America and England in 1721. Reverend Cotton Mather introduced variolation to Boston, Massachusetts, during the 1721 smallpox epidemic, despite strong opposition in the community, Mather convinced Dr. Zabdiel Boylston to try it. Boylston went on to variolate thousands of Massachusetts residents, and many places were named for him in gratitude as a result, lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced variolation to England. She had seen it used in Turkey and, in 1718, had her son successfully variolated in Constantinople under the supervision of Dr. Charles Maitland, when she returned to England in 1721, she had her daughter variolated by Maitland. This aroused considerable interest, and Sir Hans Sloane organized the variolation of some inmates in Newgate Prison and these were successful, and after a further short trial in 1722, two daughters of Caroline of Ansbach Princess of Wales were variolated without mishap. With this royal approval, the procedure became common when smallpox epidemics threatened, religious arguments against inoculation were soon advanced. It was customary at the time for popular preachers to publish sermons and this was the case with Massey, whose sermon reached North America, where there was early religious opposition, particularly by John Williams. A greater source of opposition there was Dr. William Douglass, a graduate of Edinburgh University and a Fellow of the Royal Society. After Edward Jenner introduced the smallpox vaccine in 1798, variolation declined and was banned in some countries and these included Reverend Robert Ferryman, a friend of Jenners, and Rowland Hill. There was also opposition from some variolators who saw the loss of a lucrative monopoly, the reason for this was that vaccination was introduced before laboratory methods were developed to control its production and account for its failures. Vaccine was maintained initially through arm-to-arm transfer and later through production on the skin of animals, further, identification methods for potential pathogens were not available until the late 19th to early 20th century. Diseases later shown to be caused by contaminated vaccine included erysipelas, tuberculosis, tetanus and this last, though rare—estimated at 750 cases in 100 million vaccinations—attracted particular attention
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Chemtrail conspiracy theory
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Believers in the theory argue that normal contrails dissipate relatively quickly and that contrails that do not dissipate must contain additional substances. These arguments have been dismissed by the community, such trails are normal water-based contrails that are routinely left by high-flying aircraft under certain atmospheric conditions. Although proponents have attempted to prove that the claimed chemical spraying does take place, the term chemtrail is a portmanteau of the words chemical and trail, as contrail is of condensation and trail. Chemtrail conspiracy theories began to circulate after the United States Air Force published a 1996 report about weather modification, following the report, in the late 1990s The USAF was accused of spraying the U. S. population with mysterious substances from aircraft generating unusual contrail patterns. The theories were posted on Internet forums posted by people like Richard Finke and William Thomas, they were discussed by late-night radio host Art Bell. As the chemtrail conspiracy theory spread, federal officials were flooded with angry calls, many chemtrail believers interpreted agency fact sheets as further evidence of the existence of a government cover-up. The EPA refreshed its posting in 2015, additionally, the USAF states that the Chemtrail hoax has been investigated and refuted by many established and accredited universities, scientific organizations, and major media publications. Photographs of barrels installed in the space of an aircraft for flight test purposes have been claimed to show aerosol dispersion systems. The real purpose of the barrels is to simulate the weight of passengers or cargo, the barrels are filled with water, and the water can be pumped from barrel to barrel in order to test different centers of gravity while the aircraft is in flight. Jim Marrs has cited a 2007 Louisiana television station report as evidence for chemtrails, a subsequent analysis of the footage showed, however, that the equipment had been misused, and the reading exaggerated by a factor of 100—the true level of barium measured was both usual and safe. In May 2014 a video went viral showed a commercial passenger airplane landing on a foggy night. The clip went viral on Facebook, with nearly 3 million views and over 47,000 shares, in some accounts, the chemicals are described as barium and aluminum salts, polymer fibers, thorium, or silicon carbide. Chemtrail believers interpret the existence of cloud seeding programs and research into climate engineering as evidence for the conspiracy, various versions of the chemtrail conspiracy theory have been propagated via the Internet and radio programs. There are websites dedicated to the theory, and it is particularly favored by right-wing groups because it fits well with deep suspicion of government. In a 2011 study of people from the US, Canada, and the UK,2. 6% of the sample entirely believed in the conspiracy theory, and 14% believed it partially. For example, they often attend events and conferences on geoengineering, proponents have interpreted this explicit reference to chemtrails as official government acknowledgment of their existence. Skeptics note that the bill in question also mentions extraterrestrial weapons and environmental, climate, the term chemtrails is a popularised expression, and there is no scientific evidence to support their existence. The house leader went on to say that it is our belief that the petitioners are seeing regular airplane condensation trails, contrails, or condensation trails, are streaks of condensed water vapor created in the air by an airplane or rocket at high altitudes
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Traditional medicine
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Traditional medicine comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their health care needs. When adopted outside of its culture, traditional medicine is often called alternative medicine. Core disciplines which study traditional medicine include herbalism, ethnomedicine, ethnobotany, the line between alternative medicine and quackery is a contentious subject. Traditional medicine may include formalized aspects of medicine, that is to say longstanding remedies passed on. Folk medicine may also be referred to as traditional medicine, alternative medicine, indigenous medicine and these terms are often considered interchangeable, even though some authors may prefer one or the other because of certain overtones they may wish to highlight. Similarly, a remedy is a treatment to cure a disease or ailment that employs certain spices, vegetables. Home remedies may or may not have medicinal properties that treat or cure the disease or ailment in question, in the written record, the study of herbs dates back 5,000 years to the ancient Sumerians, who described well-established medicinal uses for plants. In Ancient Egyptian medicine, the Ebers papyrus from c.1552 BC records a list of folk remedies, the Old Testament also mentions herb use and cultivation in regards to Kashrut. Many herbs and minerals used in Ayurveda were described by ancient Indian herbalists such as Charaka, Latin manuscripts of De Materia Medica were combined with a Latin herbal by Apuleius Platonicus and were incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon codex Cotton Vitellius C. III. These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian Avicenna, the Persian Rhazes, Arabic indigenous medicine developed from the conflict between the magic-based medicine of the Bedouins and the Arabic translations of the Hellenic and Ayurvedic medical traditions. Spanish indigenous medicine was influenced by the Arabs from 711 to 1492, islamic physicians and Muslim botanists such as al-Dinawari and Ibn al-Baitar significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of materia medica. The most famous Persian medical treatise was Avicennas The Canon of Medicine, the Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century and remained a medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. The Unani system of medicine is also based on the Canon. Translations of the early Roman-Greek compilations were made into German by Hieronymus Bock whose herbal, the book was translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Rembert Dodoens, and from Dutch into English by Carolus Clusius, published by Henry Lyte in 1578 as A Nievve Herball. This became John Gerards Herball or General Hiftorie of Plantes, each new work was a compilation of existing texts with new additions. Womens folk knowledge existed in undocumented parallel with these texts, forty-four drugs, diluents, flavouring agents and emollients mentioned by Dioscorides are still listed in the official pharmacopoeias of Europe. The Puritans took Gerards work to the United States where it influenced American Indigenous medicine, both Hernandez and Ximenez fitted Aztec ethnomedicinal information into the European concepts of disease such as warm, cold, and moist, but it is not clear that the Aztecs used these categories
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Ayurveda
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Ayurveda, or Ayurveda medicine, is a system of medicine with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. Globalized and modernized practices derived from Ayurveda traditions are a type of complementary or alternative medicine, in the Western world, Ayurveda therapies and practices have been integrated in general wellness applications and as well in some cases in medical use. The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of knowledge from the Gods to sages. In Sushruta Samhita, Sushruta wrote that Dhanvantari, Hindu god of Ayurveda, incarnated himself as a king of Varanasi and taught medicine to a group of physicians, Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia. Therapies are typically based on complex compounds, minerals and metal substances. Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, other researchers consider it a protoscience, or trans-science system instead. Close to 21% of Ayurveda U. S. and Indian-manufactured patent medicines sold through the Internet were found to contain levels of heavy metals, specifically lead, mercury. The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown, some scholars assert that Ayurveda originated in prehistoric times, and that some of the concepts of Ayurveda have existed from the time of the Indus Valley Civilization or even earlier. Humoral balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy, Ayurveda names three elemental substances, the doshas, and states that a balance of the doshas results in health, while imbalance results in disease. Ayurveda has eight components, which are derived from classical Sanskrit literature. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures by the medieval period, the earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medical science as being divided into eight components. This characterization of the art, the medicine that has eight components, is first found in the Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata. The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda developed in the mid-first millennium BCE, balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness. For example, to suppress sneezing is said to give rise to shoulder pain. However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance, for example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake, sleep, and sexual intercourse. Ayurveda names seven basic tissues, which are plasma, blood, muscles, fat, bone, marrow, like the medicine of classical antiquity, Ayurveda has historically divided bodily substances into five classical elements eliminates toxic elements from the body. Panchakarma includes Vamana, Virechana, Basti, Nasya and Raktamokshana and it is preceded by Poorvakarma as a preparatory step, and is followed by Paschatkarma and Peyadikarma. Based on the World Health Assembly resolution on traditional medicine, the WHO has established a traditional medicine strategy, the first previous global strategy was published in 2002 and dealt especially with herbal medicines
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Traditional African medicine
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Traditional African medicine is an alternative medicine discipline involving indigenous herbalism and African spirituality, typically involving diviners, midwives, and herbalists. Herbal medicines in Africa are generally not adequately researched, and are weakly regulated, there is a lack of the detailed documentation of the traditional knowledge, which is generally transferred orally. Serious adverse effects can result from misidentification or misuse of healing plants, the geographical reach of this article is sub-saharan Africa. Though, of course neighbouring medical traditions influenced traditional African medicine, science has, in the past, considered methods of traditional knowledge as primitive and backward. During this time, attempts were made to control the sale of herbal medicines. After Mozambique obtained independence in 1975, attempts to control traditional medicine went as far as sending diviner-healers to re-education camps, during times of conflict, opposition has been particularly vehement as people are more likely to call on the supernatural realm. Consequently, doctors and health practitioners have, in most cases, in recent years, the treatments and remedies used in traditional African medicine have gained more appreciation from researchers in science. Developing countries have begun to realize the high costs of health care systems. Due to this, interest has recently been expressed in integrating traditional African medicine into the national health care systems. However, the sophisticated technology involved in modern medicine, which is beginning to integrate into Africas health care system. In African culture, it is believed that nobody becomes sick without sufficient reason, Traditional practitioners look at the ultimate who rather than the what when locating the cause and cure of an illness, and the answers given come from the cosmological beliefs of the people. Natural causes are, in fact, not seen as natural at all, for example, sickness is sometimes said to be attributed to guilt by the person, family, or village for a sin or moral infringement. The illness, therefore, would stem from the displeasure of the gods or God, when a person falls ill, a traditional practitioner uses incantations to make a diagnosis. Incantations are thought to give the air of mystical and cosmic connections, divination is typically used if the illness is not easily identified, otherwise, the sickness may be quickly diagnosed and given a remedy. If divination is required, then the practitioner will advise the patient to consult a diviner who can give a diagnosis. Contact with the world through divination often requires not only medication. Traditional practitioners use a variety of treatments ranging from magic to biomedical methods such as fasting and dieting, herbal therapies, bathing, massage. Migraines, coughs, abscesses, and pleurisy are often treated using the method of bleed-cupping after which an herbal ointment is applied with follow-up herbal drugs, animals are also sometimes used to transfer the illness to afterward
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Ancient Greek medicine
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Ancient Greek medicine was a compilation of theories and practices that were constantly expanding through new ideologies and trials. Many components were considered in ancient Greek medicine, intertwining the spiritual with the physical, specifically, the ancient Greeks believed health was affected by the humors, gender, geographic location, social class, diet, trauma, beliefs, and mindset. Early on, ancient Greeks believed that illnesses were divine punishments, humorism refers to blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. It was also theorized that gender played a role in medicine because some diseases, diet was thought to be an issue as well and might be affected by a lack of access to adequate nourishment. Trauma, such as that suffered by gladiators, from dog bites or other injuries, played a role in relating to understanding anatomy. Additionally, there was significant focus on the beliefs and mind set of the patient in the diagnosis and it was recognized that the mind played a role in healing, or that it might also be the sole basis for the illness. Ancient Greek medicine began to revolve around the theory of humors, humoral theory states that good health comes from perfect balance of the four humors blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Consequently, poor health resulted from improper balance of the four humors, Hippocrates, known as the Father of Modern Medicine, established a medical school at Cos sin and is the most important figure in ancient Greek medicine. Hippocrates and his students documented numerous illnesses in the Hippocratic Corpus, and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, the earliest known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC. Alcmaeon, author of the first anatomical compilation, worked at this school, knowledge of the field of medicine in ancient Greece during the Pre-Hippocratic era is relatively limited and most information we have comes from Homer and his epics. Throughout his stories, Homer used a myriad of medical and anatomical descriptions, Homer has been attributed with moving his society towards humanism, which led to the interest in medicine and scientific approaches to it. It was at point that the people of ancient Greece started to blame less on the gods and to look for more practical reasons. In order for them to be cured they would have to sacrifice to him and appease the angered god, which when done successfully lifted the plague. Based on this, historians believe that ancient Greeks saw disease as a work of angered gods, another way ancient Greeks sought relief from their ailments was through help from the healing god Asclepius. Although disease was seen as a work of the gods, cases of injury and trauma were dealt with more practically, the Achaeans had dedicated healers, specifically Machaon, who was often described dealing with the injuries associated with war. The treatments used were rudimentary, and consisted mainly of herbs, bandages. The herbs used were generally meant to be analgesics or used for coagulation to prevent bleeding out on the battlefield. Along with practical treatment, it was common for the healers to offer a prayer along with treatment because there was still a belief that gods could and would heal at their discretion
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Medicine in ancient Rome
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Medicine in ancient Rome combined various techniques using different tools. Ancient Roman medicine was divided into such as ophthalmology and urology. A variety of procedures were carried out using many different instruments including forceps, scalpels. The Roman Empire was a complex and vigorous combination of Greek, later Latin authors, notably Cato and Pliny believed in a specifically Roman type of healing based on herbs, chants, prayers and charms easily available to any head of a household. It was not until the establishment and development of military and political contacts between Greece that Greek medicine made its entry into Italy. However, It was not until the introduction of the healing god Asclepius in 291 BC and this was particularly important from the perspective of the Roman army. Within the scope of the Roman military, there were many medical advancements, Roman medicine was highly influenced by the Greek medical tradition. Similar to Greek physicians, Roman physicians relied on observations to heal the sick rather than spiritual rituals. Tragic famines and plagues were often attributed to divine punishment and appeasement to the deities through rituals was believed to alleviate such events, miasma was perceived to be the root cause of many diseases, whether caused by famine, wars, or plague. The concept of contagion was formulated, resulting in practices of quarantine, one of the first prominent doctors to appear in ancient Rome was Galen. He became an expert on the human anatomy from dissecting animals, due to his prominence and expertise in ancient Rome, Galen became Emperor Marcus Aurelius personal physician. The Romans also conquered the city of Alexandria, which was famous for its comprehensive libraries, in ancient times, Alexandria was an important center for learning, and its Great Library held countless volumes of ancient Greek medical information. The ancient Romans adopted many of the practices and procedures they found in the Great Library into their medical practices, additionally, Greek symbols and gods greatly influenced ancient Roman medicine. The caduceus, pictured right, was associated with the Greek god. Hermes was the Greek God of commerce and he carried a staff wrapped with two snakes, known as the caduceus. This symbol later became associated with the Roman God, Mercury, later during the 7th century, the caduceus became associated with health and medicine due to its association with the Azoth, the alchemical universal solvent. Many Roman doctors came from Greece and strongly believed in achieving the right balance of the four humors, Pedanius Dioscorides, was a Greek botanist, pharmacologist and physician who practised in Rome during the reign of Nero. He became a famous Roman Army doctor, Dioscorides wrote a 5-volume encyclopedia - De Materia Medica - which listed over 600 herbal cures, forming an influential and long-lasting pharmacopeia
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Medieval medicine of Western Europe
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In the Early Middle Ages, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Many simply placed their hopes in the church and God to heal all their sicknesses, the efficacy of cures was similarly bound in the beliefs of patient and doctor rather than empirical evidence, so that remedia physicalia were often subordinate to spiritual intervention. The Western medical tradition often traces roots directly to the early Greek civilization, the Greeks certainly laid the foundation for Western medical practice but much more of Western medicine can be traced to the Middle East, Germanic, and Celtic cultures. The Greek medical foundation comes from a collection of writings known today as the Hippocratic Corpus. Remnants of the Hippocratic Corpus survive in modern medicine in forms like the “Hippocratic Oath” as in to “Do No Harm. ”The Hippocratic Corpus, popularly attributed to an ancient Greek practitioner known as Hippocrates, lays out the basic approach to health care. Greek philosophers viewed the body as a system that reflects the workings of nature. The body, as a reflection of natural forces, contained four elemental properties expressed to the Greeks as the four humors, the humors represented fire, air, earth and water through the properties of hot, cold, dry and moist, respectively. Health in the body relied on keeping these humors in balance within each person. Maintaining the balance of humors within a patient occurred in several ways, an initial examination took place as standard for a physician to properly evaluate the patient. The patients home climate, their diet, and astrological charts were regarded during consultation. The heavens influenced every person in different ways by influencing elements connected to certain humors, the physician could determine which humor was unbalanced in the patient and prescribe a new diet to restore that balance. Diet not only included food to eat or avoid but also an exercise regiment, Hippocratic medicine represented learned medical practice beginning with the Hippocratic Corpus having been written down, therefore requiring practitioners to be literate. The written treatises within the Corpus are varied, incorporating medical doctrine from any source the Greeks came into contact with, Surgery and dissection yielded much knowledge of the human body that Hippocratic physicians employed alongside their methods of balancing humors in patients. The combination of knowledge in diet, surgery, and medication formed the foundation of medical learning upon which Galen would later greatly contribute. In Homers Iliad and Odyssey the gods are implicated as the cause of plagues or widespread disease and this religious side of healing clearly manifested in the cult of Asclepius, whom Homer regarded as the great physician, and was deified in the third and fourth century BC. Hundreds of temples devoted to Asclepius have been throughout the Greek. Healing visions and dreams formed the foundation for the process as the person seeking treatment from Asclepius slept in a special dormitory. The healing occurred either in the dream or advice from the dream could be used to seek out proper treatment for illness elsewhere
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Kampo
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Kampō medicine, often known simply as Kanpō, is the study of traditional Chinese medicine in Japan following its introduction, by way of Korea, beginning in the 7th century. Since then, the Japanese have created their own system of diagnosis. Japanese traditional medicine uses most of the Chinese therapies including acupuncture and moxibustion, according to Chinese mythology, the origins of traditional Chinese medicine are traced back to the three legendary sovereigns Fuxi, Shennong and Yellow Emperor. Shennong is believed to have tasted hundreds of herbs to ascertain their medicinal value and effects on the human body, Chinese medical practices were introduced to Japan by way of Korea during the 6th century A. D. In 608 Empress Suiko dispatched E-Nichi, Fuku-In and other physicians to China. It is said that they studied medicine there for 15 years, until 838 Japan sent 19 missions to Tang China. While the officials studied Chinese government structures, physicians and many of the Japanese monks absorbed Chinese medical knowledge, in 702 A. D. the Taihō Code was promulgated as an adaptation of the governmental system of Chinas Tang Dynasty. One section called for the establishment of a university including a school with an elaborate training program. Empress Kōmyō established the Hidenin and Seyakuin in the Kōfuku-Temple in Nara, for centuries to come Japanese Buddhist monks were essential to convey Chinese medical know how to Japan and to provide health care for both the elite and the general population. In 753 A. D. the Chinese priest Jianzhen who was well-versed in medicine arrived in Japan after five failed attempts in 12 years to cross the East China Sea, as he was blind he used his sense of smell to identify herbs. He brought medical texts and a collection of materia medica to the imperial palace in Nara. They are kept in a log-cabin style treasure house of the Tōdai-Temple known as Shōsōin, around 918 A. D. a Japanese medical dictionary entitled Japanese names of Materia Medica was compiled, quoting from 60 Chinese medical works. During the Heian Period, Tanba Yasuyori compiled the first Japanese medical book, Ishinpō, during the period from 1200 to 1600, medicine in Japan became more practical. Most of the physicians were Buddhist monks who continued to use the formulas, during the 15th and 16th century, Japanese physicians began to achieve a more independent view on Chinese medicine. After 12 years of studies in China Tashirō Sanki became the figure of a movement called Followers of Later Developments in Medicine. This school propagated the teachings of Li Dongyuan and Zhu Tanxi that gradually superseded the older doctrines from the Song dynasty, manase Dōsan, one of his disciples, adapted Tashiros teachings to Japanese conditions. Based on own observation and experience he compiled a book on medicine in 8 volumes. His son Gensaku wrote a book of case studies and developed a number of new herb formulas
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Shamanism
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The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis
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Traditional Chinese medicine
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It is primarily used as a complementary alternative medicine approach. TCM is widely used in China and is becoming prevalent in Europe. One of the tenets of TCM holds that the bodys vital energy circulates through channels, called meridians. Concepts of the body and of disease used in TCM reflect its ancient origins and its emphasis on dynamic processes over material structure, scientific investigation has not found histological or physiological evidence for traditional Chinese concepts such as qi, meridians, and acupuncture points. The TCM theory and practice are not based upon scientific knowledge, the effectiveness of Chinese herbal medicine remains poorly researched and documented. There are concerns over a number of toxic plants, animal parts. There are also concerns over illegal trade and transport of endangered species including rhinoceroses and tigers, a review of cost-effectiveness research for TCM found that studies had low levels of evidence, but so far have not shown benefit outcomes. Pharmaceutical research has explored the potential for creating new drugs from traditional remedies, proponents propose that research has so far missed key features of the art of TCM, such as unknown interactions between various ingredients and complex interactive biological systems. The doctrines of Chinese medicine are rooted in such as the Yellow Emperors Inner Canon and the Treatise on Cold Damage, as well as in cosmological notions such as yin-yang. Starting in the 1950s, these precepts were standardized in the Peoples Republic of China, including attempts to integrate them with modern notions of anatomy, in the 1950s, the Chinese government promoted a systematized form of TCM. TCMs view of the body places little emphasis on anatomical structures, while health is perceived as the harmonious interaction of these entities and the outside world, disease is interpreted as a disharmony in interaction. Traces of therapeutic activities in China date from the Shang dynasty, which Shang elites usually attributed to curses sent by their ancestors. There is no evidence that the Shang nobility used herbal remedies, according to a 2006 overview, the Documentation of Chinese materia medica dates back to around 1,100 BC when only dozens of drugs were first described. By the end of the 16th century, the number of drugs documented had reached close to 1,900, and by the end of the last century, published records of CMM had reached 12,800 drugs. Stone and bone found in ancient tombs led Joseph Needham to speculate that acupuncture might have been carried out in the Shang dynasty. The earliest evidence for acupuncture in this sense dates to the second or first century BC, the Yellow Emperors Inner Canon, the oldest received work of Chinese medical theory, was compiled around the first century BC on the basis of shorter texts from different medical lineages. It was also one of the first books in which the doctrines of Yinyang. The Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and Miscellaneous Illnesses was collated by Zhang Zhongjing sometime between 196 and 220 CE, at the end of the Han dynasty
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Traditional Korean medicine
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Traditional Korean medicine refers to the traditional medicine practices that developed in Korea. In Gojoseon, where the myth of Korea is recorded, there is a story of a tiger and a bear who wanted to reincarnate in human form. Moreover, wormwood and garlic are not found in ancient Chinese herbology, showing that traditional Korean medicine developed unique practices, in the period of the Three Kingdoms, traditional Korean medicine was influenced by other traditional medicines such as ancient Chinese medicine. In the Goryeo dynasty with the influence of others like Chinese medicine, more intense investigation of domestic herbs took place, Medicine flourished in the period of the Joseon. In 1433, the Hyangyak Jipseongbang was completed and included 703 Korean native medicines and it included more than 50,000 prescriptions and incorporated 153 different Korean and Chinese texts, including the Concise Prescriptions of Royal Doctors which was written by Choi Chong-jun in 1226. Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions has very important research value, because it keeps the contents of many ancient Chinese medical books that had been lost for a long time, after this, many books on medical specialties were published. There are three physicians from the Joseon Dynasty who are credited with the development of traditional Korean medicine — Heo Jun, Saam. After the Japanese invasion in 1592, Dongeui Bogam was written by Heo Jun and this work further integrated the Korean and Chinese medicine of its time and was influential to Chinese, Japanese and Vietnamese medicine. The next major influence to traditional Korean medicine is related to Sasang typology, Lee Je-ma and his book, The Principal of Life Preservation in Oriental Medicine systematically theorized with the influence of Confucianism and clinical experiences in Korea. Lee Je-ma said that if patients suffer the same illness. Sasang typology focuses on the individual based on different reactions to disease. Treat illness by the treatment of the cause through proper diagnosis. Key to this diagnosis is to first determine the internal organs or pathophysiology of each patient, the next recognized individual is Saam, a priest-physician who is believed to have lived during the 16th century. Although there is unknown about Saam, including his real name and date of birth. He developed a system of acupuncture that employs the five element theory, in the late Joseon dynasty, positivism was widespread. Clinical evidence was used commonly as the basis for studying disease. Scholars who had turned away from politics devoted themselves to treating diseases and, in consequence, simple books on medicine for the common people were published. Herbalism is the study and practice of using plant material for the purpose of food, medicine and they may be flowers, plants, shrubs, trees, moss, lichen, fern, algae, seaweed or fungus
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Traditional Mongolian medicine
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Traditional Mongolian medicine developed over many years among the Mongolian people. Mongolian medical practice spread across their empire and became a part of many other peoples medical systems. The Mongols were part of a network of Eurasian people who had developed a medical system of their own, including the Chinese, Korean, Tibetan, Indian, Uighur, Islamic. They took the knowledge of these people, adapted it to develop their own medical system. On their journeys throughout Asia, the Mongols brought with them a team of doctors, usually foreign, these doctors themselves had brought medical knowledge from other people in Asia to the Mongol court. They serve three purposes on the journeys on which the accompanied Mongol princes and their first purpose was to be the personal physicians of the princes in case they required medical attention. The second was to observe and obtain any new medical knowledge from the groups of people that they encounter. Finally, they were to spread the medical knowledge that the Mongols had put together to the peoples they encountered. The Mongols were also able to contribute new or more advanced knowledge on such as bone setting. The Mongols were the first people to establish a link between diet and health, Traditional Mongolian doctors were known as shaman, or holy men. They relied on magic and spiritual powers to cure illness and they were called on to determine whether the illness was caused by natural means or because of malicious wishes. Though they were used as healers, their main strength was in prophecy readings. Foreign physicians who used herbs to treat illness were distinguished from the shamans by their name, otochi and it was borrowed from the Uighur word for physician, which was otachi. When Mongolian medicine began to transition to using herbs and other drugs and had the service of foreign doctors, Hu Sihui was a Mongol court therapist and dietitian during Mongol Yuan Dynasty reign in China. He is known for his book Yinshan Zhengyao, that became a classic in Chinese medicine and he was the first to empirically discover and clearly describe deficiency diseases. Animal blood was used to treat a variety of illness, from gout to blood loss, recorded in the Yuan Shih, are many incident where the blood of a freshly killed animal, usually a cow or an ox, was used to treat illness. Gout, which was an affliction of the Mongol people, was treated by immersing the afflicted body part into the belly of a freshly killed cow. Placing a person in the stomach of an animal was used as a method of blood transfusion
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Traditional Tibetan medicine
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The Tibetan medical system is based upon Indian Buddhist literature and Ayurveda. It continues to be practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, Siberia, China and Mongolia, as well as more recently in parts of Europe and North America. It embraces the traditional Buddhist belief that all illness ultimately results from the three poisons, ignorance, attachment and aversion, Tibetan medicine follows the Buddhas Four Noble Truths which apply medical diagnostic logic to suffering. As Indian culture flooded Tibet in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, for example, the Ayurvedic Astāngahrdayasamhitā was translated into Tibetan by Rinchen Zangpo. Tibet also absorbed the early Indian Abhidharma literature, for example the fifth century Abhidharmakosasabhasyam by Vasubandhu, a wide range of Indian Vajrayana tantras, containing practices based on medical anatomy, were subsequently absorbed into Tibet. Some scholars believe that rgyud bzhi was told by the Lord Buddha, the former opinion is often refuted by saying If it was told by the Lord Buddha, rgyud bzhi should have a Sanskrit version. However, there is no such version and also no Indian practitioners who have received unbroken lineage of rgyud bzhi, thus, the later thought should be scholarly considered authentic and practical. Youthog Yontag Gonopo adapted and synthesized the Four Tantras in the 12th Century, the Four Tantras are scholarly debated as having Indian origins or, as Remedy Master Buddha Bhaisajyagurus word or, as authentically Tibetan with Chinese origins. It was not formally taught in schools at first but, intertwined with Tibetan Buddhism, the 5th Dalai Lama supported Desi Sangye Gyatso to found the pioneering Chagpori College of Medicine in 1696. Chagpori taught Gyamtsos Blue Beryl as well as the Four Tantras in a model that spread throughout Tibet along with the oral tradition, the Four Tantras are native Tibetan texts incorporating Indian, Chinese and Greco-Arab medical systems. The Four Tantras is believed to have created in the twelfth century. The Four Tantras is the name for the text of the Secret Tantra Instruction on the Eight Branches. It considers a single medical doctrine from four perspectives, instructional Tantra -The longest of the Tantras is mainly a practical application of treatment, it explains in detail illnesses and which humoral imbalance which causes the illness. This section also describes their specific treatments, noting these two theories there remain others sceptical as to its original author. Believers in the Buddhist origin of the Four Tantras and how it came to be in Tibet believe it was first taught in India by the buddha when he manifested as the Master of Remedies. The Four Tantra was then in the eighth century translated and offered to Padmasambhava by Vairocana, like other systems of traditional Asian medicine, and in contrast to biomedicine, Tibetan medicine first puts forth a specific definition of health in its theoretical texts. To have good health, Tibetan medical theory states that it is necessary to balance in the bodys three principles of function, rLung, mKhris-pa, and Bad-kan. • rLung is the source of the ability to circulate physical substances, energy
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Yunani medicine
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Yunani or Unani medicine is the term for Perso-Arabic traditional medicine as practiced in Mughal India and in Muslim culture in South Asia and modern day Central Asia. The term is derived from Arabic Yūnānī Greek, as the Perso-Arabic system of medicine was in turn based on the teachings of the Greek physicians Hippocrates, Unani medicine is substantially based on Ibn Sinas The Canon of Medicine. Alauddin Khilji had several eminent physicians at his royal courts and this royal patronage meant development of Unani practice in India, but also of Unani literature with the aid of Indian Ayurvedic physicians. Unani classical literature consists of thousands of books, according to Unani medicine, management of any disease depends upon the diagnosis of disease. In the diagnosis, clinical features, i. e. signs, symptoms, laboratory features and this abnormal humor leads to pathological changes in the tissues anatomically and physiologically at the affected site and exhibits the clinical manifestations. The disease may be treated by the modification of six essential pre-requisites of health, according to the norms of C. C. I. M. New Delhi, Department of Ilaj-Bil-Tadbeer has been established in almost all Unani Tibbi Colleges of India, in the State Unani Medical College, Allahabad, U. P. and State Takmeel-Ul-Tibb College, Lucknow, Department of Ilaj-Bil-Tadbeer is known as Moalijat Khususi. Moaliajt Khususi is the old nomenclature of Ilaj-Bil-Tadbeer, suggested by C. C. I. M, Ilaj-Bil-Tadbeer is synonym to Panchkarma in Ayurveda. For this purpose Mamulate Matab Nuskha is formulated which contain the single, ilaj-Bil-Yad As an alternative form of medicine, Unani has found favor in India where popular products like Roghan Baiza Murgh and Roghan Badaam Shirin are commonly used for hair care. Unani practitioners can practice as qualified doctors in India, as the government approves their practice, Unani medicine has similarities to Ayurveda. Both are based on theory of the presence of the elements in the human body, according to followers of Unani medicine, these elements are present in different fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness. The theory postulates the presence of blood, phlegm, yellow bile, each persons unique mixture of these substances determines his Mizaj. A predominance of blood gives a sanguine temperament, a predominance of phlegm makes one phlegmatic, yellow bile, bilious, in South Africa, University of the Western Cape offers a five years double bachelor degree. In India, there are 40 Unani medical colleges where the Unani system of medicine is taught, after five and half year courses, the graduates are awarded BUMS. There are about eight Unani medical colleges where a degree is being awarded to BUMS doctors. All these colleges are affiliated to reputed universities and recognized by the governments, in Pakistan, National Council for Tibb, Govt. of Pakistan is awarding four years Fazil-ut-Tibb-wal-Jarahat and registration certificates to every 4 years qualified Tabibs/Unani Physicians, Doctors. Hamdard Foundation and Qarshi Foundation are prominent patrons of research and development in herbal medicines, Hamdard Research Institute of Unani Medicine at the Hamdard University offers advance degrees in the field. The programs are accredited by Higher Education Commission, Pakistan Medical and Dental Council, Qarshi Industries, Pakistan is one of the leading pharmaceutical companies manufacturing products using Ayurveda and Unani system of medicines
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