1.
Urea
–
Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CO2. This amide has two groups joined by a carbonyl functional group. Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals and it is a colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic. Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline, the body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two molecules with a carbon dioxide molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and is an important raw material for the chemical industry, Friedrich Wöhlers discovery in 1828 that urea can be produced from inorganic starting materials was an important conceptual milestone in chemistry. More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a nitrogen-release fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use, therefore, it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient. The standard crop-nutrient rating of urea is 46-0-0, many soil bacteria possess the enzyme urease, which catalyzes conversion of urea to ammonia or ammonium ion and bicarbonate ion. Thus urea fertilizers rapidly transform to the form in soils. Ammonium and nitrate are readily absorbed by plants, and are the dominant sources of nitrogen for plant growth, Urea is also used in many multi-component solid fertilizer formulations. Urea is highly soluble in water and is also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because of their particle size distribution. The most common impurity of synthetic urea is biuret, which impairs plant growth, Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300 kg/ha but rates vary. Smaller applications incur lower losses due to leaching, during summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses from volatilization. Because of the nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. The application equipment must be calibrated and properly used. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems
Urea
Urea
–
Urea
Urea
–
Urea plant using ammonium carbamate briquettes, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, ca. 1930
2.
Inorganic chemistry
–
Inorganic chemistry deals with the synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds, the distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels. Many inorganic compounds are compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Examples of salts are magnesium chloride MgCl2, which consists of magnesium cations Mg2+ and chloride anions Cl−, or sodium oxide Na2O, in any salt, the proportions of the ions are such that the electric charges cancel out, so that the bulk compound is electrically neutral. The ions are described by their state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential or from the electron affinity of the parent elements. Important classes of compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates. Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points, inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in the solid state. Other important features include their high meilting point and ease of crystallization, where some salts are very soluble in water, others are not. The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state, in redox reactions one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons, electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e. g. in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry. When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry, as a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions. Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals, soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules, as electrolytes, the first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrate for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as such as vanadium oxide and titanium chloride. Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry and these fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies. Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science, traditionally, the scale of a nations economy could be evaluated by their productivity of sulfuric acid. The manufacturing of fertilizers is another application of industrial inorganic chemistry
Inorganic chemistry
–
Inorganic compounds show rich variety: A:
Diborane features
unusual bonding B:
Caesium chloride has an archetypal
crystal structure C:
Fp2 is an
organometallic complex D:
Silicone 's uses range from
breast implants to
Silly Putty E:
Grubbs' catalyst won the
2005 Nobel Prize for
its discoverer F:
Zeolites find extensive use as
molecular sieves G:
Copper(II) acetate surprised
theoreticians with its
diamagnetism
Inorganic chemistry
–
The structure of the ionic framework in
potassium oxide, K 2 O
3.
Soul (spirit)
–
In many religious, philosophical and mythological traditions, the soul is the incorporeal essence of a living being. Depending on the system, a soul can either be mortal or immortal. In Judeo-Christianity, only human beings have immortal souls, for example, the Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas attributed soul to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal. Other religions hold that all organisms have souls, as did Aristotle, while some teach that even non-biological entities possess souls. The latter belief is called animism, Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, understood that the soul must have a logical faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. Anima mundi is the concept of a world soul connecting all living organisms on planet Earth, the Modern English word soul, derived from Old English sáwol, sáwel, was first attested in the 8th-century poem Beowulf v.2820 and in the Vespasian Psalter 77.50. Further etymology of the Germanic word is uncertain, the Koine Greek word ψυχή psychē, life, spirit, consciousness, is derived from a verb meaning to cool, to blow, and hence refers to the breath, as opposed to σῶμα, meaning body. Vulgate, et nolite timere eos qui occidunt corpus animam autem non possunt occidere sed potius eum timete qui potest et animam et corpus perdere in gehennam. Authorized King James Version And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul, vulgate Creavitque Deus cete grandia, et omnem animam viventem atque motabilem. KJV And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, Paul of Tarsus used ψυχή and πνεῦμα specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש nephesh and רוח ruah. The ancient Greeks used the word alive for the concept of being ensouled, the soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual breath that animates the living organism. Francis M. Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals an award of joy or sorrow drawing near in dreams. Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre-Pythagorean belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being, Socrates says that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is reborn in subsequent bodies and Plato believed this as well, however. Thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger, eros is located in the stomach and is related to ones desires. Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a caste system. According to Platos theory, the soul is essentially the same thing as a states class system because, to function well
Soul (spirit)
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens, a
fresco by
Raphael.
Soul (spirit)
–
The souls of Pe and
Nekhen towing the royal bargue on a relief of
Ramesses II 's temple in Abydos.
Soul (spirit)
–
Soul carried to Heaven by
William Bouguereau
Soul (spirit)
–
The Damned Soul. Drawing by
Michelangelo Buonarroti c. 1525
4.
Falsifiability
–
Falsifiability or refutability of a statement, hypothesis, or theory is the inherent possibility that it can be proven false. A statement is called if it is possible to conceive of an observation or an argument which negates the statement in question. In this sense, falsify is synonymous with nullify, meaning to invalidate or shown to be false, thus, the term falsifiability is sometimes synonymous to testability. Some statements, such as It will be raining here in one years, are falsifiable in principle. The concern with falsifiability gained attention by way of philosopher of science Karl Poppers scientific epistemology falsificationism, the classical view of the philosophy of science is that it is the goal of science to prove hypotheses like All swans are white or to induce them from observational data. Popper argued that this would require the inference of a rule from a number of individual cases. However, if one finds one single swan that is not white, Falsificationism thus strives for questioning, for falsification, of hypotheses instead of proving them. For a statement to be questioned using observation, it needs to be at least theoretically possible that it can come into conflict with observation. A key observation of falsificationism is thus that a criterion of demarcation is needed to distinguish those statements that can come into conflict with observation, Popper chose falsifiability as the name of this criterion. My proposal is based upon an asymmetry between verifiability and falsifiability, an asymmetry which results from the form of universal statements. For these are never derivable from singular statements, but can be contradicted by singular statements, Popper stressed that unfalsifiable statements are important in science. Contrary to intuition, unfalsifiable statements can be embedded in —, for example, while all men are mortal is unfalsifiable, it is a logical consequence of the falsifiable theory that every man dies before he reaches the age of 150 years. Similarly, the ancient metaphysical and unfalsifiable idea of the existence of atoms has led to corresponding falsifiable modern theories, Popper invented the notion of metaphysical research programs to name such unfalsifiable ideas. Criticizability, in contrast to falsifiability, and thus rationality, may be comprehensive, though this claim is controversial, even proponents of Poppers philosophy. In work beginning in the 1930s, Popper gave falsifiability a renewed emphasis as a criterion of empirical statements in science, Popper noticed that two types of statements are of particular value to scientists. The first are statements of observations, such as there is a white swan, logicians call these statements singular existential statements, since they assert the existence of some particular thing. They are equivalent to a predicate calculus statement of the form, There exists an x such that x is a swan, the second are statements that categorize all instances of something, such as all swans are white. They are usually parsed in the form, For all x, if x is a swan, Scientific laws are commonly supposed to be of this type
Falsifiability
–
Are all
swans white?
5.
Medical
–
Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
Medical
–
Early Medicine Bottles
Medical
–
The Doctor, by
Sir Luke Fildes (1891)
Medical
–
The Hospital of
Santa Maria della Scala, fresco by
Domenico di Bartolo, 1441–1442
Medical
–
Modern drug
ampoules
6.
Traditional medicine
–
Traditional medicine comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their health care needs. When adopted outside of its culture, traditional medicine is often called alternative medicine. Core disciplines which study traditional medicine include herbalism, ethnomedicine, ethnobotany, the line between alternative medicine and quackery is a contentious subject. Traditional medicine may include formalized aspects of medicine, that is to say longstanding remedies passed on. Folk medicine may also be referred to as traditional medicine, alternative medicine, indigenous medicine and these terms are often considered interchangeable, even though some authors may prefer one or the other because of certain overtones they may wish to highlight. Similarly, a remedy is a treatment to cure a disease or ailment that employs certain spices, vegetables. Home remedies may or may not have medicinal properties that treat or cure the disease or ailment in question, in the written record, the study of herbs dates back 5,000 years to the ancient Sumerians, who described well-established medicinal uses for plants. In Ancient Egyptian medicine, the Ebers papyrus from c.1552 BC records a list of folk remedies, the Old Testament also mentions herb use and cultivation in regards to Kashrut. Many herbs and minerals used in Ayurveda were described by ancient Indian herbalists such as Charaka, Latin manuscripts of De Materia Medica were combined with a Latin herbal by Apuleius Platonicus and were incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon codex Cotton Vitellius C. III. These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian Avicenna, the Persian Rhazes, Arabic indigenous medicine developed from the conflict between the magic-based medicine of the Bedouins and the Arabic translations of the Hellenic and Ayurvedic medical traditions. Spanish indigenous medicine was influenced by the Arabs from 711 to 1492, islamic physicians and Muslim botanists such as al-Dinawari and Ibn al-Baitar significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of materia medica. The most famous Persian medical treatise was Avicennas The Canon of Medicine, the Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century and remained a medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. The Unani system of medicine is also based on the Canon. Translations of the early Roman-Greek compilations were made into German by Hieronymus Bock whose herbal, the book was translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Rembert Dodoens, and from Dutch into English by Carolus Clusius, published by Henry Lyte in 1578 as A Nievve Herball. This became John Gerards Herball or General Hiftorie of Plantes, each new work was a compilation of existing texts with new additions. Womens folk knowledge existed in undocumented parallel with these texts, forty-four drugs, diluents, flavouring agents and emollients mentioned by Dioscorides are still listed in the official pharmacopoeias of Europe. The Puritans took Gerards work to the United States where it influenced American Indigenous medicine, both Hernandez and Ximenez fitted Aztec ethnomedicinal information into the European concepts of disease such as warm, cold, and moist, but it is not clear that the Aztecs used these categories
Traditional medicine
–
Traditional Medicine on a market in
Antananarivo,
Madagascar
Traditional medicine
–
Traditional healer stand in an open market in
Accra,
Ghana
Traditional medicine
–
Botánicas such as this one in
Jamaica Plain,
Massachusetts cater to the
Latino community and sell folk medicine alongside statues of
saints,
candles decorated with
prayers,
lucky bamboo, and other items.
Traditional medicine
–
Sometimes traditional medicines include parts of endangered species, such as the
slow loris in Southeast Asia.
7.
Greek philosophy
–
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire. Philosophy was used to sense out of the world in a non-religious way. It dealt with a variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric. Many philosophers around the world agree that Greek philosophy has influenced much of Western culture since its inception, alfred North Whitehead once noted, The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. Clear, unbroken lines of lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Early Islamic philosophy, the European Renaissance. Some claim that Greek philosophy, in turn, was influenced by the wisdom literature. But they taught themselves to reason, Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation. Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by Socrates as presented by Plato that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as pre-Socratic philosophy. The periods following this, up to and after the wars of Alexander the Great, are those of classical Greek, the pre-Socratics were primarily concerned with cosmology, ontology and mathematics. They were distinguished from non-philosophers insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse, Thales of Miletus, regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher, held that all things arise from water. It is not because he gave a cosmogony that John Burnet calls him the first man of science, according to tradition, Thales was able to predict an eclipse and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids. He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites, therefore, they cannot truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some underlying unity that is neither. This underlying unity could not be any of the classical elements, for example, water is wet, the opposite of dry, while fire is dry, the opposite of wet. Anaximenes in turn held that the arche was air, although John Burnet argues that by this he meant that it was a transparent mist, the aether. Xenophanes was born in Ionia, where the Milesian school was at its most powerful, Burnet says that Xenophanes was not, however, a scientific man, with many of his naturalistic explanations having no further support than that they render the Homeric gods superfluous or foolish. He has been claimed as an influence on Eleatic philosophy, although that is disputed, and a precursor to Epicurus, a representative of a total break between science and religion. Pythagoras lived at roughly the time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter. Parmenides of Elea cast his philosophy against those who held it is and is not the same, and all travel in opposite directions, —presumably referring to Heraclitus
Greek philosophy
–
Raphael 's
School of Athens.
Greek philosophy
–
(upper) PIRRHO • HELIENSIS • PLISTARCHI • FILIVS translation (from Latin): Phyrrho. Greek. Son of Plistarchus
8.
Milesian school
–
The Milesian school was a school of thought founded in the 6th century BC. The ideas associated with it are exemplified by three philosophers from the Ionian town of Miletus, on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. They introduced new opinions contrary to the belief of how the world was organized. The Milesians conceived of nature in terms of methodologically observable entities and these philosophers defined all things by their quintessential substance of which the world was formed and which was the source of everything. Thales thought it to be water, but as it was impossible to explain some things as being composed of this element, Anaximander chose an unobserved, undefined element, which he called apeiron. Consequently, there must be another entity from which the others originate, the notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the Greek mind in the religious conception of immortality and Anaximanders description was in terms appropriate to this conception. This arche is called eternal and ageless, critics disliked the unspecified nature of the apeiron, which caused Anaximenes to define it as being air, which is a more concrete, yet still subtle, element. Anaximenes held that by its evaporation and condensation, air can change into other elements or substances such as fire, wind, clouds, water, however, our modern concept of energy is much more similar to Anaximanders apeiron. The differences between the three philosophers was not limited to the nature of matter, each of them conceived of the universe differently. Thales held that the world was floating in water, for Anaximenes, the sun and the moon were flat disks traveling around a heavenly canopy, on which the stars were fixed. Ionian School Pre-Socratic philosophy Ionian Enlightenment Lahaye, Robert, lÉcole de Milet, Cèdre, Paris,1966
Milesian school
–
Location of
Miletus on the western coast of
Anatolia, home to Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes
9.
Materialism
–
Materialism is closely related to physicalism, the view that all that exists is ultimately physical. Thus the term physicalism is preferred over materialism by some, while others use the terms as if they are synonymous, philosophies contradictory to materialism or physicalism include idealism, pluralism, dualism, and other forms of monism. Materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology, as such, it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations of the reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism, neutral monism. To idealists, spirit or mind or the objects of mind are primary, to materialists, matter is primary, and mind or spirit or ideas are secondary, the product of matter acting upon matter. The materialist view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically, famously by René Descartes, however, by itself materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized. In practice, it is assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another. Jerry Fodor influentially argues this view, according to which empirical laws, a lot of vigorous literature has grown up around the relation between these views. Modern philosophical materialists extend the definition of other scientifically observable entities such as energy, forces, however philosophers such as Mary Midgley suggest that the concept of matter is elusive and poorly defined. Materialism typically contrasts with dualism, phenomenalism, idealism, vitalism and its materiality can, in some ways, be linked to the concept of determinism, as espoused by Enlightenment thinkers. Later Marxists, such as Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky developed the notion of dialectical materialism which characterized later Marxist philosophy, Materialism developed, possibly independently, in several geographically separated regions of Eurasia during what Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age. In Ancient Indian philosophy, materialism developed around 600 BC with the works of Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada, Kanada became one of the early proponents of atomism. The Nyaya–Vaisesika school developed one of the earliest forms of atomism, though their proofs of God, buddhist atomism and the Jaina school continued the atomic tradition. Xunzi developed a Confucian doctrine centered on realism and materialism in Ancient China, Ancient Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaxagoras, Epicurus and Democritus prefigure later materialists. The Latin poem De Rerum Natura by Lucretius reflects the philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus. According to this view, all that exists is matter and void, De Rerum Natura provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion, evaporation, wind, and sound. Famous principles like nothing can touch body but body first appeared in the works of Lucretius, chinese thinkers of the early common era said to be materialists include Yang Xiong and Wang Chong. Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta in his work Tattvopaplavasimha refuted the Nyaya Sutra epistemology, the materialistic Cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400
Materialism
–
Art
10.
Lucretius
–
Titus Lucretius Carus was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the philosophical poem De rerum natura about the tenets and philosophy of Epicureanism. Lucretius has been credited with originating the concept of the system which was formalised from 1834 by C. J. Thomsen. Very little is known about Lucretiuss life, the certain fact is that he was either a friend or client of Gaius Memmius. De rerum natura was an influence on the Augustan poets, particularly Virgil. Virtually nothing is known about the life of Lucretius and he was probably a member of the aristocratic gens Lucretia, and his work shows an intimate knowledge of the luxurious lifestyle in Rome. In a letter by Cicero to his brother Quintus in February 54 BC, Cicero said, The poems of Lucretius are as you write, they exhibit many flashes of genius, and yet show great mastership. By this time, both Cicero and his brother had read De rerum natura, and so might have many other Romans, a literary evaluation of Lucretiuss work, however, reveals some repetition and a sudden end to Book 6 during a description of the plague at Athens. The poem appears to have been published without a final revision, if this is true, Lucretius must have been dead by 54 BC. A brief biographical note is found in Aelius Donatuss Life of Virgil, the two consuls of 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus, stood together as consuls again in 55, not 53. There is insufficient basis for a confident assertion of the date of Lucretiuss birth or death in other sources, another yet briefer note is found in the Chronicon of Donatuss pupil, Jerome. Writing four centuries after Lucretiuss death, he enters under the 171st Olympiad the following line, Titus Lucretius the poet is born. The claim that he was driven mad by a potion, although defended by such scholars as Reale and Catan, often is dismissed as the result of historical confusion. In some accounts the administration of the toxic aphrodisiac is attributed to his wife Lucilia, jeromes image of Lucretius as a lovesick, mad poet continued to have significant influence on modern scholarship until quite recently, although it now is accepted that such a report is inaccurate. Similarly, the statement that Cicero emended the work prior to publication is doubtful, the exact date of his birth varies by manuscript, in most it is recorded under 94 BC, but in others under 93 or 96. Lucretius and Jerome wrote for opposing purposes, and whether or not Jerome attempted to disparage Lucretiuss work as the work of a madman is an open question. If 55 BC is Lucretiuss most likely year of death, however and his poem De rerum natura transmits the ideas of Epicureanism, which includes Atomism, and psychology. Lucretius was the first writer to introduce Roman readers to Epicurean philosophy, the poem, written in some 7,400 dactylic hexameters, is divided into six untitled books, and explores Epicurean physics through richly poetic language and metaphors
Lucretius
–
Modern bust of Lucretius
11.
Epicurus
–
Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the school of philosophy called Epicureanism. Only a few fragments and letters of Epicuruss 300 written works remain, much of what is known about Epicurean philosophy derives from later followers and commentators. As a boy, he studied philosophy for four years under the Platonist teacher Pamphilus, at the age of eighteen, he went to Athens for his two-year term of military service. The playwright Menander served in the same age-class of the ephebes as Epicurus, after the death of Alexander the Great, Perdiccas expelled the Athenian settlers on Samos to Colophon, on the coast of what is now Turkey. After the completion of his service, Epicurus joined his family there. He studied under Nausiphanes, who followed the teachings of Democritus, in 311/310 BC Epicurus taught in Mytilene but caused strife and was forced to leave. He then founded a school in Lampsacus before returning to Athens in 306 BC where he remained until his death, even though many of his teachings were heavily influenced by earlier thinkers, especially by Democritus, he differed in a significant way with Democritus on determinism. Epicurus would often deny this influence, denounce other philosophers as confused, Epicurus never married and had no known children. He was most likely a vegetarian, for I have been attacked by a painful inability to urinate, and also dysentery, so violent that nothing can be added to the violence of my sufferings. But the cheerfulness of my mind, which comes from the recollection of all my philosophical contemplation, and I beg you to take care of the children of Metrodorus, in a manner worthy of the devotion shown by the young man to me, and to philosophy. Epicurus school, which was based in the garden of his house and thus called The Garden, had a small and his school was the first of the ancient Greek philosophical schools to admit women as a rule rather than an exception. An inscription on the gate to The Garden is recorded by Seneca in epistle XXI of Epistulae morales ad Lucilium, Stranger, here you will do well to tarry, here our highest good is pleasure. Epicurus emphasised friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school resembled in many ways a community of living together. However, he instituted a hierarchical system of levels among his followers. He was a key figure in the Axial Age, the period from 800 BC to 200 BC, during which, according to Karl Jaspers, similar thinking appeared in China, India, Iran, the Near East, and Ancient Greece. Epicuruss teachings represented a departure from the other major Greek thinkers of his period, and before, like Democritus, he was an atomist, believing that the fundamental constituents of the world were indivisible little bits of matter flying through empty space. Everything that occurs is the result of the atoms colliding, rebounding and his theory differs from the earlier atomism of Democritus because he admits that atoms do not always follow straight lines but their direction of motion may occasionally exhibit a swerve. This allowed him to avoid the implicit in the earlier atomism
Epicurus
–
Roman marble bust of Epicurus
Epicurus
–
Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple
Metrodorus in the
Louvre Museum
Epicurus
–
Small bronze bust of Epicurus from
Herculaneum. Illustration from Baumeister, 1885
Epicurus
–
Epicurus,
Nuremberg Chronicle
12.
Logos
–
LOGOS cards is a collectible card game developed for Second Life. The game was first conceptualized by Florian Kraner in 2008, development began in earnest early 2009 with the addition of Darien Caldwell to the creative team. The full game was released on July 1,2010, LOGOS is played by two players. Both of them start with 100.000 Hit Points. They do so by battling with cards that follow a Rock-paper-scissors principle, LOGOS cards is played in Second Life using a HUD. It consists of two SL items that have to be worn and will add a display of the hand dealt to you as well as other elements to the screen. The game can be played anywhere in Second Life on the go and this allows players to play the game in a fully emersive 3D environment, where they have full control over how their avatars and surroundings are represented. The community that has formed is constantly adding and maintaining new play areas where players organize tournaments and events, cardmotives are mostly generated from Second Life sceneries and sorted into 5 categories of cards, Energy, Matter, Information, Life and Neutral. When building decks the player needs to keep combo requirements and effects for their cards in mind, LOGOS makes use of Googles App Engine, which allows the Second Life game to be enhanced by a website interface that allows players to edit card decks and more for no cost
Logos
13.
Galen
–
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus, often Anglicized as Galen and better known as Galen of Pergamon, was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. The son of Aelius Nicon, an architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician. Galens understanding of anatomy and medicine was influenced by the then-current theory of humorism. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years, Medical students continued to study Galens writings until well into the 19th century. Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician is Also a Philosopher. Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed, although there is some debate over the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died. In medieval Europe, Galens writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the medieval university curriculum. Some of Galens ideas were incorrect, he did not dissect a human body, Galens original Greek texts gained renewed prominence during the early modern period. In the 1530s, Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to many of Galens Greek texts into Latin. Vesaliuss most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was influenced by Galenic writing. Galens name Γαληνός, Galēnos comes from the adjective γαληνός, calm, Galen describes his early life in On the affections of the mind. Galen describes his father as an amiable, just, good. His studies also took in each of the philosophical systems of the time. His father had planned a career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary. However, Galen states that in around AD145 his father had a dream in which the god Asclepius appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine, there he came under the influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood, romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease. It was also the haunt of notable people such as Claudius Charax the historian, Aelius Aristides the orator, Polemo the sophist, in 148, when he was 19, his father died, leaving him independently wealthy. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia
Galen
–
Eighteenth-century portrait of Galenus by Georg Paul Busch
Galen
–
Statue of Galen in
Bergama, Turkey
Galen
–
De curandi ratione
Galen
–
Mondino dei Liuzzi, Anathomia, 1541
14.
Theory of Forms
–
Platos theory of Forms or theory of Ideas argues that non-physical forms represent the most accurate reality. When used in this sense, the form or idea is often capitalized. However, the theory is considered a classical solution to the problem of universals, the early Greek concept of form precedes attested philosophical usage and is represented by a number of words mainly having to do with vision, sight, and appearance. The words, εἶδος and ἰδέα come from the Indo-European root *weid-, eidos is already attested in texts of the Homeric era, the earliest Greek literature. This transliteration and the tradition of German and Latin lead to the expression theory of Ideas. The word is not the English idea, which is a mental concept only. The pre-Socratic philosophers, starting with Thales, noted that appearances change, the answer was substance, which stands under the changes and is the actually existing thing being seen. The status of appearances now came into question, what is the form really and how is that related to substance. Thus, the theory of matter and form was born, starting with at least Plato and possibly germinal in some of the presocratics the forms were considered as being in something else, which Plato called nature. The latter seemed as carved wood, ὕλη in Greek, corresponding to materia in Latin, from which the English word matter is derived, shaped by receiving forms. The Forms are expounded upon in Platos dialogues and general speech, in every object or quality in reality has a form, dogs, human beings, mountains, colors, courage, love. Form answers the question, What is that, Plato was going a step further and asking what Form itself is. He supposed that the object was essentially or really the Form and that the phenomena were mere shadows mimicking the Form, that is, momentary portrayals of the Form under different circumstances. For example, Parmenides states, Nor, again, if a person were to show that all is one by partaking of one, but if he were to show me that the absolute one was many, or the absolute many one, I should be truly amazed. Matter is considered particular in itself, for Plato, forms, such as beauty, are more real than any object that imitate them. Though the forms are timeless and unchanging, physical things are in a constant change of existence, where forms are unqualified perfection, physical things are qualified and conditioned. These Forms are the essences of various objects, they are that without which a thing would not be the kind of thing it is. For example, there are tables in the world but the Form of tableness is at the core
Theory of Forms
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
Theory of Forms
–
In the
Allegory of the Cave, the objects that are seen are not real, according to Plato, but literally mimic the real Forms.
Theory of Forms
–
The central image from Raphael's
The School of Athens (1509-1511), depicting Plato (left) and Aristotle (right). Plato is depicted pointing upwards, in reference to his belief in the higher Forms, while Aristotle disagrees and points downwards to the here-and-now, in reference to his belief in
empiricism.
15.
Weltanschauungen
–
A comprehensive world view or worldview is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the entirety of the individual or societys knowledge and point of view. A world view can include natural philosophy, fundamental, existential, and normative postulates, or themes, values, emotions, the term is a calque of the German word Weltanschauung, composed of Welt and Anschauung. The German word is used in English. It is a fundamental to German philosophy and epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. Additionally, it refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs forming a global description through which an individual, group or culture watches and interprets the world, Worldview remains a confused and confusing concept in English, used very differently by linguists and sociologists. It is for this reason that Underhill suggests five subcategories, world-perceiving, world-conceiving, cultural mindset, personal world, and perspective. However, core worldview beliefs are often rooted, and so are only rarely reflected on by individuals. The founder of the idea that language and worldview are inextricable is the Prussian philologist, Humboldt argued that language was part of the creative adventure of mankind. Culture, language and linguistic communities developed simultaneously, he argued, human beings take their place in speech and continue to modify language and thought by their creative exchanges. Edward Sapir also gives an account of the relationship between thinking and speaking in English, the hypothesis was well received in the late 1940s, but declined in prominence after a decade. The theory has gained attention through the work of Lera Boroditsky at Stanford University. One of the most important concepts in philosophy and cognitive sciences is the German concept of Weltanschauung. The term Weltanschauung is often attributed to Wilhelm von Humboldt the founder of German ethnolinguistics. As Jürgen Trabant points out, however, and as Underhll reminds us in his Humboldt, Worldview and Language, Weltansicht was used by Humboldt to refer to the overarching conceptual and sensorial apprehension of reality shared by a linguistic community. But Humboldt maintained that the human being was the core of language. Worldviews are not prisons which contain and constrain us, they are the spaces we develop within, create and resist creatively in speaking together. A worldview can be expressed as the cognitive, affective, and evaluative presuppositions a group of people make about the nature of things. If the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is correct, the map of the world would be similar to the linguistic map of the world
Weltanschauungen
–
Emotions
16.
Stoics
–
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD. Stoicism is predominantly a philosophy of ethics which is informed by its system of logic. It was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC. Because of this, the Stoics presented their philosophy as a way of life, to live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they taught that everything was rooted in nature. Later Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that, because virtue is sufficient for happiness, from its founding, Stoic doctrine was popular during the Roman Empire—and its adherents included the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It later experienced a decline after Christianity became the religion in the 4th century. Over the centuries, it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance, the Stoics provided a unified account of the world, consisting of formal logic, monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the focus of human knowledge. A primary aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individuals ethical and moral well-being and this viewpoint was later described as Classical Pantheism. Beginning at around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile, Zenos ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zenos most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for the molding of what is now called Stoicism, later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases, Early Stoa, from the founding of the school by Zeno to Antipater, middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius. Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, no complete work by any Stoic philosopher survives from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive, diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zenos teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic. This is an approach to logic based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotles Syllogistic. New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic, susanne Bobzien wrote, The many close similarities between Chrysippus philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking. The Stoics held that all being – though not all things – is material and they accepted the distinction between concrete bodies and abstract ones, but rejected Aristotles belief that purely incorporeal being exists. Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras idea that if an object is hot, but, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents
Stoics
–
Zeno of Citium, cast in
Pushkin Museum in
Moscow from original in
Naples
Stoics
–
Antisthenes, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy
17.
Francis Glisson
–
Francis Glisson was a British physician, anatomist, and writer on medical subjects. He did important work on the anatomy of the liver, Glisson was born in Bristol and was educated in Rampisham, Dorset, and at Caius College, Cambridge. Glisson is a well-known medical eponym, he was for forty years Regius Professor of Physic at Cambridge, the Glisson family can be traced to present-day Somerset. Fibrous capsule of Glisson doctor/2329 at Who Named It
Francis Glisson
–
Francis Glisson
18.
Marcello Malpighi
–
Marcello Malpighi was an Italian biologist and physician, who is referred to as the Father of microscopical anatomy, histology, physiology and embryology. The splenic lymphoid nodules are often called the Malpighian bodies of the spleen or Malpighian corpuscles, the botanical family Malpighiaceae is also named after him. He was the first person to see capillaries in animals, Malpighi was one of the earliest people to observe red blood cells under a microscope, after Jan Swammerdam. His treatise De polypo cordis was important for understanding blood composition, in it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the heart. The use of the microscope enabled Malpighi to discover that invertebrates do not use lungs to breathe, Malpighi also studied the anatomy of the brain and concluded this organ is a gland. In terms of modern endocrinology, this deduction is correct because the hypothalamus of the brain has long recognized for its hormone-secreting capacity. Because Malpighi had a knowledge of both plants and animals, he made contributions to the scientific study of both. The Royal Society of London published two volumes of his botanical and zoological works in 1675 and 1679, another edition followed in 1687, and a supplementary volume in 1697. In his autobiography, Malpighi speaks of his Anatome Plantarum, decorated with the engravings of Robert White and his study of plants led him to conclude that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. Malpighi was born on 10 March 1628 at Crevalcore near Bologna, the son of well-to-do parents, Malpighi was educated in his native city, entering the University of Bologna at the age of 17. He completed these studies about 1649, where at the persuasion of his mother Frances Natalis, when his parents and grandmother became ill, he returned to his family home near Bologna to care for them. Malpighi studied Aristotelian philosophy at the University of Bologna while he was very young, despite opposition from the university authorities because he was non-Bolognese by birth, in 1653 he was granted doctorates in both medicine and philosophy. He later graduated as a doctor at the age of 25. Subsequently, he was appointed as a teacher, whereupon he immediately dedicated himself to study in anatomy. For most of his career, Malpighi combined an intense interest in research with a fond love of teaching. He was invited to correspond with the Royal Society in 1667 by Henry Oldenburg, in 1656, Ferdinand II of Tuscany invited him to the professorship of theoretical medicine at the University of Pisa. There Malpighi began his friendship with Giovanni Borelli, mathematician and naturalist. Malpighi questioned the prevailing medical teachings at Pisa, tried experiments on changes in blood, and attempted to recast anatomical, physiological
Marcello Malpighi
–
Marcello Malpighi, a lifetime portrait by
Carlo Cignani
Marcello Malpighi
–
Portrait of Marcello Malpighi pointing to the
fontanel of a baby's skull, by an unknown painter
Marcello Malpighi
–
Malpighi's tomb in Bologna
19.
Caspar Friedrich Wolff
–
Caspar Friedrich Wolff was a German physiologist and one of the founders of embryology. Wolff was born in Berlin, Brandenburg, the paper consisted of three parts devoted to development of plants, development of animals, and theoretical considerations. His views were not well received, albrecht von Haller was a powerful antagonist. During the Seven Years War, Wolff was required to practice as a doctor in the Prussian Army. Thereafter he had difficulty entering academic life, finally, in 1767, with help of the mathematician Leonhard Euler he obtained the chairmanship of anatomy at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Wolffs research covered embryology, anatomy, and botany and he was the discoverer of the primitive kidneys, or Wolffian bodies and its excretory ducts. He described these in his dissertation Theoria Generationis after observing them in his studies on chick embryos, in 1768-1769, he published his best work in embryology on the development of the intestine, of which Baer said, It is the greatest masterpiece of scientific observation which we possess. Wolff foreshadowed the germ theory by showing that the material out of which the embryo is constructed is, in an early stage of development. Locy recognizes Wolff as the foremost investigator in embryology before von Baer, Wolff contended that the organs of animals make their appearance gradually and that he could actually follow their successive stages of formation
Caspar Friedrich Wolff
–
C. F. Wolff, attribution of the portrait dubious.
Caspar Friedrich Wolff
–
Caspar Friedrch Wolff, a silhouette by F. Anting (1784), one of the two known portraits of Wolff
20.
Embryology
–
Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth. After cleavage, the cells, or morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula. In bilateral animals, the blastula develops in one of two ways that divides the whole animal kingdom into two halves. If in the blastula the first pore becomes the mouth of the animal, it is a protostome, the protostomes include most invertebrate animals, such as insects, worms and molluscs, while the deuterostomes include the vertebrates. In due course, the changes into a more differentiated structure called the gastrula. The middle layer, or mesoderm, gives rise to the muscles, skeleton if any, the outer layer of cells, or ectoderm, gives rise to the nervous system, including the brain, and skin or carapace and hair, bristles, or scales. Embryos in many species appear similar to one another in early developmental stages. The reason for this similarity is because species have an evolutionary history. These similarities among species are called homologous structures, which are structures that have the same or similar function and mechanism, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, is a model organism in biology on which much research into embryology has been done. Before fertilization, the female produces an abundance of mRNA - transcribed from the genes that encode bicoid protein. These mRNA molecules are stored to be used later in what become the developing embryo. The male and female Drosophila gametes exhibit anisogamy, the female gamete is larger than the male gamete because it harbors more cytoplasm and, within the cytoplasm, the female gamete contains an abundance of the mRNA previously mentioned. At fertilization, the male and female gametes fuse and then the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete, note that before the gametes nuclei fuse, they are known as pronuclei. A series of nuclear divisions will occur without cytokinesis in the zygote to form a cell known as a syncytium. All the nuclei in the syncytium are identical, just as all the nuclei in every cell of any multicellular organism are identical in terms of the DNA sequence of the genome. Before the nuclei can differentiate in transcriptional activity, the embryo must be divided into segments, in each segment, a unique set of regulatory proteins will cause specific genes in the nuclei to be transcribed. The resulting combination of proteins will transform clusters of cells into early embryo tissues that will develop into multiple fetal
Embryology
–
Dissection of human embryo, 38 mm - 8 weeks
Embryology
–
1 - morula, 2 - blastula
Embryology
–
Figure 1.1.1A Drosophila melanogaster
Embryology
–
Figure 1.1.1B Drosophila melanogaster
larvae contained in lab apparatus to be used for experiments in genetics and embryology.
21.
Carl Reichenbach
–
Baron Dr. Carl Ludwig von Reichenbach was a notable chemist, geologist, metallurgist, naturalist, industrialist and philosopher, and a member of the prestigious Prussian Academy of Sciences. He is best known for his discoveries of several products of economic importance, extracted from tar, such as eupione, waxy paraffin, pittacal. He also dedicated himself in his last years to research an unproved field of energy combining electricity, magnetism and heat, emanating from all living things, Reichenbach was educated at the University of Tübingen, where he obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy. At the age of 16 he conceived the idea of establishing a new German state in one of the South Sea Islands, Reichenbach conducted original scientific investigations in many areas. The first geological monograph which appeared in Austria was his Geologische Mitteilungen aus Mähren, under the name of eupione, Reichenbach included the mixture of hydrocarbon oils now known as waxy paraffin or coal oils. His reasoning was that meteorites and planets are the same, and no matter the size of the meteorite and this was deemed conclusive by the scientific community in the 19th century. In 1839 Von Reichenbach retired from industry and entered upon an investigation of the pathology of the nervous system. He studied neurasthenia, somnambulism, hysteria and phobia, crediting reports that conditions were affected by the moon. After interviewing many patients he ruled out many causes and cures, to this vitalist manifestation he gave the name Odic force. Reichenbach and his Odic force are referred to in the game Amnesia, regarding personal names, Freiherr is a former title, which is now legally a part of the last name. The feminine forms are Freifrau and Freiin, paranormal Site Karl Ludwig von Reichenbach. Stadt Stuttgart Researches on Magnetism, Electricity, Heat and Light in their relations to Vital Forces
Carl Reichenbach
–
Carl Ludwig von Reichenbach
22.
Isaac Newton
–
His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
Isaac Newton
–
Portrait of Isaac Newton in 1689 (age 46) by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
–
Newton in a 1702 portrait by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
–
Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Isaac Newton
–
Replica of Newton's second
Reflecting telescope that he presented to the
Royal Society in 1672
23.
Cartesian dualism
–
In philosophy of mind, dualism or duality is the position that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical, or that the mind and body are not identical. In this view, a soul is the form of a viable organism. Thus, for Aristotle, all three souls perish when the organism dies. For Plato however, the soul was not dependent on the body, he believed in metempsychosis. Dualism is closely associated with the thought of René Descartes, which holds that the mind is a nonphysical—and therefore, Descartes clearly identified the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and distinguished this from the brain as the seat of intelligence. Hence, he was the first to formulate the problem in the form in which it exists today. Dualism is contrasted with various kinds of monism, substance dualism is contrasted with all forms of materialism, but property dualism may be considered a form of emergent materialism or non-reductive physicalism in some sense. Property dualism suggests that the distinction lies in the differences between properties of mind and matter. Predicate dualism claims the irreducibility of mental predicates to physical predicates, substance dualism is a type of dualism most famously defended by René Descartes, which states that there are two kinds of foundation, mental and body. This philosophy states that the mental can exist outside of the body, substance dualism is important historically for having given rise to much thought regarding the famous mind–body problem. Substance dualism is a position compatible with most theologies which claim that immortal souls occupy an independent realm of existence distinct from that of the physical world. It asserts that when matter is organized in the appropriate way, hence, it is a sub-branch of emergent materialism. What views properly fall under the property dualism rubric is itself a matter of dispute, there are different versions of property dualism, some of which claim independent categorisation. Non-reductive physicalism is a form of property dualism in which it is asserted that all states are causally reducible to physical states. Another argument for this has been expressed by John Searle, who is the advocate of a form of physicalism he calls biological naturalism. His view is that mental states are ontologically irreducible to physical states. He has acknowledged that to many people his views and those of property dualists look a lot alike, but he thinks the comparison is misleading. Epiphenomenalism is a form of Property Dualism, in which it is asserted that one or more states do not have any influence on physical states
Cartesian dualism
–
Another one of Descartes' illustrations. The fire displaces the skin, which pulls a tiny thread, which opens a pore in the ventricle (F) allowing the "animal spirit" to flow through a hollow tube, which inflates the muscle of the leg, causing the foot to withdraw.
Cartesian dualism
–
René Descartes 's illustration of dualism. Inputs are passed on by the sensory organs to the
epiphysis in the brain and from there to the immaterial spirit.
24.
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
–
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach was a German physician, naturalist, physiologist, and anthropologist. He was one of the first to explore the study of mankind as an aspect of natural history and his teachings in comparative anatomy were applied to his classification of human races, of which he determined there were five. He was a member of the Göttingen School of History, Blumenbach was born at his family house in Gotha. His father was Heinrich Blumenbach, a school headmaster, his mother was Charlotte Eleonore Hedwig Buddeus. He was born into a family of academics. He studied medicine at Jena, and then at Göttingen and he was recognized as a prodigy by the age sixteen in 1768. He graduated from the latter in 1775 with his M. D. thesis De generis humani varietate nativa and it is considered one of the most influential works in the development of subsequent concepts of human races. It contained the germ of the research to which so many of his subsequent inquiries were directed. He was appointed professor of medicine and inspector of the museum of natural history in Göttingen in 1776. His contributions soon began to enrich the pages of the Medicinische Bibliothek, of which he was editor from 1780 to 1794, with contributions on medicine, physiology. In physiology, he was of the school of Albrecht von Haller, following Baron Cuviers identification, Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its first scientific name, Elephas primigenius, in 1799. Between its first publication and 1821, it went through many editions in Germany and it was translated into English in America by Charles Caldwell, and in London by John Elliotson. He was perhaps more extensively known by his Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie. It was translated into English in 1809 by the surgeon Sir William Lawrence, although the greatest part of Blumenbachs life was passed at Göttingen, in 1789 he visited Switzerland, and gave a curious medical topography of that country in the Bibliothek. He was in England in 1788 and 1792 and he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London in 1793 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1794. In 1808 he became a correspondent, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, in 1827 this changed to associated member. In celebration of his doctoral jubilee traveling scholarships were founded to assist talented young physicians, in 1813, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Blumenbach died in Göttingen in 1840, Blumenbachs work included his description of sixty human crania published originally in fascicules as Decas craniorum
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
–
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
–
Blumenbach's five
races.
25.
Hydra (zoology)
–
Hydra /ˈhaɪdrə/ is a genus of small, fresh-water animals of the phylum Cnidaria and class Hydrozoa. They are native to the temperate and tropical regions, biologists are especially interested in Hydra because of their regenerative ability – they appear not to age or die of old age. Hydra has a tubular, radially symmetric body up to 10 mm long when extended, secured by an adhesive foot called the basal disc. Gland cells in the disc secrete a sticky fluid that accounts for its adhesive properties. At the free end of the body is an opening surrounded by one to twelve thin. Each tentacle, or cnida, is clothed with highly specialised stinging cells called cnidocytes, cnidocytes contain specialized structures called nematocysts, which look like miniature light bulbs with a coiled thread inside. At the narrow edge of the cnidocyte is a short trigger hair called a cnidocil. Hydra has two body layers, which makes it diploblastic. The layers are separated by mesoglea, a gel-like substance, the outer layer is the epidermis, and the inner layer is called the gastrodermis, because it lines the stomach. The cells making up these two layers are relatively simple. Hydramacin is a recently discovered in Hydra, it protects the outer layer against infection. The nervous system of Hydra is a net, which is structurally simple compared to mammalian nervous systems. Hydra does not have a brain or true muscles. Nerve nets connect sensory photoreceptors and touch-sensitive nerve cells located in the body wall, respiration and excretion occur by diffusion everywhere through the epidermis. If Hydra are alarmed or attacked, the tentacles can be retracted to small buds, Hydra generally react in the same way regardless of the direction of the stimulus, and this may be due to the simplicity of the nerve nets. Hydra are generally sedentary or sessile, but do occasionally move quite readily, especially when hunting and they have two distinct methods for moving – looping and somersaulting. They do this by bending over and attaching themselves to the substrate with the mouth and tentacles and then relocate the foot, which provides the usual attachment, in somersaulting, the body then bends over and makes a new place of attachment with the foot. By this process of looping or somersaulting, a Hydra can move several inches in a day, Hydra may also move by amoeboid motion of their bases or by simply detaching from the substrate and floating away in the current
Hydra (zoology)
–
Hydra showing
sessile behaviour
Hydra (zoology)
–
Schematic drawing of a discharging nematocyst
26.
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
John Hunter FRS was a Scottish surgeon, one of the most distinguished scientists and surgeons of his day. He was an advocate of careful observation and scientific method in medicine. He was a teacher of, friend of, and collaborator with, Edward Jenner and his wife, Anne Hunter, was a minor poet, some of whose poems were set to music by Joseph Haydn. He learned anatomy by assisting his elder brother William with dissections in Williams anatomy school in, London, starting in 1748, and quickly became expert in anatomy. He spent some years as an Army surgeon, worked with the dentist James Spence conducting tooth transplants, Hunter became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767. The Hunterian Society of London was named in his honour, Hunter was born at Calderwood, the youngest of ten children. Family papers cite his birthday as being variously on 7 and 9 February, three of Hunters siblings died of illness before he was born. An elder brother was William Hunter, the anatomist, as a youth, John showed little talent, and robbed his brother-in-law as a cabinet-maker. When nearly 21 he visited William in London, where his brother had become a teacher of anatomy. John started as his assistant in dissections, and was running the practical classes on his own. John is alleged to have connected to these deaths, since at the time he was acting as Williams assistant. In The Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus Exhibited in Figures, published in 1774, Hunter heavily researched blood while bloodletting patients with various diseases. This helped helped him develop his theory that inflammation was a response to disease. Hunter studied under William Cheselden at Chelsea Hospital and Percival Pott at St. Bartholomews Hospital, Hunter also studied with Marie Marguerite Bihéron, a famous anatomist and wax modeler teaching in London, some of the illustrations in his text were likely hers. After qualifying he became Assistant Surgeon at St Georges Hospital and Surgeon, Hunter was commissioned as an Army surgeon in 1760 and was staff surgeon on expedition to the French island of Belle Île in 1761, then served in 1762 with the British Army. Contrary to prevailing opinion at the time, Hunter was against the practice of dilation of gunshot wounds. This practice involved the surgeon deliberately expanding a wound with the aim of making the gunpowder easier to remove, Hunter left the Army in 1763, and spent at least five years working in partnership with James Spence, a well-known London dentist. These principles are used in the transplanation of internal organs
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
Painted by
John Jackson, 1813, after Sir
Joshua Reynolds, 1786
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
Plaster cast medallion of Dr John Hunter, Science Museum, London
John Hunter (surgeon)
–
Bust of Hunter near where he lived in
Leicester Square, London
27.
Louis Pasteur
–
Louis Pasteur was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and created the first vaccines for rabies and his medical discoveries provided direct support for the germ theory of disease and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination. He is regarded as one of the three founders of bacteriology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, and is popularly known as the father of microbiology. Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation and he performed experiments that showed that without contamination, microorganisms could not develop. Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences, he demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks nothing ever developed, although Pasteur was not the first to propose the germ theory, his experiments indicated its correctness and convinced most of Europe that it was true. Today, he is regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals. Early in his career, his investigation of tartaric acid resulted in the first resolution of what is now called optical isomers and his work led the way to the current understanding of a fundamental principle in the structure of organic compounds. He was the director of the Pasteur Institute, established in 1887, till his death, although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals, Louis Pasteur was born on December 27,1822, in Dole, Jura, France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner. He was the child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827, Pasteur entered primary school in 1831. He was a student in his early years, and not particularly academic. He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends, Pasteur attended secondary school at the Collège dArbois. In October 1838, he left for Paris to join the Pension Barbet, in 1839, he entered the Collège Royal de Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840. He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree course with special mathematics
Louis Pasteur
–
Photograph by
Nadar
Louis Pasteur
–
The house in which Pasteur was born,
Dole
Louis Pasteur
–
Pasteur in 1857
Louis Pasteur
–
Pasteur experimenting in his laboratory.
28.
Fermentation
–
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, Fermentation is also used more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium, often with the goal of producing a specific chemical product. French microbiologist Louis Pasteur is often remembered for his insights into fermentation, the science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation takes place when the transport chain is unusable. In this case it becomes the primary means of ATP production. Fermentation turns NADH and pyruvate produced in glycolysis into NAD+. In the presence of O2, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration and this is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, cells generally benefit from avoiding fermentation when oxygen is available, the exception being obligate anaerobes which cannot tolerate oxygen. The first step, glycolysis, is common to all fermentation pathways, two ADP molecules and two Pi are converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation. Two molecules of NAD+ are also reduced to NADH, in oxidative phosphorylation the energy for ATP formation is derived from an electrochemical proton gradient generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane via the electron transport chain. Humans have used fermentation to produce drinks and beverages since the Neolithic age, Fermentation can even occur within the stomachs of animals, such as humans. To many people, fermentation simply means the production of alcohol, grains and fruits are fermented to produce beer, if a food soured, one might say it was off or fermented. Here are some definitions of fermentation and they range from informal, general usage to more scientific definitions. Preservation methods for food via microorganisms, any process that produces alcoholic beverages or acidic dairy products. Any large-scale microbial process occurring with or without air, any energy-releasing metabolic process that takes place only under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation does not necessarily have to be carried out in an anaerobic environment, for example, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, yeast cells greatly prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration, as long as sugars are readily available for consumption. The antibiotic activity of hops also inhibits aerobic metabolism in yeast, Fermentation reacts NADH with an endogenous, organic electron acceptor. Usually this is formed from the sugar during the glycolysis step. Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of products are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide
Fermentation
–
Fermentation in progress: Bubbles of
CO2 form a froth on top of the fermentation mixture.
Fermentation
–
Louis Pasteur in his laboratory
29.
Albert Edelfelt
–
Albert Gustaf Aristides Edelfelt was a Finnish painter. He lived in Grand Duchy of Finland and made Finnish culture visible abroad, Edelfelt was born in Porvoo, son of Carl Albert Edelfelt, an architect, and Alexandra Edelfelt, née Brandt. He began his studies of art in 1869 at the Drawing School of the Finnish Art Society. He studied history painting at the Antwerp Academy of Art before becoming a pupil of Jean-Léon Gérôme at the École Nationale des Beaux-Arts in Paris, in Paris he shared a studio with the American, Julian Alden Weir, who introduced him to John Singer Sargent. Later he studied at Saint Petersburg and he married Baroness Ellan de la Chapelle in 1888, and they had one child. He had also romantic elationships with many other women, Edelfelt was one of the first Finnish artists to achieve international fame. He enjoyed considerable success in Paris, including a medal at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1889. His painted portraits of famous people, includin Louis Pasteur, Aino Ackté. In Finland, he was one of the founders of the Realist art movement in Finland and he influenced several younger Finnish painters and helped fellow Finnish artists such as Akseli Gallen-Kallela and Gunnar Berndtson to make their breakthrough in Paris. Among his students was Léon Bakst, the painting of Louis Pasteur won him the Legion of Honour in 1886 at the exhibition at the Paris Salon. Edelfelt admired the poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg, who was a friend of the family, the company of Runeberg had a lasting impact on Edelfelt, who from time to time turned to scenes from Finnish history in his paintings. Edelfelt went on to illustrate Runebergs epic poem The Tales of Ensign Stål, the reverse shows an embossed face of the artist
Albert Edelfelt
–
Self portrait (ca. 1887–90)
Albert Edelfelt
–
Boys Playing on the Shore
Albert Edelfelt
–
Albert Edelfelt and painting commemorative coin
Albert Edelfelt
–
Christ and Mary Magdalene, a Finnish Legend
30.
Chemistry
–
Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
Chemistry
–
Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including
ammonium hydroxide and
nitric acid, illuminated in different colors
Chemistry
–
Democritus ' atomist philosophy was later adopted by
Epicurus (341–270 BCE).
Chemistry
–
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
Chemistry
–
Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry,
University of Cologne.
31.
Physiology
–
Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
Physiology
–
Oil painting depicting Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils
Physiology
–
Animals
32.
Soul
–
In many religious, philosophical and mythological traditions, the soul is the incorporeal essence of a living being. Depending on the system, a soul can either be mortal or immortal. In Judeo-Christianity, only human beings have immortal souls, for example, the Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas attributed soul to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal. Other religions hold that all organisms have souls, as did Aristotle, while some teach that even non-biological entities possess souls. The latter belief is called animism, Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, understood that the soul must have a logical faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. Anima mundi is the concept of a world soul connecting all living organisms on planet Earth, the Modern English word soul, derived from Old English sáwol, sáwel, was first attested in the 8th-century poem Beowulf v.2820 and in the Vespasian Psalter 77.50. Further etymology of the Germanic word is uncertain, the Koine Greek word ψυχή psychē, life, spirit, consciousness, is derived from a verb meaning to cool, to blow, and hence refers to the breath, as opposed to σῶμα, meaning body. Vulgate, et nolite timere eos qui occidunt corpus animam autem non possunt occidere sed potius eum timete qui potest et animam et corpus perdere in gehennam. Authorized King James Version And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul, vulgate Creavitque Deus cete grandia, et omnem animam viventem atque motabilem. KJV And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, Paul of Tarsus used ψυχή and πνεῦμα specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש nephesh and רוח ruah. The ancient Greeks used the word alive for the concept of being ensouled, the soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual breath that animates the living organism. Francis M. Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals an award of joy or sorrow drawing near in dreams. Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre-Pythagorean belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being, Socrates says that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is reborn in subsequent bodies and Plato believed this as well, however. Thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger, eros is located in the stomach and is related to ones desires. Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a caste system. According to Platos theory, the soul is essentially the same thing as a states class system because, to function well
Soul
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens, a
fresco by
Raphael.
Soul
–
The souls of Pe and
Nekhen towing the royal bargue on a relief of
Ramesses II 's temple in Abydos.
Soul
–
Soul carried to Heaven by
William Bouguereau
Soul
–
The Damned Soul. Drawing by
Michelangelo Buonarroti c. 1525
33.
Spontaneous generation
–
Spontaneous generation or anomalous generation is an obsolete body of thought on the ordinary formation of living organisms without descent from similar organisms. Typically, the idea was that certain forms such as fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as dust, a variant idea was that of equivocal generation, in which species such as tapeworms arose from unrelated living organisms, now understood to be their hosts. Doctrines supporting such processes of generation held that these processes are commonplace, such ideas are in contradiction to that of univocal generation, effectively exclusive reproduction from genetically related parent, generally of the same species. Today it is accepted to have been decisively dispelled during the 19th century by the experiments of Louis Pasteur. He expanded upon the investigations of predecessors, however, some experimental difficulties were still there and objections from persons holding the traditional views persisted. Many of these objections were dealt with by the work of John Tyndall. Pasteurs experiment is known to have refuted the theory of spontaneous generation in 1859. Disproof of the ideas of spontaneous generation is no longer controversial among professional biologists. John Desmond Bernal suggests that earlier theories such as spontaneous generation were based upon an explanation that life was created as a result of chance events. Crucial to this doctrine is the idea that life comes from non-life, with the conditions, an example would be the supposed seasonal generation of mice and other animals from the mud of the Nile. In the years following Louis Pasteurs experiment in 1862, the spontaneous generation fell into increasing disfavor. Experimentalists used a variety of terms for the study of the origin of life from non-living materials, heterogenesis was applied to once-living materials such as boiled broths, and Henry Charlton Bastian proposed the term archebiosis for life originating from inorganic materials. The two were lumped together as spontaneous generation, but disliking the term as sounding too random, for example, he claimed humans, in a different form, must have earlier been born mature like other animals, or they would not have survived. Anaximander also claimed that spontaneous generation continued to this day, with forms being produced directly from lifeless matter. Xenophanes traced the origin of man back to the period between the fluid stage of the earth and the formation of land. He too held to a generation of fully formed plants. Empedocles accepted the spontaneous generation of life, but held that there had to be trials of combinations of parts of animals that spontaneously arose, successful combinations formed the species we now see, unsuccessful forms failed to reproduce. Anaxagoras also adopted a terrestrial slime account, although he thought that the seeds of plants existed in the air from the beginning, Aristotle laid the foundations of Western natural philosophy
Spontaneous generation
–
Scallop
Spontaneous generation
–
The goose barnacle: Pollicipes cornucopia
Spontaneous generation
–
The barnacle goose: Branta leucopsis
Spontaneous generation
–
Before making the "swan neck flasks" Pasteur sealed flasks like this one from air. It remains sterile and on view at the
Science Museum, London.
34.
Liebig
–
Justus Freiherr von Liebig was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and was considered the founder of organic chemistry. As a professor at the University of Giessen, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method and he also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube. Justus von Liebig was born in Darmstadt into the family of Johann Georg Liebig. His father was a drysalter and hardware merchant who compounded and sold paints, varnishes and pigments, from childhood Justus was fascinated with chemistry. At the age of 13, Liebig lived through the year without a summer, Germany was among the hardest-hit in the global famine that ensued, and the experience is said to have shaped Liebigs later work. Thanks in part to Liebigs innovations in fertilizers and agriculture, the 1816 famine became known as the last great subsistence crisis in the Western world, Liebig attended grammar school at the Ludwig-Georgs-Gymnasium in Darmstadt, from the age of 8 to 14. He worked with his father for the two years, then attended the University of Bonn, studying under Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner. When Kastner moved to the University of Erlangen, Liebig followed him, Liebig left Erlangen in March 1822, in part because of his involvement with the radical Korps Rhenania but also because of his hopes for more advanced chemical studies. The circumstances are clouded by possible scandal, in late 1822 Liebig went to study in Paris on a grant obtained for him by Kastner from the Hessian government. He worked in the laboratory of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and was also befriended by Alexander von Humboldt. Liebigs doctorate from Erlangen was conferred on 23 June 1823, a time after he left. Kastner pleaded that the requirement of a dissertation be waived, Liebig left Paris to return to Darmstadt in April 1824. On 26 May 1824, at the age of 21 and with Humboldts recommendation, Liebigs appointment was part of an attempt to modernize the University of Giessen and attract more students. He received a stipend, without laboratory funding or access to facilities. Vogt was happy to support a reorganization in which pharmacy was taught by Liebig and became the responsibility of the faculty of arts, Zimmermann found himself competing unsuccessfully with Liebig for students and their lecture fees. He refused to allow Liebig to use existing space and equipment, the deaths of Zimmermann and a Professor Blumhof who taught technology and mining opened the way for Liebig to apply for a full professorship. Liebig was appointed to the chair in chemistry on 7 December 1825, receiving a considerably increased salary. Liebig married Henriette Jettchen Moldenhauer, the daughter of a state official and they had five children, Georg, Agnes, Hermann, Johanna and Marie
Liebig
–
Justus von Liebig
Liebig
–
The young Liebig: 1843 lithograph after an 1821 painting (Liebighaus)
Liebig
–
Justus von Liebig, by
Wilhelm Trautschold, c. 1846
Liebig
–
Liebig's Laboratory at Giessen, by Wilhelm Trautschold
35.
Moritz Traube
–
Moritz Traube was a German chemist and universal private scholar. Traube worked on chemical, biochemical, medical, physiological, pathophysiological problems, he was engaged in hygienics, physically chemistry and chemical basic research. The chemistry of oxygen and its significance to the organism were the objects of his research. Moritz Traube was a brother of the famous Berlin physician Ludwig Traube. A son, Wilhelm Traube, evolved a process of purine synthesis, Hermann Traube, another son, was a mineralogist. Traubes father was a Jewish wine merchant, the grandson of a rabbi from Krakow, Traube graduated from the Gymnasium in the provincial town of Ratibor when he was only 16 years old. His older brother Ludwig advised him to scientific studies at the University of Berlin. He moved to Giessen to participate in Liebigs practical-analytical course in 1844/45 and he attended lectures in botany and logic. In 1845 he returned to Berlin, in 1847 he received his doctorate with a thesis entitled De nonnullis chromii connubiis. The later well-known botanist Nathanael Pringsheim supported him, for a few weeks he attended lectures in clinical disciplines such as surgery and auscultation and percussion. The extraordinarily wide spectrum of his qualifications was a basis of his universal research, when another brother, who was to have taken over their fathers wine business, suddenly died of diabetes, Traubes father ordered him home to Ratibor to help manage the business. After agonizing for several weeks, Traube complied, but he could not abandon science. In a poorly-heated attic of his house, lacking time and money, isolated from scientific communication and he completed numerous well-planned, accurately executed experiments, the correctness of which his contemporaries were forced to acknowledge. Traube was also successful as a wine merchant, together with his brother Ludwig he donated 500 Taler to the Ratibor Gymnasium for students prizes. He married Bertha Moll of Lissa in 1855, the marriage produced 3 daughters and 2 sons. To facilitate his research Traube moved to Breslau and he worked for a time in the laboratory of his friend Theodor Poleck and in the Physiological Institute of Rudolf Heidenhain. Later he erected his own, well equipped laboratory and employed assistants, every year he travelled to Hungary to survey and purchase wine himself. One of his customers was Otto von Bismarck, in 1886 Traube resigned from business
Moritz Traube
–
Moritz Traube - portrait, source: Ber. d. deutschen chem. Gesellsch. 28 (1895) S. 1085
36.
Hans Driesch
–
Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch was a German biologist and philosopher from Bad Kreuznach. He is most noted for his experimental work in embryology. He is also credited with performing the first cloning of an animal in the 1880s, Driesch was educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums. He began to study medicine in 1886 under August Weismann at the University of Freiburg, in 1887 he attended the University of Jena under Ernst Haeckel, Oscar Hertwig and Christian Ernst Stahl. In 1888 he studied physics and chemistry at the University of Munich and he received his doctorate in 1889. His interests encompassed mathematics, philosophy and physics as well as biology and he married Margarete Relfferschneidt, and the couple had two children. From 1891 Driesch worked in Naples at the Marine Biological Station and he enquired into classical and modern philosophy in his search for an adequate theoretical overview and ended by adopting an Aristotlean teleological theory of entelechy. Under the influence of his teacher Haeckel, Driesch had tested the mechanistic embryological theories of another of Haeckels students and it appeared that any single monad in the original egg cell was capable of forming any part of the completed embryo. This important refutation of both preformation and the theory of Wilhelm Roux was to be subject to much discussion in the ensuing years. This also happened at the stage, entire larvae ensued from each of the four cells. Drieschs results were confirmed with greater precision by Hans Spemann, from 1909, determined to take up a career in academic philosophy, he taught natural philosophy at the Faculty of Natural Sciences in Heidelberg, becoming extraordinary professor there. In the ensuing decade he published a system of philosophy in three volumes, including his fundamental Theory of Order in which he proposed a three-part doctrine of order. He taught at the University of Wisconsin and in Buenos Aires and he became interested in parapsychology and published on such phenomena as telepathy, clairvoyance, and telekinesis. His vitalist writings have been criticized for being based on a rather than an objective scientific standpoint. Driesch developed a deep interest in Psychical Research and Parapsychology, in 1931, he published a methodology of parapsychological research and in 1933 he published a book on the topic titled Psychical Research, The Science of the Super-normal. From 1926-1927 he served as the president of the Society for Psychical Research, the Science and Philosophy of the Organism, The Gifford Lectures delivered before the University of Aberdeen in the Year 1907 and 1908. The Problem of Individuality, A Course of Four Lectures Delivered before the University of London in October 1912, the History and Theory of Vitalism. The biological setting of psychical phenomena, the Possibility of Metaphysics, The Course of Four Lectures Delivered before the University of London in March 1924
Hans Driesch
–
Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch
37.
Ernst Mayr
–
Not to be confused with Ernst Mayr, Ernst Mayer, Ernst Meyer, Ernest Mayer or Ernest May. Ernst Walter Mayr was one of the 20th centurys leading evolutionary biologists and he was also a renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, philosopher of biology, and historian of science. Although Charles Darwin and others posited that multiple species could evolve from a common ancestor. Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for species, the most significant and rapid genetic reorganization occurs in extremely small populations that have been isolated. Mayr was the son of Helene Pusinelli and Dr. Otto Mayr. His father was a jurist but took an interest in natural history and he learnt all the local birds in Würzburg from his elder brother Otto. He also had access to a history magazine for amateurs. His father died just before he was thirteen, the family then moved to Dresden and he studied at the Staatsgymnasium in Dresden-Neustadt and completed his high school education there. In April 1922, while still in school, he joined the newly founded Saxony Ornithologists’ Association. Here he met Rudolf Zimmermann, who became his ornithological mentor, in February 1923, Mayr passed his high school examination and his mother rewarded him with a pair of binoculars. On 23 March 1923 on the lakes of Moritzburg, the Frauenteich, the species had not been seen in Saxony since 1845 and the local club argued about the identity. Raimund Schelcher of the club suggested that Mayr visit his classmate Erwin Stresemann on his way to Greifswald. After a tough interrogation, Stresemann accepted and published the sighting as authentic, Stresemann was very impressed and suggested that, between semesters, Mayr could work as a volunteer in the ornithological section of the museum. Mayr wrote about this event, It was as if someone had given me the key to heaven, Mayr was endlessly interested in ornithology and chose Greifswald at the Baltic for my studies for no other reason than that. It was situated in the ornithologically most interesting area, although he ostensibly planned to become a physician, he was first and foremost an ornithologist. During the first semester break Stresemann gave him a test to identify treecreepers, Stresemann declared that Mayr was a born systematist. Mayr completed his doctorate in ornithology at the University of Berlin under Dr. Carl Zimmer, on 1 July he accepted the position offered to him at the museum for a monthly salary of 330.54 Reichsmark. In New Guinea, Mayr collected several thousand bird skins and, during his stay in New Guinea, he was invited to accompany the Whitney South Seas Expedition to the Solomon Islands
Ernst Mayr
–
Mayr in 1994
Ernst Mayr
–
Bust of Mayr in the
Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin
38.
Alistair Hardy
–
Sir Alister Clavering Hardy, FRS FRSE FLS LLD was an English marine biologist, an expert on marine ecosystems spanning organisms from zooplankton to whales. Hardy served as zoologist on the RRS Discoverys voyage to explore the Antarctic between 1925 and 1927, on the voyage he invented the Continuous Plankton Recorder, it enabled any ship to collect plankton samples during an ordinary voyage. After retiring from his work, Hardy founded the Religious Experience Research Centre in 1969. Hardy was born in Nottingham, the son of Richard Hardy, an architect and he was educated not far away at Oundle School. He had intended to go to Oxford University in 1914, but on the outbreak of war he volunteered for the army, and was made a camoufleur. Hardy wrote that he had been drawn to science and art. I am lucky in not having been torn between the two, I have managed to combine them and he was selected for camouflage work by the artist Solomon J. Solomon, who apparently mistook him for a different Hardy who was a professional artist. Hardy however did have sufficient artistic skill to serve his military and he illustrated his New Naturalist books with his own line drawings, maps, diagrams, photographs, and paintings. For example, plate 2 of Fish and Fisheries illustrates the depicted Rare, Hardy described the camoufleurs as including artists and scientists with artistic inclinations, himself perhaps among them. In later life, Hardy travelled in India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Cambodia, China and Japan, many of these are in the University of Wales Trinity Saint David collection. Hardy was the zoologist on the RRS Discovery voyage to explore the Antarctic between 1925 and 1927, as part of the Discovery Investigations, through his studies of zooplankton and its relationship with predators, he became expert in marine mammals such as whales. Whilst on board the Discovery he designed and later built a mechanism called the Continuous Plankton Recorder or CPR, the CPR collects plankton samples and stores them on a moving band of silk, preserving them in formalin. His pioneering research into plankton distribution and abundance is continued by the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science, Hardy was the first Professor of Zoology at the University of Hull from 1928 -1942. In 1940, Hardy was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, Hardy identified as a Darwinian, he denied the Lamarckian inheritance of acquired characteristics. He was a proponent of organic selection and he held the view that behavioral changes can be important for evolution. Hardy discussed his ideas in his book The Living Stream. He had written a chapter titled Biology and Telepathy where he explained that something akin to telepathy might possibly influence the process of evolution, evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr described his views on evolution as a form of vitalism. Hardy also suggested that animals share a group mind which he described as a sort of psychic blueprint between members of a species
Alistair Hardy
–
Sir Alister C. Hardy
Alistair Hardy
–
Hardy's artistry in the service of science: Rare and Unusual Fish in British Waters. 1. Opah,
Lampris guttatus. 2. Sea Horse,
Hippocampus europaeus. 3. Red Bandfish,
Cepola rubescens. 4. Rabbit-fish,
Chimaera monstrosa
Alistair Hardy
–
RRS Discovery in the Antarctic
39.
Sewall Wright
–
Sewall Green Wright was an American geneticist known for his influential work on evolutionary theory and also for his work on path analysis. He was a founder of population genetics alongside Ronald Fisher and J. B. S, Haldane, which was a major step in the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis combining genetics with evolution. He discovered the inbreeding coefficient and methods of computing it in pedigree animals, Wright also made major contributions to mammalian and biochemical genetics. Sewall Wright was born in Melrose, Massachusetts to Philip Green Wright and his parents were first cousins, an interesting fact in light of Wrights later research on inbreeding. The family moved three years later after Philip accepted a job at Lombard College, a Universalist college in Galesburg. As a child, Wright helped his father and brother print and he was the oldest of three gifted brothers—the others being the aeronautical engineer Theodore Paul Wright and the political scientist Quincy Wright. From an early age Wright had a love and talent for mathematics, Wright attended Galesburg High School and graduated in 1906. He then enrolled in Lombard College where his father taught, to study mathematics and he was influenced greatly by Professor Wilhelmine Entemann Key, one of the first women to receive a Ph. D. in biology. He worked for the U. S. Department of Agriculture until 1925 and he remained there until his retirement in 1955, when he moved to the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He received many honors in his career, including the National Medal of Science, the Balzan Prize. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society, the American Mathematical Society selected him as the Josiah Willards Gibbs lecturer for 1941. For his work on genetics of evolutionary processes, Wright was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1945, Wright married Louise Lane Williams in 1921. They had three children, Richard, Robert, and Elizabeth and his papers on inbreeding, mating systems, and genetic drift make him a principal founder of theoretical population genetics, along with R. A. Fisher and J. B. S. Haldane. Their theoretical work is the origin of the evolutionary synthesis or neodarwinian synthesis. Wright was the inventor/discoverer of the coefficient and F-statistics, standard tools in population genetics. In this work he introduced the concept of effective population size. Wright was convinced that the interaction of genetic drift and the evolutionary forces was important in the process of adaptation. He described the relationship between genotype or phenotype and fitness as fitness surfaces or evolutionary landscapes, on these landscapes mean population fitness was the height, plotted against horizontal axes representing the allele frequencies or the average phenotypes of the population
Sewall Wright
–
Wright in 1954
40.
Oscar Hertwig
–
Oscar Hertwig was a German zoologist and professor, who also wrote about the theory of evolution circa 1916, over 55 years after Charles Darwins book The Origin of Species. He was the brother of zoologist-professor Richard Hertwig. The Hertwig brothers were the most eminent scholars of Ernst Haeckel from the University of Jena. They were independent of Haeckels philosophical speculations but took his ideas in a way to widen their concepts in zoology. Initially, between 1879–1883, they performed embryological studies, especially on the theory of the coelom, the body cavity. These problems were based on the phylogenetic theorems of Haeckel, i. e. the biogenic theory, within 10 years, the two brothers moved apart to the north and south of Germany. Richards research focused on protists, as well as on developmental physiological studies on sea urchins and he also wrote a leading Zoology textbook. Oscar Hertwig was a leader in the field of comparative and causal animal-developmental history and he also wrote a leading textbook. By studying sea urchins he proved that fertilization occurs due to the fusion of a sperm, Oscar Hertwig experiments with frog eggs revealed the long axis rule, or Hertwig rule. According to this cell divides along its long axis. While Oscar was well interested in biology, he was opposed to chance as assumed in Charles Darwin´s theory. His most important theoretical book was, Das Werden der Organismen, Hertwig was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1903. Oscar Hertwig is known as Oscar Hedwig in the book Who discovered what when by David Ellyard, a history of the discovery of fertilization for mammals including scientists like Hertwig and other workers is given by the book The Mammalian Egg by Austin. Die Elemente der Entwicklungslehre des Menschen und der Wirbeltiere, Anleitung und Repetitorium für Studierende und Ärzte, fischer, Jena 5th ed.1915 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Hertwig, O. Das Problem der Befruchtung und der Isotropie des Eies. Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Naturwissenschaft 18, 276–318, evolution – concepts and history of evolutionary thought. 152, p.386, PMID2093819 Weindling, P, Social concepts in anatomy, theories of the state of Oscar Hertwig. Isis, a review devoted to the history of science and its cultural influences,61, pp. 429–57, doi,10. 1086/350680, PMID4942056 Cremer. This German book can be downloaded here, fischer Bücherei GmbH, Frankfurt a. M. & Hamburg. Lankenau. Early to recent key-discoveries, From Germline Theory to Modern Gene Modification Weindling, Darwinism and Social Darwinism in Imperial Germany, The Contribution of the Cell Biologist Oscar Hertwig
Oscar Hertwig
–
Oscar Hertwig by
Nicola Perscheid
Oscar Hertwig
–
Illustration from O. Hertwig's book Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der Wirbeltiere (Textbook of developmental history of humans and vertebrates), 1906.
41.
Carl Jung
–
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, the two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated on an initially joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw in the man the potential heir he had been seeking to carry on his new science of psychoanalysis. Jungs researches and personal vision, however, made it impossible for him to bend to his older colleagues dogma and this break was to have historic as well as painful personal repercussions that have lasted to this day. Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder as well as a prolific writer, many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the out of each individuals conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the unconscious, the psychological complex. Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as the second and first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung and their first child, born in 1873 was a boy named Paul who survived only a few days. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk, and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes, the given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author and editor. When Jung was six months old, his father was appointed to a prosperous parish in Laufen. Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed woman, she spent considerable time in her bedroom where she said that spirits visited her at night, although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck. Jung had a relationship with his father. Jungs mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for a physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jungs unmarried sister in Basel, Emilie Jungs continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her sons attitude towards women — one of innate unreliability
Carl Jung
–
A portrait of Jung, unknown date
Carl Jung
–
The clergy house of Kleinhüningen, where Carl Gustav Jung grew up.
Carl Jung
–
Group photo 1909 in front of
Clark University. Front row,
Sigmund Freud,
G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row,
Abraham Brill,
Ernest Jones,
Sándor Ferenczi.
Carl Jung
–
Jung outside Burghölzli in 1910.
42.
John Scott Haldane
–
John Scott Haldane CH FRS was a Scottish physiologist famous for intrepid self-experimentation which led to many important discoveries about the human body and the nature of gases. Haldane locked himself in sealed chambers breathing potentially lethal cocktails of gases while recording their effect on his mind, Haldane visited the scenes of many mining disasters and investigated their causes. When the Germans used poison gas in World War I Haldane went to the front at the request of British secretary of state, Lord Kitchener, one outcome of this was his invention of the first box respirator. His maternal uncle was the physiologist John Scott Burdon-Sanderson and he was the brother of Elizabeth Haldane, William Stowell Haldane and Richard Burdon Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane. Haldane attended Edinburgh Academy, Edinburgh University and the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena and he graduated in medicine from Edinburgh University Medical School in 1884. On 12 December 1891 he married Louisa Kathleen Coutts Trotter, daughter of Coutts Trotter FRGS and they had two children, the scientist J. B. S. Haldane and the author Naomi Mitchison. Haldane was Gifford Lecturer in the University of Glasgow, Fellow of New College, Oxford, from October 1901, Haldane died in Oxford at midnight on the night of 14 March/15 March 1936. He had just returned from a trip he had undertaken to investigate cases of heat stroke in the oil refineries in Persia, sir Henry Newbolt wrote a poem called For J. S. Haldane, published in his anthology A Perpetual Memory and other Poems in 1939. Haldane was an authority on ether and respiration and the inventor of the gas-mask during World War I. Haldane helped determine the regulation of breathing, and discovered the Haldane effect in haemoglobin and he was the founder of The Journal of Hygiene. In 1907 Haldane made a chamber to help make deep-sea divers safer. He was also an authority on the effects of pulmonary diseases and he investigated the principle of action of many different gases. He investigated numerous mine disasters, especially the toxic gases which killed most miners after firedamp, the toxic mixtures of gases found in mines included afterdamp, blackdamp and whitedamp. Although electronic gas detectors are now used widely in all mines, flame lamps are still used extensively for their ease. Electronic gas detectors rely on a chip which can be poisoned by atmospheric impurities. He identified carbon monoxide as the constituent of afterdamp, the gas created by combustion. Their skin was coloured cherry-pink from carboxyhaemoglobin, the compound formed in the blood by reaction with the gas. It effectively displaces oxygen, and so the victim dies of asphyxia, as a result of his research, he was able to design respirators for rescue workers
John Scott Haldane
–
John Scott Haldane c. 1910
John Scott Haldane
–
Domestic Canary
John Scott Haldane
–
Modern flame safety lamp used in mines, manufactured by Koehler
John Scott Haldane
–
Pike's Peak as seen from within
Manitou Springs, Colorado.
43.
Idealist
–
In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing, in a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society. As an ontological doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit, Idealism thus rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind. The earliest extant arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India, the Hindu idealists in India and the Greek Neoplatonists gave panentheistic arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality. This turn toward the subjective anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G. W. F. Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur Schopenhauer dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or ideal character of all phenomena, gave birth to idealistic, the historical influence of this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its metaphysical assumptions, such as Marxism, pragmatism and positivism. Idealism is a term with related meanings. It comes via idea from the Greek idein, meaning to see, the term entered the English language by 1743. In ordinary use, as speaking of Woodrow Wilsons political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, in the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic naturalism and realism. Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in its account of human existence may be termed idealist, metaphysical idealism is an ontological doctrine that holds that reality itself is incorporeal or experiential at its core. Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more basic, epistemological idealism is the view that reality can only be known through ideas, that only psychological experience can be apprehended by the mind. Thus Kant defines idealism as the assertion that we can never be certain all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining. He claimed that, according to idealism, the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof, on the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense is clear immediately through consciousness. However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our subjective experience. Objective idealists make claims about a world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal, for Plato, monistic idealism holds that consciousness, not matter, is the ground of all being. It is monist because it holds that there is one type of thing in the universe
Idealist
–
The 20th-century British scientist Sir
James Jeans wrote that "the Universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine."
44.
Organicism
–
Organicism is the philosophical perspective which views the universe and its parts as organic wholes and - either by analogy or literally - as living organisms. It can be synonymous with holism, Plato is among the earliest philosophers to have regarded the universe as an intelligent living being. Organicism flourished for a period during the era of German romanticism during which time the new science of biology was first defined by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, within modern-day biological sciences organicism is the approach that stresses the organization, rather than the composition, of organisms. John Scott Haldane was the first biologist to use the term to describe his views in 1917. Organicism as a doctrine rejects mechanism and reductionism, however, organicism also rejects vitalism, the doctrine that there is a vital force different from physical forces that accounts for living things. A number of biologists in the early to mid-twentieth century embraced organicism and they wished to reject earlier vitalisms but to stress that whole organism biology was not fully explainable by atomic mechanism. The larger organization of a system has features that must be taken into account to explain its behavior. Gilbert and Sarkar distinguish organicism from holism to avoid what they see as the vitalistic or spiritualistic connotations of holism, still more independence is present in relational holism. This doctrine does not assert top-down control of the whole over its parts, aristotle and early modern philosophers and scientists tended to describe reality as made of substances and their qualities, and to neglect relations. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz showed the bizarre conclusions to which a doctrine of the non-existence of relations led, twentieth century philosophy has been characterized by the introduction of and emphasis on the importance of relations, whether in symbolic logic, in phenomenology, or in metaphysics. William Wimsatt has suggested that the number of terms in the relations considered distinguishes reductionism from holism, reductionistic explanations claim that two or at most three term relations are sufficient to account for the systems behavior. At the other extreme the system could be considered as a ten to the twenty-sixth term relation. Organicism has some intellectually and politically controversial or suspect associations, German Nazism appealed to organicist and holistic doctrines, discrediting for many in retrospect, the original organicist doctrines. This sort of organicist sociology was articulated by Alfred Espinas, Paul von Lilienfeld, Jacques Novicow, Albert Schäffle, Herbert Spencer, thomas Hobbes arguably put forward a form of organicism. In the Leviathan, he argued that the state is like a secular God whose constituents make up a larger organism. In breathing entities, cells – i. e. the smallest unit of life – were first observed in the 17th century, when the multifaceted equipment microscope was conceived. Before that period, the organisms were studied as a whole in a field known as organismic biology. Further, as puts it, during the early 1900s, the quantum researchers struggled with the paradigm shift from the parts to the whole that culminated into the scholars of organismic biology
Organicism
–
Is it material composition, or organization of parts, that creates the mutual
symbiosis between
Amphiprion clownfish and tropical
sea anemones?
45.
Emergence
–
Emergence is central in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry, in philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called emergentism. Almost all accounts of emergentism include a form of epistemic or ontological irreducibility to the lower levels, in philosophy, emergence is often understood to be a claim about the etiology of a systems properties. An emergent property of a system, in context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system. Nicolai Hartmann, one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence and this idea of emergence has been around since at least the time of Aristotle. John Stuart Mill and Julian Huxley are two of many scientists and philosophers who have written on the concept, further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal Emergence. Goldstein initially defined emergence as, the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns, Systems scientist Peter Corning also says that living systems cannot be reduced to underlying laws of physics, Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy, they do not in fact “generate” anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent relationships in nature and these patterns may be very illuminating and important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified. But that aside, the game of chess illustrates, why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient. Even in a game, you cannot use the rules to predict “history” – i. e. the course of any given game. Indeed, you cannot even reliably predict the move in a chess game. Because the “system” involves more than the rules of the game and it also includes the players and their unfolding, moment-by-moment decisions among a very large number of available options at each choice point. The game of chess is inescapably historical, even though it is constrained and shaped by a set of rules. Moreover, and this is a key point, the game of chess is also shaped by teleonomic, cybernetic and it is not simply a self-ordered process, it involves an organized, “purposeful” activity. Usage of the notion emergence may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of weak emergence and strong emergence, in terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation. This is opposed to the notion of strong emergence, in which the emergent property cannot be simulated by a computer. Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states, also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive
Emergence
–
The formation of complex symmetrical and
fractal patterns by
Snowflakes is an example of emergence in a physical system.
Emergence
–
A
termite "cathedral" mound produced by a
termite colony is a classic example of emergence in nature.
Emergence
–
Ripple patterns in a
sand dune created by wind or water is an example of an emergent structure in nature.
Emergence
–
Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland is an example of a complex emergent structure created by natural processes.
46.
Entelechy
–
The concept of potentiality, in this context, generally refers to any possibility that a thing can be said to have. Aristotle did not consider all possibilities the same, and emphasized the importance of those that become real of their own accord when conditions are right and nothing stops them. Actuality, in contrast to potentiality, is the motion, change or activity that represents an exercise or fulfillment of a possibility and these concepts, in modified forms, remained very important into the middle ages, influencing the development of medieval theology in several ways. This is most obvious in words like energy and dynamic--words first used in physics by the German scientist and philosopher. Another example is the concept of an entelechy. Potentiality and potency are translations of the Ancient Greek word dunamis as it is used by Aristotle as a concept contrasting with actuality and its Latin translation is potentia, root of the English word potential, and used by some scholars instead of the Greek or English variants. Dunamis is an ordinary Greek word for possibility or capability, in early modern philosophy, English authors like Hobbes and Locke used the English word power as their translation of Latin potentia. In his philosophy, Aristotle distinguished two meanings of the word dunamis, for example, sometimes we say that those who can merely take a walk, or speak, without doing it as well as they intended, cannot speak or walk. This stronger sense is mainly said of the potentials of living things and he treats these as having a different and more real existence. The potencies which persist in a material are one way of describing the nature itself of that material. Actuality is often used to translate both energeia and entelecheia, actuality comes from Latin actualitas and is a traditional translation, but its normal meaning in Latin is anything which is currently happening. The two words energeia and entelecheia were coined by Aristotle, and he stated that their meanings were intended to converge, in practice, most commentators and translators consider the two words to be interchangeable. They both refer to something being in its own type of action or at work, as all things are when they are real in the fullest sense, and not just potentially real. For example, to be a rock is to strain to be at the center of the universe, energeia is a word based upon ἔργον, meaning work. It is difficult to translate his use of energeia into English with consistency, Joe Sachs renders it with the phrase being–at–work and says that we might construct the word is-at-work-ness from Anglo-Saxon roots to translate energeia into English. Aristotle says the word can be clear by looking at examples rather than trying to find a definition. Two examples of energeiai in Aristotles works are pleasure and happiness, pleasure is an energeia of the human body and mind whereas happiness is more simply the energeia of a human being a human. Kinesis, translated as movement, motion, or in some change, is also explained by Aristotle as a particular type of energeia
Entelechy
–
Aristotelianism
Entelechy
–
A
marble block in
Carrara. Could there be a particular sculpture already existing in it as a potentiality? Aristotle wrote approvingly of such ways of talking, and felt it reflected a type of causation in nature which is often ignored in scientific discussion.
Entelechy
–
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, the source of the modern adaptations of Aristotle's concepts of potentiality and actuality.
47.
Animal magnetism
–
He believed that the force could have physical effects, including healing. He tried persistently but without success to achieve recognition of his theories. The theory attracted numerous followers in Europe and the United States and was popular into the 19th century, practitioners were often known as magnetizers, rather than mesmerists. For about 75 years from its beginnings in 1779 it was an important specialty in medicine, hundreds of books were written on the subject between 1766 and 1925. Today it is almost entirely forgotten, the terms magnetizer and mesmerizer have been applied to people who study and practice animal magnetism. The magnetiser and the hypnotist is, the first uses animal magnetism, the etymology of the word magnetizer comes from the French magnetiseur, which in turn is derived from the French verb magnetiser. The term refers to an individual who has the power to manipulate the magnetic fluid with effects upon other people present that were regarded as analogous to magnetic effects. This sense of the term is found, for example, in the expression of Antoine Joseph Gorsas, at the time, some magnetizers attempted to channel what they thought was a magnetic fluid, and sometimes they attempted this with a laying on of hands. Reported effects included various feelings, intense heat, trembling, trances, many practitioners took a scientific approach, such as Joseph Philippe François Deleuze, a French physician, anatomist, gynecologist, and physicist. One of his pupils was Théodore Léger, who wrote that the label mesmerism was most improper, the commission included Majault, Benjamin Franklin, Jean Sylvain Bailly, J. B. Le Roy, Sallin, Jean Darcet, de Borey, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, Antoine Lavoisier, Poissonnier, Caille, Mauduyt de la Varenne, Andry, and de Jussieu. The report says, Among the conclusions were, Abbé Faria was one of the disciples of Franz Anton Mesmer who continued with Mesmers work following the conclusions of the Royal Commission. Hypnotism, a designation coined by the Scottish surgeon, James Braid, originates in Braids the response to an exhibition of animal magnetism, by Charles Lafontaine, in Manchester. The purpose of the treatment was to shock the body into convulsion in order to remove obstructions in the system that were causing sicknesses. A patient under crisis was believed to be able to see through the body and find the cause of illness, the Marquis of Puységurs miraculous healing of a young man named Victor in 1784 was attributed to, and used as evidence in support of, this crisis treatment. The Marquis was allegedly able to hypnotize Victor and, while hypnotized, Victor was said to have been able to speak articulately, jacob Melo discusses in his books some mechanisms by which the perceived effects of animal magnetism have been claimed to operate. The study of animal magnetism spurred the creation of the Societies of Harmony in France, doctor John Bell was a member of the Philosophical Harmonic Society of Paris, and was certified by the society to lecture and teach on animal magnetism in England. Popularization of animal magnetism was denounced and ridiculed by newspaper journals, many deemed animal magnetism to be nothing more than a theatrical falsity or quackery. ”The novelist and playwrighter Elizabeth Inchbald wrote the farce Animal Magnetism in the late 1780s
Animal magnetism
–
Baquet. Interior view: Drawing room scene with many people sitting and standing around a large table; a man on a crutch has an iron band wrapped around his ankle; others in the group are holding bands similarly; to the left, a man has hypnotized a woman. (1780)
Animal magnetism
–
Advertisement poster of 1857: Instant sleep. Miscalenous effects of paralysis, partial and complete catalepsy, partial or complete attraction. Phreno-magnetic effects (...) Musical extasis (...) Insensitivity to physical pain and instant awakening (...) transfusion of magnetic power to others
48.
Franz Mesmer
–
The theory attracted a wide following between about 1780 and 1850, and continued to have some influence until the end of the century. In 1843 the Scottish physician James Braid proposed the term hypnosis for a technique derived from animal magnetism, Mesmer was born in the village of Iznang, on the shore of Lake Constance in Swabia, Germany, a son of master forester Anton Mesmer and his wife, Maria/Ursula. After studying at the Jesuit universities of Dillingen and Ingolstadt, he took up the study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1759. In 1766 he published a dissertation with the Latin title De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum, which discussed the influence of the Moon. Building largely on Newtons theory of the tides, Mesmer expounded on certain tides in the body that might be accounted for by the movements of the sun. Evidence assembled by Frank A. Pattie suggests that Mesmer plagiarized a part of his dissertation from a work by Richard Mead, however, in Mesmers day doctoral theses were not expected to be original. In January 1768, Mesmer married Anna Maria von Posch, a wealthy widow, in the summers he lived on a splendid estate and became a patron of the arts. Mozart later immortalized his former patron by including a reference to Mesmer in his opera Così fan tutte. She reported feeling streams of a fluid running through her body and was relieved of her symptoms for several hours. Mesmer did not believe that the magnets had achieved the cure on their own and he felt that he had contributed animal magnetism, which had accumulated in his work, to her. He soon stopped using magnets as a part of his treatment, in the same year Mesmer collaborated with Maximilian Hell. In 1775, Mesmer was invited to give his opinion before the Munich Academy of Sciences on the exorcisms carried out by Johann Joseph Gassner, Mesmer said that while Gassner was sincere in his beliefs, his cures resulted because he possessed a high degree of animal magnetism. This confrontation between Mesmers secular ideas and Gassners religious beliefs marked the end of Gassners career as well as, according to Henri Ellenberger, the emergence of dynamic psychiatry. The scandal that followed Mesmers unsuccessful attempt to treat the blindness of an 18-year-old musician, Maria Theresia Paradis, in February 1778 Mesmer moved to Paris, rented an apartment in a part of the city preferred by the wealthy and powerful, and established a medical practice. Paris soon divided into those who thought he was a charlatan who had forced to flee from Vienna. In his first years in Paris, Mesmer tried and failed to get either the Royal Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society of Medicine to provide official approval for his doctrines. He found only one physician of high professional and social standing, Charles dEslon, in 1779, with dEslons encouragement, Mesmer wrote an 88-page book, Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal, to which he appended his famous 27 Propositions. These propositions outlined his theory at that time, some contemporary scholars equate Mesmer’s animal magnetism with the Qi of Traditional Chinese Medicine and mesmerism with medical Qigong practices
Franz Mesmer
–
Franz Mesmer
Franz Mesmer
–
De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum.
Franz Mesmer
–
Mesmer's grave on the cemetery in
Meersburg, Germany.
49.
Mesmerism
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He believed that the force could have physical effects, including healing. He tried persistently but without success to achieve recognition of his theories. The theory attracted numerous followers in Europe and the United States and was popular into the 19th century, practitioners were often known as magnetizers, rather than mesmerists. For about 75 years from its beginnings in 1779 it was an important specialty in medicine, hundreds of books were written on the subject between 1766 and 1925. Today it is almost entirely forgotten, the terms magnetizer and mesmerizer have been applied to people who study and practice animal magnetism. The magnetiser and the hypnotist is, the first uses animal magnetism, the etymology of the word magnetizer comes from the French magnetiseur, which in turn is derived from the French verb magnetiser. The term refers to an individual who has the power to manipulate the magnetic fluid with effects upon other people present that were regarded as analogous to magnetic effects. This sense of the term is found, for example, in the expression of Antoine Joseph Gorsas, at the time, some magnetizers attempted to channel what they thought was a magnetic fluid, and sometimes they attempted this with a laying on of hands. Reported effects included various feelings, intense heat, trembling, trances, many practitioners took a scientific approach, such as Joseph Philippe François Deleuze, a French physician, anatomist, gynecologist, and physicist. One of his pupils was Théodore Léger, who wrote that the label mesmerism was most improper, the commission included Majault, Benjamin Franklin, Jean Sylvain Bailly, J. B. Le Roy, Sallin, Jean Darcet, de Borey, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, Antoine Lavoisier, Poissonnier, Caille, Mauduyt de la Varenne, Andry, and de Jussieu. The report says, Among the conclusions were, Abbé Faria was one of the disciples of Franz Anton Mesmer who continued with Mesmers work following the conclusions of the Royal Commission. Hypnotism, a designation coined by the Scottish surgeon, James Braid, originates in Braids the response to an exhibition of animal magnetism, by Charles Lafontaine, in Manchester. The purpose of the treatment was to shock the body into convulsion in order to remove obstructions in the system that were causing sicknesses. A patient under crisis was believed to be able to see through the body and find the cause of illness, the Marquis of Puységurs miraculous healing of a young man named Victor in 1784 was attributed to, and used as evidence in support of, this crisis treatment. The Marquis was allegedly able to hypnotize Victor and, while hypnotized, Victor was said to have been able to speak articulately, jacob Melo discusses in his books some mechanisms by which the perceived effects of animal magnetism have been claimed to operate. The study of animal magnetism spurred the creation of the Societies of Harmony in France, doctor John Bell was a member of the Philosophical Harmonic Society of Paris, and was certified by the society to lecture and teach on animal magnetism in England. Popularization of animal magnetism was denounced and ridiculed by newspaper journals, many deemed animal magnetism to be nothing more than a theatrical falsity or quackery. ”The novelist and playwrighter Elizabeth Inchbald wrote the farce Animal Magnetism in the late 1780s
Mesmerism
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Baquet. Interior view: Drawing room scene with many people sitting and standing around a large table; a man on a crutch has an iron band wrapped around his ankle; others in the group are holding bands similarly; to the left, a man has hypnotized a woman. (1780)
Mesmerism
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Advertisement poster of 1857: Instant sleep. Miscalenous effects of paralysis, partial and complete catalepsy, partial or complete attraction. Phreno-magnetic effects (...) Musical extasis (...) Insensitivity to physical pain and instant awakening (...) transfusion of magnetic power to others
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Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
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While he did not invent the guillotine, and in fact opposed the death penalty, his name became an eponym for it. The actual inventor of the prototype was Antoine Louis, Guillotin wrote an essay to get the degree of Master of Arts from the University of Bordeaux. This essay impressed the Jesuits so much that they persuaded him to enter their order, however, he left after a few years and travelled to Paris to study medicine, becoming a pupil of Antoine Petit. He gained a diploma from the faculty at Reims in 1768 and later won a prize given by the Paris faculty, in December 1788, Guillotin drafted a pamphlet entitled Petition of the Citizens Living in Paris, concerning the proper constitution of the States-General. As a result, he was summoned by the French parliament to give an account of his opinions, on 2 May 1789, he became one of 10 Paris deputies in the Estates-General of 1789 and was secretary to the body from June 1789 to October 1791. As a member of the assembly, Guillotin mainly directed his attention towards medical reform, on 10 October 1789, during a debate on capital punishment, he proposed that the criminal shall be decapitated, this will be done solely by means of a simple mechanism. The mechanism was defined as a machine that beheads painlessly and his proposal appeared in the Royalist periodical, Les Actes des Apôtres. At that time, beheading in France was typically done by axe or sword, additionally, beheading was reserved for the nobility, while commoners were typically hanged. He also hoped that fewer families and children would witness executions and vowed to make them more private and it was also his belief that a standard death penalty by decapitation would prevent the cruel and unjust system of the day. On 1 December 1789, Guillotin made a remark during a speech to the Assembly about capital punishment. Now, with my machine, I cut off head in the twinkling of an eye. The statement quickly became a joke, and few days after the debate a comic song about Guillotin and his machine circulated. The Moniteur of 18 December 1789 deplored the joking but repeated Guillotins twinkling of an eye statement for posterity, for the remainder of his life, Guillotin would deeply regret that the machine was named after him. The authorities demanded Guillotin inform them of the whereabouts of the Counts wife, as Guillotin either would not or could not give the information, he was arrested and imprisoned. He was freed from prison in the amnesty of 9 Thermidor 1794 after Robespierre fell from power. Guillotin became one of the first French doctors to support Edward Jenners discovery of vaccination and he also founded one of the precursors of the National Academy of Medicine. By coincidence, a person named Guillotin was indeed executed by the guillotine – he was J. M. V, joseph Guillotin was initiated into Freemasonry, in 1765 at La Parfaite Union lodge in Angoulême. Very active as a mason, he joined several other lodges, as a deputy of the Grand Loge from 1772 he took part in the birth of the Grand Orient of France and to all its conventions until 1790
Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
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Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (
Musée Carnavalet,
Paris)
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. PMID 12792017. doi:10.1136/qhc.12.3.232.
