1.
Soviet space program
–
The Soviet space program comprised the rocketry and space exploration programs conducted by the former Soviet Union from the 1930s until its dissolution in 1991. Sergey Korolev was the head of the design group, his official title was chief designer. Because of the programs classified status, and for value, announcements of the outcomes of missions were delayed until success was certain. Ultimately, as a result of Mikhail Gorbachevs policy of glasnost in the 1980s, with the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia and Ukraine inherited the program. Russia created the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, now known as the Roscosmos State Corporation, on August 18,1933, GIRD launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket Gird-09, and on November 25,1933, the first hybrid-fueled rocket GIRD-X. In 1940-41 another advance in the reactive propulsion field took place, during the 1930s Soviet rocket technology was comparable to Germanys, but Joseph Stalins Great Purge severely damaged its progress. Many leading engineers were killed, and Korolev and others were imprisoned in the Gulag, under the direction of Dimitri Ustinov, Korolev and others inspected the drawings. Korolevs OKB-1 design bureau was dedicated to the liquid-fueled cryogenic rockets he had been experimenting with in the late 1930s, ultimately, this work resulted in the design of the R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile which was successfully tested in August 1957. The Soviet space program was tied to the USSRs Five-Year Plans, nonetheless, the first Soviet rocket with animals aboard launched in July 1951, the two dogs were recovered alive after reaching 101 km in altitude. Two months ahead of Americas first such achievement, this and subsequent flights gave the Soviets valuable experience with space medicine, Plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites to gain knowledge of space, and four unmanned military reconnaissance satellites, Zenit. Further planned developments called for a manned Earth orbit flight by 1964, with closed-loop life support systems and electrical rocket engines, and launched from large orbiting space stations, these plans were much more ambitious than Americas goal of landing on the moon. The Soviet space program was secondary in military funding to the Strategic Rocket Forces ICBMs, missions were planned based on rocket availability or ad hoc reasons, rather than scientific purposes. Korolev planned to move forward with the Soyuz craft and N-1 heavy booster that would be the basis of a permanent manned space station and manned exploration of the Moon. Yangel had been Korolevs assistant but with the support of the military he was given his own bureau in 1954 to work primarily on the military space program. This had the rocket engine design team including the use of hypergolic fuels. He also continued to develop his own heavy booster designs similar to Korolevs N-1 both for applications and for cargo flights into space to build future space stations. Glushko was the rocket engine designer but he had a personal friction with Korolev. Chelomei benefited from the patronage of Khrushchev and in 1960 was given the job of developing a rocket to send a manned craft around the moon
2.
Vostok (spacecraft)
–
The Vostok was a type of spacecraft built by the Soviet Union. The first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on this spacecraft on April 12,1961, the spacecraft was part of the Vostok programme in which six manned spaceflights were made from 1961–63. Two further manned space flights were made in 1964 and 1965 by Voskhod spacecraft, by the late 1960s both were superseded by the Soyuz spacecraft, which are still used as of 2017. The Vostok spacecraft was designed for use both as a camera platform and as a manned spacecraft. This dual-use design was crucial in gaining Communist Party support for the program, the basic Vostok design has remained in use for some 40 years, gradually adapted for a range of other unmanned satellites. The descent module design was reused, in modified form. The craft consisted of a spherical descent module, which housed the cosmonaut, instruments and escape system, and a conical instrument module, which contained propellant and the engine system. On reentry, the cosmonaut would eject from the craft at about 7,000 m and descend via parachute, the reason for this was that the Vostok descent module made an extremely rough landing that could have left a cosmonaut seriously injured. The ejector seat also served as a mechanism in the event of a launch vehicle failure. If an accident occurred in the first 40 seconds after liftoff, from 40 to 150 seconds into launch, ground controllers could issue a manual shutdown command to the booster. When the launch vehicle fell to a low altitude, the cosmonaut would eject. Higher altitude failures after shroud jettison would involve detaching the entire spacecraft from the booster, one problem that was never adequately resolved was the event of a launch vehicle malfunction in the first 20 seconds, when the ejector seat would not have enough time to deploy its parachute. Molodsov stated that Chief Designer Sergei Korolev felt absolutely terrible about the provisions for crew escape on the Vostok during the opening seconds of launch. There were several models of the Vostok leading up to the manned version, the Vostok 3KA was the spacecraft used for the first human spaceflights. They were launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome using Vostok 8K72K launch vehicles, the first flight of a Vostok 3KA occurred on March 9,1961. The first flight with a crew—Vostok 1 carrying Yuri Gagarin—took place on April 12,1961, the last flight—Vostok 6 carrying the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova—took place on June 16,1963. A total of 8 Vostok 3KA spacecraft were flown,6 of them with a human crew, Specifications for this version are, Reentry Module, Vostok SA. SA stands for Spuskaemiy apparat - descent system, PA stands for Priborniy otsek - instrument section
3.
OKB-1
–
OAO S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia, also known as RSC Energia, is a Russian manufacturer of spacecraft and space station components. The company is the developer and contractor of the Russian manned spaceflight program. Its name is derived from Sergei Korolev, the first chief of its bureau. Energia is the largest company of the Russian space industry and one of its key players, in the mid-2000s, the company employed 22, 000—30,000 people. The enterprise has been awarded with 4 Orders of Lenin, Order of the October Revolution, in addition,14 cosmonauts employed by the company have been awarded the title Hero of the Russian Federation. The company was founded on 16 May 1946 and has been known successively as and it is named after the first chief of its design bureau Sergei Korolev. His successors as chief designers were, Vasiliy Mishin, Valentin Glushko, Yuriy Semenov and its President and Chief designer was Vitaly Lopota, through August 1,2014. Korolevs design bureau was, beginning with the first artificial satellite Sputnik 1 and it was the main rival of OKB-52 during the Soviet manned lunar programs and the Soviet space station program. Since the early beginnings of the Luna programme it designed many space probes, among others of the Venera, Zond, the President of Energia, Vitaly Lopota, was removed from his post as president on August 1,2014. Dmitry Rogozin indicated that this was the start of Long-awaited personnel reform in space industry, Energia builds Russias Soyuz TMA spacecraft for 3-person human spaceflight missions and Progress M robotic spacecraft for cargo missions. Russian segment of ISS, providing its own cosmonauts for ISS expeditions, Sea Launch project participation - production of block DM-SL as the upper stage for Ukrainian launch vehicle Zenit-3SL. Universal Spacecraft Configuration - usage for development of, communications satellites, remote sensing satellites, navigation satellites, USC was a basis for Yamal 100 and Yamal 200 satellites. Further assembly of ISS Russian segment, development of Multipurpose Laboratory Module, development of new spacecraft with 3 stages, Modernization of Soyuz TMA spacecraft for manned circum-lunar missions - pending commercial orders for space tourism. Development of multi-aimed Prospective Piloted Transport System for 6 persons, development of manned lunar program, landing by 2025, creating of permanent lunar base by 2030 in order to extract helium-3. Development of manned Mars mission, landing beyond 2035, development of Yamal-300 and Yamal-400 communication satellites for Gazprom corporation. Development of Smotr remote sensing satellites, development of a pod designed for clearing near-Earth space of satellite debris. The new device is planned to be assembled by 2020 and tested by 2023, the concept is to build the device to use a nuclear power source so that it could remain on task for up to 15 years, primarily working in the geosynchronous orbit zone. Debris collected would be de-orbited to re-enter over the ocean, over the years the products of Energia and its predecessors included, Including meteorological rockets as their modifications
4.
Yuri Gagarin
–
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin was a Russian Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into space, when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961. Gagarin became a celebrity, and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union. Vostok 1 marked his only spaceflight, but he served as crew to the Soyuz 1 mission. Gagarin later became deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre outside Moscow, Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting crashed. The Yuri Gagarin Medal is awarded in his honor, Yuri Gagarin was born in the village of Klushino, near Gzhatsk, on 9 March 1934. His parents worked on a farm, Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and bricklayer. Yuri was the third of four children, older brother Valentin, older sister Zoya, like millions of people in the Soviet Union, the Gagarin family suffered during Nazi occupation in World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow, and an officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family was allowed to build a mud hut, approximately 3 by 3 metres inside, on the land behind their house and his two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943, and did not return until after the war in 1945. In 1946, the moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education. After graduating in 1951 from both the grade and the vocational school, he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School. While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered for training as a Soviet air cadet at a local flying club. He also earned money as a part-time dock laborer on the Volga River. After graduating from the school in 1955, the Soviet Army drafted Gagarin. On a recommendation, Gagarin was sent to the First Chkalov Air Force Pilots School in Orenburg, post-graduation, he was assigned to the Luostari airbase in Murmansk Oblast, close to the Norwegian border, where terrible weather made flying risky. He became a Lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces on 5 November 1957, in 1960, after much searching and a selection process, Yuri Gagarin was chosen with 19 other pilots for the Soviet space program. Gagarin was further selected for a training group known as the Sochi Six
5.
Pinus sibirica
–
In the north of its range, it grows at low altitudes, typically 100–200 m, whereas further south, it is a mountain tree, growing at 1, 000-2,400 m altitude. It often reaches the tree line in this area. The mature size is up to 30–40 m height, and 1.5 m trunk diameter and its maximum lifetime is 800–850 years. Pinus sibirica is a member of the white group, Pinus subgenus Strobus, and like all members of that group. Siberian pine cones are 5–9 cm long, the 9–12 mm long seeds have only a vestigial wing and are dispersed by spotted nutcrackers. Siberian pine is treated as a variety or subspecies of the very similar Swiss pine by some botanists and it differs in having slightly larger cones, and needles with three resin canals instead of two in Swiss pine. Like other European and Asian white pines, Siberian pine is resistant to white pine blister rust. Siberian pine is of value for research into hybridisation and genetic modification to develop rust resistance in these species. It is very tolerant of winter cold, hardy down to at least –60 °C. The seeds are harvested and sold as pine nuts. The Russian name Сибирский кедр is often mis-translated in English as Siberian cedar, references to cedar in texts translated from Russian usually refer to tree or related pines. Pinostilbene is a stilbenoid found, along with resveratrol, in the bark of P. sibirica, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature, pinetum. org, Pinus sibirica cone picture - Media related to Pinus sibirica at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Pinus sibirica at Wikispecies
6.
UTC
–
Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
7.
Vostok-K
–
The Vostok-K, GRAU index 8K72K was an expendable carrier rocket used by the Soviet Union for thirteen launches between 1960 and 1964, six of which were manned. It was derived from the earlier Vostok-L, however, it featured uprated engines to improve performance and it was a member of the R-7 family of rockets. The Vostok-K made its flight on 22 December 1960, three weeks after the retirement of the Vostok-L. The third stage engine failed 425 seconds after launch, and the payload, the spacecraft was recovered after landing, and the two dogs aboard the spacecraft survived the flight. On 12 April 1961, a Vostok-K rocket was used to launch Vostok 1, the first manned spaceflight, all six manned missions of the Vostok programme were launched using Vostok-K rockets. The first two Zenit reconnaissance satellites were launched with the Vostok-K, but it was soon replaced in that capacity with the uprated 8A92 booster. After the conclusion of the Vostok program, there were two remaining 8K72Ks left, these were used to launch four Elektron scientific satellites on January 30 and July 10,1964
8.
Baikonur Cosmodrome
–
Baikonur Cosmodrome is a spaceport located in southern Kazakhstan. It is the worlds first and largest operational space launch facility, the spaceport is located in the desert steppe of Baikonur, about 200 kilometres east of the Aral Sea and north of the river Syr Darya. It is near the Tyuratam railway station and is about 90 metres above sea level, currently leased by the Kazakh Government to Russia until 2050, the spaceport is managed jointly by the Roscosmos State Corporation and the Russian Aerospace Forces. The shape of the area leased is an ellipse, measuring 90 kilometres east–west by 85 kilometres north–south, with the cosmodrome at the centre and it was originally built by the Soviet Union in the late 1950s as the base of operations for the Soviet space program. Under the current Russian space program, Baikonur remains a busy spaceport, with commercial, military. All manned Russian spaceflights are launched from Baikonur, both Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, and Vostok 1, the first manned spaceflight, were launched from Baikonur. The launch pad used for missions was renamed Gagarins Start in honor of Russian Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, pilot of Vostok 1. The Soviet government issued the decree for Scientific Research Test Range No.5 on 12 February 1955 and it was actually founded on 2 June 1955, originally a test center for the worlds first intercontinental ballistic missile, the R-7 Semyorka. NIIP-5 was soon expanded to include facilities for space flights. The site was selected by a led by Gen. Vasily Voznyuk, influenced by Sergey Korolyov, the Chief Designer of the R-7 ICBM. It had to be surrounded by plains, as the control system of the rocket required receiving uninterrupted signals from ground stations hundreds of kilometres away. Additionally, the trajectory had to be away from populated areas. Also, it is an advantage to place a space launch site closer to the equator, taking these constraints into consideration, the commission chose Tyuratam, a village in the heart of the Kazakh Steppe. A supporting town was built around the facility to provide housing, schools and it was raised to city status in 1966 and named Leninsk. The American U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance plane found and photographed the Tyuratam missile test range for the first time on 5 August 1957, there are conflicting sources about origins of the name Baikonur. Other sources state that Baikonur was name of the Tyuratam region even before the cosmodrome existed, the main cosmodrome-supporting town Leninsk was renamed to Baikonur on 20 December 1995 by Boris Yeltsin. In 1997, the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation changed the path and removed the ejected rocket stages near Nyurbinsky District. Scientific literature collected enough data that confirmed adverse effects of rockets on environment, heptyl, or UDMH, a fuel used in Russian rocket engines, is considered to be highly toxic
9.
Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 1
–
Gagarins Start is a launch site at Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, used for the Soviet space program and now managed by Roscosmos State Corporation. The launchpad for the worlds first human made by Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1 in 1961. It is also referred to as NIIP-5 LC1, Baikonur LC1 or GIK-5 LC1. On 17 March 1954 the Council of Ministers ordered several ministries to select a site for a ground to test the R-7 rocket by 1 January 1955. A special reconnaissance commission considered several possible geographic regions and selected Tyuratam in the Kazakh SSR and this selection was approved on 12 February 1955 by the Council of Ministers, with a completion of construction targeted for 1958. Work on the construction of Site No.1 began on 20 July 1955 by military engineers. Day and night more than 60 powerful trucks worked at the site,15,000 cubic metres of earth were excavated and removed per day, during winter explosives were widely utilized. By the end of October 1956 all primary building and installation of infrastructure for R-7 tests was completed. The Installation and Testing Building named Site No.2 was built, by April 1957 all remaining work was completed and the site was ready for launches. The R-7 missile made its voyage from LC-1 on May 15,1957. On 4 October 1957 the pad was used to launch the worlds first artificial satellite, the pad was also used to launch Luna program spacecraft, Mars probe program spacecraft, Venera program spacecraft, many Cosmos satellites and others. From 1957 through 1966 the site hosted ready-to-launch strategic nuclear ICBMs in addition to spacecraft launches, the 500th launch from this site was of Soyuz TMA-18M on 2 September 2015. In 1961, the launch schedule of the Soviet space program resulted in the opening of a sister pad at Baikonur. LC-1 has been the primary facility for manned launches, with occasional Soyuz flights from LC-31/6, LC-1 was damaged several times by booster explosions during the early years. Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31 Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 14, the equivalent for the United States first manned spaceflights. «Korolev, Facts and myths» - J. K. Golovanov, M, Nauka,1994, - ISBN 5-02-000822-2, Rockets and people – B. E. Chertok, M, kuznetsk, Voronezh, IPF Voronezh,1997, ISBN 5-89981-117-X, Look back and look ahead. Notes of a military engineer - Rjazhsky A. A.2004, SC. first, rocket and space feat Baikonur - Vladimir Порошков, the Patriot publishers 2007. ISBN 5-7030-0969-3 Unknown Baikonur - edited by B. I, ISBN 5-8155-0051-8 Bank of the Universe - edited by Boltenko A. C
10.
Geocentric orbit
–
A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of space debris as tracked by the Goddard Space Flight Center. Over 16,291 previously launched objects have decayed into the Earths atmosphere, altitude as used here, the height of an object above the average surface of the Earths oceans. Analemma a term in astronomy used to describe the plot of the positions of the Sun on the celestial sphere throughout one year, apogee is the farthest point that a satellite or celestial body can go from Earth, at which the orbital velocity will be at its minimum. Eccentricity a measure of how much an orbit deviates from a perfect circle, eccentricity is strictly defined for all circular and elliptical orbits, and parabolic and hyperbolic trajectories. Equatorial plane as used here, an imaginary plane extending from the equator on the Earth to the celestial sphere, escape velocity as used here, the minimum velocity an object without propulsion needs to have to move away indefinitely from the Earth. An object at this velocity will enter a parabolic trajectory, above this velocity it will enter a hyperbolic trajectory, impulse the integral of a force over the time during which it acts. Inclination the angle between a plane and another plane or axis. In the sense discussed here the reference plane is the Earths equatorial plane, orbital characteristics the six parameters of the Keplerian elements needed to specify that orbit uniquely. Orbital period as defined here, time it takes a satellite to make one orbit around the Earth. Perigee is the nearest approach point of a satellite or celestial body from Earth, sidereal day the time it takes for a celestial object to rotate 360°. For the Earth this is,23 hours,56 minutes,4.091 seconds, solar time as used here, the local time as measured by a sundial. Velocity an objects speed in a particular direction, since velocity is defined as a vector, both speed and direction are required to define it. The following is a list of different geocentric orbit classifications, Low Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 160 kilometers to 2,000 kilometres above mean sea level. At 160 km, one revolution takes approximately 90 minutes, medium Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee ranging between 2,000 kilometres and that of the geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 kilometres. Geosynchronous orbit - Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 kilometres, the period of the orbit equals one sidereal day, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth. The speed is approximately 3,000 metres per second, high Earth orbit - Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee higher than that of the geosynchronous orbit. A special case of high Earth orbit is the elliptical orbit
11.
Low Earth orbit
–
A low Earth orbit is an orbit around Earth with an altitude between 160 kilometers, and 2,000 kilometers. Objects below approximately 160 kilometers will experience very rapid orbital decay, with the exception of the 24 human beings who flew lunar flights in the Apollo program during the four-year period spanning 1968 through 1972, all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO or below. The International Space Station conducts operations in LEO, the altitude record for a human spaceflight in LEO was Gemini 11 with an apogee of 1,374.1 kilometers. All crewed space stations to date, as well as the majority of satellites, have been in LEO, objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere or exosphere, depending on orbit height. Due to atmospheric drag, satellites do not usually orbit below 300 km, objects in LEO orbit Earth between the denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt. The mean orbital velocity needed to maintain a stable low Earth orbit is about 7.8 km/s, calculated for circular orbit of 200 km it is 7.79 km/s and for 1500 km it is 7.12 km/s. The delta-v needed to achieve low Earth orbit starts around 9.4 km/s, atmospheric and gravity drag associated with launch typically adds 1. 3–1.8 km/s to the launch vehicle delta-v required to reach normal LEO orbital velocity of around 7.8 km/s. Equatorial low Earth orbits are a subset of LEO and these orbits, with low inclination to the Equator, allow rapid revisit times and have the lowest delta-v requirement of any orbit. Orbits with an inclination angle to the equator are usually called polar orbits. Higher orbits include medium Earth orbit, sometimes called intermediate circular orbit, orbits higher than low orbit can lead to early failure of electronic components due to intense radiation and charge accumulation. Although the Earths pull due to gravity in LEO is not much less than on the surface of the Earth, people, a low Earth orbit is simplest and cheapest for satellite placement. It provides high bandwidth and low communication time lag, but satellites in LEO will not be visible from any point on the Earth at all times. Earth observation satellites and spy satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the Earth more clearly as they are not so far away and they are also able to traverse the surface of the Earth. A majority of satellites are placed in LEO, making one complete revolution around the Earth in about 90 minutes. The International Space Station is in a LEO about 400 km above the Earths surface, since it requires less energy to place a satellite into a LEO and the LEO satellite needs less powerful amplifiers for successful transmission, LEO is used for many communication applications. Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary, a network of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage, lower orbits also aid remote sensing satellites because of the added detail that can be gained. Remote sensing satellites can also take advantage of sun-synchronous LEO orbits at an altitude of about 800 km, envisat is one example of an Earth observation satellite that makes use of this particular type of LEO. The LEO environment is becoming congested with space debris due to the frequency of object launches and this has caused growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can easily be dangerous, and even deadly
12.
Apsis
–
An apsis is an extreme point in an objects orbit. The word comes via Latin from Greek and is cognate with apse, for elliptic orbits about a larger body, there are two apsides, named with the prefixes peri- and ap-, or apo- added to a reference to the thing being orbited. For a body orbiting the Sun, the point of least distance is the perihelion, the terms become periastron and apastron when discussing orbits around other stars. For any satellite of Earth including the Moon the point of least distance is the perigee, for objects in Lunar orbit, the point of least distance is the pericynthion and the greatest distance the apocynthion. For any orbits around a center of mass, there are the terms pericenter and apocenter, periapsis and apoapsis are equivalent alternatives. A straight line connecting the pericenter and apocenter is the line of apsides and this is the major axis of the ellipse, its greatest diameter. For a two-body system the center of mass of the lies on this line at one of the two foci of the ellipse. When one body is larger than the other it may be taken to be at this focus. Historically, in systems, apsides were measured from the center of the Earth. In orbital mechanics, the apsis technically refers to the distance measured between the centers of mass of the central and orbiting body. However, in the case of spacecraft, the family of terms are used to refer to the orbital altitude of the spacecraft from the surface of the central body. The arithmetic mean of the two limiting distances is the length of the axis a. The geometric mean of the two distances is the length of the semi-minor axis b, the geometric mean of the two limiting speeds is −2 ε = μ a which is the speed of a body in a circular orbit whose radius is a. The words pericenter and apocenter are often seen, although periapsis/apoapsis are preferred in technical usage, various related terms are used for other celestial objects. The -gee, -helion and -astron and -galacticon forms are used in the astronomical literature when referring to the Earth, Sun, stars. The suffix -jove is occasionally used for Jupiter, while -saturnium has very rarely used in the last 50 years for Saturn. The -gee form is used as a generic closest approach to planet term instead of specifically applying to the Earth. During the Apollo program, the terms pericynthion and apocynthion were used when referring to the Moon, regarding black holes, the term peri/apomelasma was used by physicist Geoffrey A. Landis in 1998 before peri/aponigricon appeared in the scientific literature in 2002
13.
Orbital inclination
–
Orbital inclination measures the tilt of an objects orbit around a celestial body. It is expressed as the angle between a plane and the orbital plane or axis of direction of the orbiting object. For a satellite orbiting the Earth directly above the equator, the plane of the orbit is the same as the Earths equatorial plane. The general case is that the orbit is tilted, it spends half an orbit over the northern hemisphere. If the orbit swung between 20° north latitude and 20° south latitude, then its orbital inclination would be 20°, the inclination is one of the six orbital elements describing the shape and orientation of a celestial orbit. It is the angle between the plane and the plane of reference, normally stated in degrees. For a satellite orbiting a planet, the plane of reference is usually the plane containing the planets equator, for planets in the Solar System, the plane of reference is usually the ecliptic, the plane in which the Earth orbits the Sun. This reference plane is most practical for Earth-based observers, therefore, Earths inclination is, by definition, zero. Inclination could instead be measured with respect to another plane, such as the Suns equator or the invariable plane, the inclination of orbits of natural or artificial satellites is measured relative to the equatorial plane of the body they orbit, if they orbit sufficiently closely. The equatorial plane is the perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the central body. An inclination of 30° could also be described using an angle of 150°, the convention is that the normal orbit is prograde, an orbit in the same direction as the planet rotates. Inclinations greater than 90° describe retrograde orbits, thus, An inclination of 0° means the orbiting body has a prograde orbit in the planets equatorial plane. An inclination greater than 0° and less than 90° also describe prograde orbits, an inclination of 63. 4° is often called a critical inclination, when describing artificial satellites orbiting the Earth, because they have zero apogee drift. An inclination of exactly 90° is an orbit, in which the spacecraft passes over the north and south poles of the planet. An inclination greater than 90° and less than 180° is a retrograde orbit, an inclination of exactly 180° is a retrograde equatorial orbit. For gas giants, the orbits of moons tend to be aligned with the giant planets equator, the inclination of exoplanets or members of multiple stars is the angle of the plane of the orbit relative to the plane perpendicular to the line-of-sight from Earth to the object. An inclination of 0° is an orbit, meaning the plane of its orbit is parallel to the sky. An inclination of 90° is an orbit, meaning the plane of its orbit is perpendicular to the sky
14.
Vostok programme
–
The Vostok programme was a Soviet human spaceflight project to put the first Soviet citizens into low Earth orbit and return them safely. Competing with the United States Project Mercury, it succeeded in placing the first human, Yuri Gagarin, into space, the Vostok capsule was developed from the Zenit spy satellite project and adapted the Vostok launch rocket from the existing R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile design. The name Vostok was treated as classified information until Gagarins flight was first publicly disclosed to the world press, the programme carried out six manned spaceflights between 1961 and 1963. The longest flight lasted five days, and the last four were launched in pairs. This exceeded Project Mercurys demonstrated capability of just over 34 hours longest flight, Vostok was succeeded by two Voskhod programme flights in 1964 and 1965, which used three- and two-man modifications of the Vostok capsule and a larger launch rocket. The worlds first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, had put into orbit by the Soviets in 1957. The next milestone in the history of exploration would be to put a human in space. By January 1959, the Soviets had begun preparations for human spaceflight, the candidates had to be intelligent, comfortable in high-stress situations, and physically fit. Chief designer of the Soviet space program, Sergei Korolev, decided that the cosmonauts must be male, the final specifications for cosmonauts were approved in June 1959. By September interviews with potential cosmonauts had begun, although the pilots were not told they might be flying into space, one of the physicians in charge of the selection process believed that some pilots had figured this out. By the end of 1959,20 men had been selected, Korolev insisted on having a larger group than NASAs seven astronaut team. Of these 20, five were outside the age range. Unlike NASAs astronaut group, this group did not particularly consist of experienced pilots, the Soviet spacecraft were more automated than the American counterparts, so significant piloting experience was not necessary. Vershinin assigned the already famous aviator Nikolai Kamanin to supervise operations at the facility, by March, most of the cosmonauts had arrived at the training facility, on March 7 Vershinin gave a welcome speech, and those who were present were formally inducted into the cosmonaut group. By mid-June all twenty were permanently stationed at the center, in March the cosmonauts were started on a daily fitness regime, and were taught classes on topics such as rocket space systems, navigation, geophysics, and astronomy. The move officially took place on June 29,1960, at the Gromov Flight Research Institute, a spacecraft simulator had been built, and it was called the TDK-1. Due to the inefficiency of training all 20 cosmonauts in the simulator and this group, which would be known as The Vanguard Six, was decided on May 30,1960, and initially consisted of Gagarin, Kartashov, Nikolayev, Popovich, Titov, and Varlamov. Alexei Leonov recalls that these six were the shortest six out of the group of 20, in July, shortly after relocation to Star City, two of the six would be replaced, on medical grounds
15.
Vostok 2
–
Indeed, Titovs number of orbits and flight time would not be surpassed by an American astronaut until Gordon Coopers Mercury-Atlas 9 spaceflight in May 1963. After the flight of Vostok 1, Sergei Korolev took a vacation in Crimea where he began working out the flight plan for the next mission. There were considerable arguments over the duration of the mission as flight doctors argued for no more than three orbits, although dogs and humans were very different physiologically, the doctors were worried about the risks posed on a longer flight. There was also the practical aspect of spacecraft recovery. If Vostok 2 flew three orbits, reentry and landing would take place in the open steppes of southern Russia. Orbits 8-13 would drop the capsule into the Pacific Ocean, after landing would again occur in Soviet territory. Thus, it was necessary to spend a full 24 hours in space before it would be once again possible to land in the recovery area in southern Russia. The three orbit limit thus would not only make landing easy, but minimize risks to the cosmonaut posed by prolonged weightlessness. Korolev argued that since it would take an entire day for landing in southern Russia to be possible again. Besides, he argued, missions of the future would require lengthy stays in space. The flight was targeted for somewhere between July 25 and August 5, to ensure safe radiation levels, balloons equipped with Geiger counters were flown aloft, in addition similar equipment would be carried on Vostok 2. Several enhancements were made to Vostok 2, including an improved TV transmission system, liftoff took place August 6 at 8,57 AM Moscow time and booster performance was almost flawless, placing the spacecraft into a 184x244 km orbit. Unlike Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1, Titov took manual control of the spacecraft for a short while, another change came when the Soviets admitted that Titov did not land with his spacecraft. Titov would claim in an interview that he ejected from his capsule as a test of a landing system. The re-entry capsule was destroyed during development of the Voskhod spacecraft, as of 2013, Titov remains the youngest person to reach space. He was a short of 26 years old at launch. Radio personality Yuri Levitan interrupted Radio Moscow programming with an announcement of the flight at 0745 UTC, nausea set in as Titov escaped Earths gravity, which caused him to vomit when he tried to eat one of his planned meals. Titov is believed to be the first spacefarer to experience the condition, Titov took manual control of the capsules attitude for a time as he passed over Africa on his first orbit and would again at the end of the seventh orbit, the controls were reported to function well
16.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
17.
Orient
–
The Orient is the East, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Eastern world, in relation to Europe. In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the term Orient derives from the Latin word oriens meaning east. Also, many ancient temples, including temples and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, were built with their main entrances facing the East. This tradition was carried on in Christian churches, to situate them in such a manner was to orient them in the proper direction. When something was facing the direction, it was said to be in the proper orientation. Another explanation of the stems from Rome during the Roman Empire, specifically the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Roman Orient. Although the original East-West line was the Italian Peninsulas East Coast, the opposite term Occident derives from the Latin word occidens, meaning west. This term meant the west but has fallen into disuse in English, over time, the common understanding of the Orient has continually shifted eastwards, as European people traveled farther into Asia. It finally reached the Pacific Ocean, in what Westerners came to call the Far East and these shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope of Oriental Studies. Yet there remain contexts where the Orient and Oriental have kept their older meanings, travelers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to its terminus in the European part of Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century. In European historiography, the meaning of the Orient changed in several times. Originally, the referred to Egypt, the Levant. During the 1800s, India, and to a lesser extent China, by the mid-20th century, Western scholars generally considered the Orient as just East Asia, Southeast Asia, and eastern Central Asia. As recently as the early 20th century, the term Orient often continued to be used in ways that included North Africa, today, the term primarily evokes images of China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and peninsular Southeast Asia. Throughout the history of the sense of the term, the Orient was never equivalent to Asia as a whole. The Orient being largely a term, large parts of Asia—Siberia most notably—were excluded from the scholarly notion of the Orient. Equally valid terms for the Orient still exist in the English language in such collocations as Oriental studies, the adjectival term Oriental has been used by the West to mean cultures, peoples, countries, Asian rugs, and goods from the Orient. It is a designation for anything belonging to the Orient or East
18.
Manned spaceflight
–
Human spaceflight is space travel with a crew or passengers aboard the spacecraft. The first human spaceflight was launched by the Soviet Union on 12 April 1961 as a part of the Vostok program, humans have been continuously present in space for 16 years and 153 days on the International Space Station. All early human spaceflight was crewed, where at least some of the passengers acted to carry out tasks of piloting or operating the spacecraft, after 2015, several human-capable spacecraft are being explicitly designed with the ability to operate autonomously. Since the retirement of the US Space Shuttle in 2011, only Russia and China have maintained human spaceflight capability with the Soyuz program, currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use Soyuz vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate access to ISS and low Earth orbit. While spaceflight has typically been an activity, commercial spaceflight has gradually been taking on a greater role. NASA has also played a role to stimulate private spaceflight through programs such as Commercial Orbital Transportation Services, the vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Shuttle, and commercial crew launches could begin by 2017 and these rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first artificial satellites into low Earth orbit. The USSR launched the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin into an orbit in Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket. The US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard on a flight aboard Freedom 7 on a Mercury-Redstone rocket. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecrafts attitude, and landed inside it, the first American in orbit was John Glenn aboard Friendship 7, launched 20 February 1962 on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four in orbit through 1963. US President John F. Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon, Geminis objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used in the Moon mission. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, made by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965, but Voskhod did not have Geminis capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. In July 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedys goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon 21 July, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon through 1972, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface. The crew of Apollo 13, Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise, survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued human lunar orbiting and landing programs. On losing the Moon race, they concentrated on the development of stations, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to. They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986, after the Apollo program, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station in 1973, manning it for 171 days with three crews aboard Apollo spacecraft
19.
Vostok 3KA
–
The Vostok was a type of spacecraft built by the Soviet Union. The first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on this spacecraft on April 12,1961, the spacecraft was part of the Vostok programme in which six manned spaceflights were made from 1961–63. Two further manned space flights were made in 1964 and 1965 by Voskhod spacecraft, by the late 1960s both were superseded by the Soyuz spacecraft, which are still used as of 2017. The Vostok spacecraft was designed for use both as a camera platform and as a manned spacecraft. This dual-use design was crucial in gaining Communist Party support for the program, the basic Vostok design has remained in use for some 40 years, gradually adapted for a range of other unmanned satellites. The descent module design was reused, in modified form. The craft consisted of a spherical descent module, which housed the cosmonaut, instruments and escape system, and a conical instrument module, which contained propellant and the engine system. On reentry, the cosmonaut would eject from the craft at about 7,000 m and descend via parachute, the reason for this was that the Vostok descent module made an extremely rough landing that could have left a cosmonaut seriously injured. The ejector seat also served as a mechanism in the event of a launch vehicle failure. If an accident occurred in the first 40 seconds after liftoff, from 40 to 150 seconds into launch, ground controllers could issue a manual shutdown command to the booster. When the launch vehicle fell to a low altitude, the cosmonaut would eject. Higher altitude failures after shroud jettison would involve detaching the entire spacecraft from the booster, one problem that was never adequately resolved was the event of a launch vehicle malfunction in the first 20 seconds, when the ejector seat would not have enough time to deploy its parachute. Molodsov stated that Chief Designer Sergei Korolev felt absolutely terrible about the provisions for crew escape on the Vostok during the opening seconds of launch. There were several models of the Vostok leading up to the manned version, the Vostok 3KA was the spacecraft used for the first human spaceflights. They were launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome using Vostok 8K72K launch vehicles, the first flight of a Vostok 3KA occurred on March 9,1961. The first flight with a crew—Vostok 1 carrying Yuri Gagarin—took place on April 12,1961, the last flight—Vostok 6 carrying the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova—took place on June 16,1963. A total of 8 Vostok 3KA spacecraft were flown,6 of them with a human crew, Specifications for this version are, Reentry Module, Vostok SA. SA stands for Spuskaemiy apparat - descent system, PA stands for Priborniy otsek - instrument section
20.
Space capsule
–
A space capsule is an often manned spacecraft which has a simple shape for the main section, without any wings or other features to create lift during atmospheric reentry. A capsule is the form for the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle. A manned space capsule must have everything necessary for life, including air, water. The space capsule must also protect astronauts from the cold and radiation of space, a capsule must be well insulated and have a system that controls the inside temperature and environment. It also must have a way that the astronauts would not be knocked around during launch or reentry, additionally, since the inside will be weightless, there must be a way for the astronauts to stay in their seats during the flight. For this each seat has a system of straps and buckles, one of the most important things that a space capsule must have is a way to communicate with people back on Earth, or mission control. Space capsules have typically been smaller than 5 meters in diameter and this has been especially pronounced in the case of the Soyuz manned spacecraft. Most space capsules have used a heat shield for reentry. The Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle appears likely, as of December 2005, there is no limit, save for lack of engineering experience, on using high-temperature ceramic tiles or ultra-high temperature ceramic sheets on space capsules. Materials for the capsule are designed in different ways, like the Apollo Command Module’s aluminum honeycomb structure. Aluminum is very light, and the gives the space capsule extra strength. The early space craft had a coating of glass embedded with synthetic resin, carbon fiber, reinforced plastics and ceramic are new materials that are constantly being made better for use in space exploration. Space capsules are well-suited to high-temperature and dynamic loading reentries, the current RKK Energia design for the Kliper, being capable of flights to Mars, is an exception. Engineers building a space capsule must take such as gravity. The space capsule must be enough to slow down quickly, must endure extremely high or low temperatures. When the space capsule comes close to a planet’s or moon’s surface, if it slows down too quickly, everything in the capsule will be crushed. If it doesn’t slow down enough, it will crash into the surface. There are additional requirements for atmospheric reentry, if the angle of attack is too shallow, the capsule may skip off the surface of the atmosphere
21.
Astronaut
–
An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists. Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, with the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created, the commercial astronaut. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of 100 kilometers. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles are awarded astronaut wings. As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these,24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon, the three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie. As of 17 November 2016, under the U. S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days in space, as of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman,377 days, dryden preferred cosmonaut, on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos, while the astro prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred astronaut, which survived by common usage as the preferred American term, when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to cosmonaut. In English-speaking nations, a space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron, meaning star, the first known use of the term astronaut in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Deaths Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier, for example, in Percy Gregs 1880 book Across the Zodiac, astronaut referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de lInfini of J. -H, rosny aîné, the word astronautique was used. The word may have inspired by aeronaut, an older term for an air traveler first applied to balloonists. An early use in a publication is Eric Frank Russells poem The Astronaut in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond, NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps
22.
Outer space
–
Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
23.
Orbital spaceflight
–
An orbital spaceflight is a spaceflight in which a spacecraft is placed on a trajectory where it could remain in space for at least one orbit. To do this around the Earth, it must be on a trajectory which has an altitude at perigee above 100 kilometers, this is, by at least one convention. To remain in orbit at this altitude requires a speed of ~7.8 km/s. Orbital speed is slower for higher orbits, but attaining them requires greater delta-v, the expression orbital spaceflight is mostly used to distinguish from sub-orbital spaceflights, which are flights where the apogee of a spacecraft reaches space, but the perigee is too low. Orbital spaceflight from Earth has only achieved by launch vehicles that use rocket engines for propulsion. To reach orbit, the rocket must impart to the payload a delta-v of about 9. 3–10 km/s and this figure is mainly for horizontal acceleration needed to reach orbital speed, but allows for atmospheric drag, gravity losses, and gaining altitude. Currently, 2-4 stages are needed to achieve the required delta-v, most launches are by expendable launch systems. The Pegasus rocket for small satellites instead launches from an aircraft at an altitude of 12 km, there have been many proposed methods for achieving orbital spaceflight that have the potential of being much more affordable than rockets. Some of these such as the space elevator, and rotovator. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo, an object in orbit at an altitude of less than roughly 200 km is considered unstable due to atmospheric drag. For a satellite to be in an orbit,350 km is a more standard altitude for low Earth orbit. For example, on 1958-02-01 the Explorer 1 satellite was launched into an orbit with a perigee of 358 kilometers and it remained in orbit for more than 12 years before its atmospheric reentry over the Pacific Ocean on 1970-03-31. However, the behaviour of objects in orbit depends on altitude, their ballistic coefficient. There are three bands of orbit around the Earth, low Earth orbit, medium Earth orbit. Due to Orbital mechanics orbits are in a particular, largely fixed plane around the Earth, which coincides with the center of the Earth, NASA provides real-time tracking of the over 500 artificial satellites maintained in orbit around Earth. For the position of these satellites see NASA satellite tracking, in spaceflight, an orbital maneuver is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft. For spacecraft far from Earth—for example those in orbits around the Sun—an orbital maneuver is called a deep-space maneuver, returning spacecraft have to find a way of slowing down as much as possible while still in higher atmospheric layers and avoid hitting the ground or burning up. For many orbital space flights, initial deceleration is provided by the retrofiring of the rocket engines
24.
Space Race
–
The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union and the United States, for supremacy in spaceflight capability. The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, the Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, unmanned space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon. The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4,1957 orbiting of Sputnik 1, the race peaked with the July 20,1969 US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed manned lunar missions, and eventually cancelled them, the Space Race has left a legacy of Earth communications and weather satellites, and continuing human space presence on the International Space Station. It has also sparked increases in spending on education and research and development, the origins of the Space Race can be traced to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during World War II when Nazi Germany researched and built operational ballistic missiles. Wernher von Braun, a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at Kummersdorf-West in 1932, von Braun dreamed of conquering outer space with rockets, and did not initially see the military value in missile technology. They led the team built the Aggregate-4 rocket, which became the first vehicle to reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943. By 1943, Germany began mass-producing the A-4 as the Vergeltungswaffe 2 and its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and radar detection provided little warning. Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945, after the war, the V-2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs. The United States also acquired a number of complete V2 rockets. The German rocket center in Peenemünde was located in the part of Germany. On Stalins orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see what they could salvage for future weapons systems, the Soviet rocket engineers were led by Sergei Korolev. He had been involved in clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s. After the war, he became the USSRs chief rocket and spacecraft engineer and his identity was kept a state secret throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as the Chief Designer. In the West, his name was officially revealed when he died in 1966. They were not allowed to participate in final Soviet missile design, with their help, particularly Helmut Gröttrups group, Korolev reverse-engineered the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the R-1, in 1948. Later, he developed his own designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Gröttrup Groups G4-R10 design from 1949. The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951–53 and he also started developing liquid-fueled rockets in 1921, yet he had not been taken seriously by the public
25.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
26.
Satellite
–
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
27.
Sputnik 1
–
Sputnik 1 was the first artificial Earth satellite. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957 and it was a 58 cm diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses were detectable and this surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information, even though the satellite itself wasnt equipped with sensors. The density of the atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, the satellite travelled at about 29,000 kilometres per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, the signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957. Sputnik burned up on 4 January 1958 while reentering Earths atmosphere, after travelling about 70 million km, on 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev addressed Dimitri Ustinov and proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite. Korolev forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov with an overview of similar projects abroad, Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology. On 29 July 1955, U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that the United States would launch an artificial satellite during the International Geophysical Year. A week later, on 8 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov – the head of the State Commission on R-7 rocket test launches – held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches. On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, named Object D, was planned to be completed in 1957–58, it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg, the first test launch of Object D was scheduled for 1957. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the wind, magnetic fields. These data would be valuable in the creation of artificial satellites. A system of stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellites orbit
28.
Project Mercury
–
Project Mercury was the first human spaceflight program of the United States, running from 1958 through 1963. An early highlight of the Space Race, its goal was to put a man into Earth orbit, taken over from the U. S. Air Force by the newly created civilian space agency NASA, it conducted twenty unmanned developmental flights, and six successful flights by astronauts. The program, which took its name from the god of travel in Roman mythology, cost $277 million in 1965 US dollars, the astronauts were collectively known as the Mercury Seven, and each spacecraft was given a name ending with a 7 by its pilot. The Space Race began with the 1957 launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 and this came as a shock to the American public, and led to the creation of NASA to expedite existing U. S. space exploration efforts, and place most of them under civilian control. After the successful launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958, the Soviet Union put the first human, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, into a single orbit aboard Vostok 1 on April 12,1961. Shortly after this, on May 5, the U. S. launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, Soviet Gherman Titov followed with a day-long orbital flight in August 1961. The U. S. reached its goal on February 20,1962. When Mercury ended in May 1963, both nations had sent six people into space, but the Soviets led the U. S. in total spent in space. The Mercury space capsule was produced by McDonnell Aircraft, and carried supplies of water, food, Mercury flights were launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, on launch vehicles modified from the Redstone and Atlas D missiles. The capsule was fitted with an escape rocket to carry it safely away from the launch vehicle in case of a failure. The flight was designed to be controlled from the ground via the Manned Space Flight Network, small retrorockets were used to bring the spacecraft out of its orbit, after which an ablative heat shield protected it from the heat of atmospheric reentry. Finally, a parachute slowed the craft for a water landing, both astronaut and capsule were recovered by helicopters deployed from a U. S. Navy ship. After a slow start riddled with humiliating mistakes, the Mercury project gained popularity, its missions followed by millions on radio, Project Mercury was officially approved on October 7,1958 and publicly announced on December 17. Originally called Project Astronaut, President Dwight Eisenhower felt that too much attention to the pilot. Instead, the name Mercury was chosen from classical mythology, which had already lent names to rockets like the Greek Atlas and Roman Jupiter for the SM-65 and it absorbed military projects with the same aim, such as the Air Force Man In Space Soonest. Following the end of World War II, an arms race evolved between the U. S. and the Soviet Union. The rocket technology in turn enabled both sides to develop Earth-orbiting satellites for communications, and gathering data and intelligence. Americans were shocked when the Soviet Union placed the first satellite into orbit in October 1957, a month later, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, carrying a dog into orbit
29.
Korabl-Sputnik 4
–
Korabl-Sputnik 4 or Vostok-3KA No.1, also known as Sputnik 9 in the West, was a Soviet spacecraft which was launched in 1961. Carrying the mannequin Ivan Ivanovich, a dog named Chernushka, some mice, korabl-Sputnik 4 was launched at 06,29,00 UTC on 9 March 1961, atop a Vostok-K carrier rocket flying from Site 1/5 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. It was successfully placed into low Earth orbit, the spacecraft was only intended to complete a single orbit, so it was deorbited shortly after launch, and reentered on its first pass over the Soviet Union. It landed at 08,09,54 UTC, and was successfully recovered, during the descent, the mannequin was ejected from the spacecraft in a test of its ejection seat, and descended separately under its own parachute
30.
Korabl-Sputnik 5
–
Korabl-Sputnik 5 or Vostok-3KA No.2, also known as Sputnik 10 in the West, was a Soviet spacecraft which was launched in 1961, as part of the Vostok programme. It was the last test flight of the Vostok spacecraft design prior the first manned flight and it carried the mannequin Ivan Ivanovich, a dog named Zvezdochka, television cameras and scientific apparatus. A spacecraft of the design Vostok 3KA had only been launched once before and this mission was called Korabl-Sputnik 4, and it was a complete success. Prior to Korabl-Sputnik 4, the two missions in the Vostok programme were both launched in December 1960, and both ended in failure. Only days before the launch of Korabl-Sputnik 5, the cosmonaut team, cosmonaut candidate Valentin Bondarenko was killed in a fire during a training exercise in an oxygen-rich isolation chamber. Its not clear whether other cosmonauts were told of his death, Korabl-Sputnik 5 was launched at 05,54,00 UTC on 25 March 1961, atop a Vostok-K carrier rocket flying from Site 1/5 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. It was successfully placed into low Earth orbit and it landed at approximately 07,40 UTC, northeast of Izhevsk, near the Bolshesosnovsky District. The landing occurred during a snowstorm, which caused delays in located exactly where touchdown occurred and it was about 24 hours after landed when a recovery team arrived at the site. Local villagers assisted the team to the area, with the help of a horse-drawn sled. The recovery team noted that the spacecraft was still hot to touch,24 hours after landing in five feet of snow, the nearby villages were suspicious of the recovery teams, believing that the mannequin was in fact a person who may have been badly injured. The success of Korabl-Sputnik 5 was the step required to get approval for a manned mission. Vostok 3KA-2 was the key in the door for Gagarins flight That manned mission, known as Vostok 1, would occur about on April 12,1961, the spacecraft Gagarin used was a nearly identical model, called Vostok 3KA-3. The re-entry module of the spacecraft Vostok 3KA-2 was auctioned at Sothebys on 12 April 2011, the spacecraft was expected to sell for $2–10 million USD. and was sold for $2,882,500 USD. Challenge to Apollo, The Soviet Union and the Space Race, the first Soviet cosmonaut team, their lives, legacy, and historical impact
31.
Gherman Titov
–
Gherman Stepanovich Titov was a Soviet cosmonaut who, on 6 August 1961, became the second human to orbit the Earth, aboard Vostok 2, preceded by Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1. He was the person in space, counting suborbital voyages of US astronauts Alan Shepard. Titovs flight finally proved that humans could live and work in space and he was the first person to orbit the Earth multiple times, to spend more than a day in space, to sleep in orbit and to suffer from space sickness. In fact, he holds the record for being the first person to vomit in space. He was the first to pilot a spaceship personally and he made the first manual photographs from orbit and he also was the first person to film the Earth using, for ten minutes, a professional quality Konvas-Avtomat movie camera. A month short of 26 years old at launch, he remains the youngest person to fly in space. In his subsequent life Titov continued to work for the Soviet space program, Titov served in the Soviet Air Force and become a colonel-general, and in his final years in post-Soviet Russia he became a Communist politician. Titov was born in the village of Verkhneye Zhilino in the Altai Krai, after graduating as an air force pilot, he was selected for cosmonaut training in 1960. Titov flew the Vostok 2 mission launched on 6 August 1961 and it lasted for 25.3 hours and he performed 17 orbits of the Earth. He landed close to the town of Krasny Kut in Saratov Oblast, a month short of 26 years old at launch, he remains the youngest person to fly in space. Titov was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Titov was a fine sportsman, and keen on gymnastics, Service in the Air Force made us strong, both physically and morally. All of us cosmonauts took up sports and PT seriously when we served in the Air Force, I know that Yuri Gagarin was fond of ice hockey. He liked to play goal keeper, Gherman Titov was a gymnastics enthusiast, Andriyan Nikolayev liked skiing, Pavel Popovich went in for weight lifting. I dont think I am wrong when I say that sports became a fixture in the life of the cosmonauts and he was the first person to suffer from space sickness and was also the first person to sleep in space. He slept for roughly one orbit and was surprised to wake with his arms floating in the air due to the absence of normal gravity and he returned to sleep after putting his arms under a security belt, then slept 30 minutes more than predicted by the flight plan. He stated that Once you have your arms and legs arranged properly, though he had been suffering from space sickness during his orbit, Titov celebrated upon landing. ”At a visit in Seattle, Titov was asked by reporters how his space flight affected his philosophy of life. He replied, Sometimes people are saying that God is out there, I was looking around attentively all day but I didn’t find anybody there. I saw neither angels nor God, the utterance was famously used in Soviet anti-religion propaganda, but it was misattributed to Yuri Gagarin
32.
Nikolai Kamanin
–
In World War II he successfully commanded an air brigade, air division, and air corps, reaching the rank of Airforce Colonel General and Air Army commander after the war. It was at time that his son, Arkady Kamanin, became a fighter pilot at the age of 14. From 1960-1971, General Kamanin was the head of training in the Soviet space program. He recruited and trained the first generation of cosmonauts, including Yuri Gagarin, Gherman Titov, Kamanin was the Airforce representative to the space program, a proponent of manned orbital flight and Airforce influence over the Space Race. His diaries of this period, published in 1995-2001, are among the most important sources documenting the progress of the Soviet space program, Nikolai Kamanin was born in Melenki, in Vladimir Governorate. Kamanins grandfather was a shoemaker with his own workshop, however, his father, Pyotr Kamanin, broke with tradition. He died in 1919 at the age of 49, mother, Stefanida and Pyotr Kamanin had 10 children, Nikolai survived all his four brothers. Alexander Ivanovich Kamanin, Nikolais uncle, lived a long life, including 50 years of religious hermitage. According to his son, Lev Kamanin, Nikolai Kamanin was actually born in 1909 and he passed the airforce physical test and completed the pilots school in Borisoglebsk in 1929, trained by legendary pilot Victor Kholzunov. Kamanin was dispatched to the site of Russo-Chinese railroad conflict in the Far East, there, he joined the legendary Lenin Air Regiment, the first airforce unit in Soviet history. Kamanin flew a reconnaissance airplane, including 11-hour endurance flights over the Sea of Japan. His crewmate, incidentally, was an ethnic Chinese, in February 1934, Chelyuskin steamship was crushed by Arctic ice in the Chukchi Sea. 104 crewmembers and passengers set their base on pack ice, at that time, United States grounded all arctic flights after a string of accidents, and the only rescue force on hand was Anatoly Liapidevsky and his crew of ANT-4. After 28 failed attempts, Liapidevski located the ice camp on 5 March landed and hauled out twelve of 104 survivors, a week later, on the second flight to ice camp, he crash-landed the airplane after an engine failure. The Soviet government dispatched three groups of pilots from Far Eastern air bases, the largest group of seven military and civilian reconnaissance pilots on Polikarpov R-5 biplanes, based in Primorsky Krai, was led by Kamanin. The group sailed from Vladivostok 2 March 1934, disembarked at Olyutorka, Kamanin and Vasily Molokov flew from a temporary base in Vankarem settlement to the ice camp, saving 34 and 39 survivors. On their first flight from the ice camp, R-5 carried a crew of two, plus two men from Chelyuskin in the hull, the next flights added makeshift wing gondolas, carrying two more men per mission. Other pilots from the Kamanin team hauled them from Vankarem to Providence Bay seaport, the ice camp was completely evacuated 13 April 1934, Kamanin returned with the ships bosun and eight riding dogs
33.
Alexei Leonov
–
Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov is a retired Soviet/Russian cosmonaut, Air Force Major general, a writer and an artist. On 18 March 1965, he became the first human to conduct extravehicular activity, Leonov was one of the 20 Soviet Air Force pilots selected to be part of the first cosmonaut group in 1960. Leonov was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and his walk in space was originally to have taken place on the Voskhod 1 mission, but this was cancelled, and the historic event happened on the Voskhod 2 flight instead. He was outside the spacecraft for 12 minutes and nine seconds on 18 March 1965, at the end of the spacewalk, Leonovs spacesuit had inflated in the vacuum of space to the point where he could not re-enter the airlock. He opened a valve to allow some of the pressure to bleed off and was barely able to get back inside the capsule. Leonov had spent eighteen months undergoing intensive training for the mission. As of March 2017, Leonov is the last survivor of the five cosmonauts in the Voskhod programme, in 1968, Leonov was selected to be commander of a circumlunar Soyuz 7K-L1 flight. He was also selected to be the first Soviet person to land on the Moon, Leonov was to have commanded the next mission to Salyut 1, but this was scrapped after the deaths of the Soyuz 11 crew members, and the space station was lost. The next two Salyuts were lost at launch or failed soon after, and Leonovs crew stood by, by the time Salyut 4 reached orbit, Leonov had been switched to a more prestigious project. From 1976 to 1982, Leonov was the commander of the team and deputy director of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. He also edited the cosmonaut newsletter Neptune, Leonov is an accomplished artist whose published books include albums of his artistic works and works he did in collaboration with his friend Andrei Sokolov. Leonov took coloured pencils and paper into space, where he sketched the Earth, arthur C. Clarke kept an autographed sketch of this painting—which Leonov made after the screening, hanging on his office wall. In 2001, he was a president of Moscow-based Alfa-Bank. In 2004, Leonov and former American astronaut David Scott began work on a dual biography/history of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union, titled Two Sides of the Moon, Our Story of the Cold War Space Race, it was published in 2006. Neil Armstrong and Tom Hanks both wrote introductions to the book, Leonov was also a contributor to the 2007 book Into That Silent Sea by Colin Burgess and Francis French, which describes his life and career in space exploration. Order For Merit, 1st class Public organizations Gold Medal partisan Ludwig Nobel Prize Elmer A, sperry Award Order of Saint Constantine the Great Order Golden Star. National Award To the glory of the Fatherland in the Glory to Russia, clarkes novel 2010, Odyssey Two was dedicated to Leonov and Andrei Sakharov, the fictional spaceship Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov in the book was named after him. Leonov wore a Russian Poljot FMWF Strela watch chronograph during his historic first space walk
34.
Russia Today
–
RT is a Russian international television network funded by the Russian government. It operates cable and satellite television channels directed to audiences outside of Russia, as well as providing Internet content in languages, including English, Spanish. RT America, and RT UK offer some locally based content for those countries, RT is a brand of TV-Novosti, an autonomous non-profit organization, founded by the Russian news agency, RIA Novosti, on 6 April 2005. RT has been described as a propaganda outlet for the Russian government. RT has also accused of spreading disinformation by news reporters. The United Kingdom media regulator, Ofcom, has repeatedly found RT to have breached rules on impartiality, the creation of RT was a part of a larger public relations effort by the Russian Government in 2005 that was intended to improve the image of Russia abroad. RT was conceived by former media minister Mikhail Lesin, and Russian president Vladimir Putins press spokesperson Aleksei Gromov and it is registered as an autonomous nonprofit organization funded by the federal budget of Russia through the Federal Agency on Press and Mass Communications of the Russian Federation. In 2005, RIA Novosti helped establish ANO TV-Novosti to serve as the parent organization for the planned channel, ANO TV-Novosti was registered on 6 April 2005. ANO TV-Novosti appointed Sergey Frolov as its CEO position, The channel was launched as Russia Today on 10 December 2005, at its launch, the channel employed 300 journalists, including approximately 70 from outside Russia. Russia Today appointed Margarita Simonyan as its editor-in-chief, who recruited foreign journalists as presenters, Simonyan stated that the channels intent was to have a professional format akin to the BBC and Euronews that would reflect Russias opinion of the world and present a more balanced picture of Russia. Simonyan, who was only 25 years old at the time of her hiring by the channel, was a former Kremlin pool reporter and had worked in journalism since she was 18. She told The New York Times that after the fall of the Soviet Union, many new young journalists were hired, in August 2007, Russia Today became the first television channel to report live from the North Pole. An RT crew participated in the Arktika 2007 Russian polar expedition, on 31 December 2007, RTs broadcasts of New Years Eve celebrations in Moscow and Saint Petersburg were broadcast in the hours prior to the New Years Eve event at New York Citys Times Square. RT drew particular attention worldwide for its coverage of the 2008 South Ossetia war, RT named Georgia as the aggressor against the separatist governments of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, which were protected by Russian troops. RT saw this as the incident that showcased its newsgathering abilities to the world, Margarita Simonyan stated, we were the only ones among the English-language media who were giving the other side of the story – the South Ossetian side of the story. In 2009, Russia Today rebranded itself to simply the RT initials, in early 2010, RT unveiled a highly controversial advertising campaign called Question More, which was created for the channel by Britain-based McCann Erickson. The ad was banned in American airports, another showed a Western soldier merging into a Taliban fighter and asks, Is terror only inflicted by terrorists. One of RTs 2010 billboard advertisements won the British Awards for National Newspaper Advertising Ad of the Month, RT is one of several international channels that have challenged the United States media, which previously dominated global news coverage
35.
Frankfurt Airport
–
Frankfurt Airport is a major international airport located in Frankfurt, the fifth-largest city of Germany and one of the worlds leading financial centres. It is operated by Fraport and serves as the hub for Lufthansa including Lufthansa CityLine and Lufthansa Cargo as well as Condor. The airport is also the 12th busiest worldwide by number of passengers in 2015, with 61.032 million passengers using the airport in 2015. It also had a throughput of 2.076 million metric tonnes in 2015 and is the busiest airport in Europe by cargo traffic. As of summer 2017, Frankfurt Airport serves 293 destinations, making it the airport with the most direct routes in the world, in 2016 passengers at the airport fell 0. 4% to 60,792,308 down from 61.032 million in 2015. Frankfurt Airport lies 12 km southwest of central Frankfurt, near the Autobahn intersection Frankfurter Kreuz, the airport grounds, which form a city district of Frankfurt named Frankfurt-Flughafen, are surrounded by the Frankfurt City Forest. The southern portion of the airport grounds extend partially into the cities of Rüsselsheim am Main and Mörfelden-Walldorf, and a western portion of the grounds lie within the city of Kelsterbach. Thereby, along with a rail and motorway connection, the airport serves as a major transport for the greater region. That section of Rhein-Main later became the base for the Graf Zeppelin, its sister ship LZ-130, the airships were dismantled and their huge hangars demolished on 6 May 1940 during conversion of the base to military use. Luftwaffe engineers subsequently extended the runway and erected hangars and other facilities for German military aircraft. During World War II the Luftwaffe used the field sporadically as a fighter base, on 16 November 1909, the worlds first airline was founded in Frankfurt am Main, The Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft. DELAG then built the first airport in Frankfurt, called Airship Base at Rebstock and it opened in 1912 and was extended after World War I, but in 1924 an experts report already questioned the possibility of further expansions at this location. With the foundation of Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1926 a rapid boom of civilian air travel started, plans for a new and larger airport located in the Frankfurt City Forest south-west of Schwanheim were approved in 1930, but were not realised due to the Great Depression. After the Machtergreifung in 1933 the government revived the plans and started the construction of the new airport, on the northern part of the airport originated in 1935 a two-storey station building with a six-storey tower, and other operating and outbuildings for maintenance and storage of aircraft. The approximately 100 hectares runway received a grass cover, the official opening of the new Flug- und Luftschiffhafen Rhein-Main took place on July 8,1936. The first plane that landed was a Ju 52/3m, Six days later,1936800 tons of cargo and 58,000 passengers were transported, in 193770,000 passengers and 966 tons of cargo. In the coming years, the new airport was base of the two largest German airships LZ127 Graf Zeppelin and LZ129 Hindenburg. In 1938 Frankfurt was a distribution point for the transport of airmail to North America
36.
Tracking ship
–
A tracking ship, also called a missile range instrumentation ships or range ships, is a ship equipped with antennas and electronics to support the launching and tracking of missiles and rockets. Since many missile ranges launch over ocean areas for safety reasons, in the United States the initial tracking ships were constructed by the US Army and then US Air Force to support their missile programs. They were generally built on a surplus Liberty ship or Victory ship hull, by 1964 the US Navy took over all the range ships and introduced more. The Chinese ships were purpose built vessels for their role in the navy, — ex-Italian oil tanker Active Monge, 1992–present — purpose-built The Soviet and later Russian ships were purpose built vessels for their role. The latter was delivered in January 2012 to replace USNS Observation Island in 2014, most of the USN and USAF tracking ships were converted into their role. Some ships were in service with NASA, USNS Range Tracker, 1961–1969 - built as Victory ship USNS Range Recoverer, 1960–1972 - built for US Army USNS Longview, 1959–19. H. Arnold, 1961–1982 - built as C4 class troop ship USNS General Hoyt S. - built as Type T2-SE-A2 tanker/supplies ship USNS Mercury, lorenzen, 2012-present - purpose built to replace Observation Island. Pathfinder-class survey ships Eastern Range List of ships of the United States Air Force Sea-Based X-Band Radar Western Launch and Test Range
37.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
38.
Retrorocket
–
A retrorocket is a rocket engine providing thrust opposing the motion of a vehicle, thereby causing it to decelerate. They have mostly used in spacecraft, with more limited use in short-runway aircraft landing. New uses are emerging in the 2010s for retro-thrust rockets in reusable launch systems, rockets were fitted to the nose of some models of the DFS230, a World War II, German Military glider. This enabled the aircraft to land in confined areas than would otherwise be possible during an airborne assault. Another World War II development was the British Hajile project, initiated by the British Admiraltys Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development, later Soviet experiments used this technique, braking large air-dropped cargos after a parachute descent. To ensure clean separation and prevent contact, multistage rockets may have small retrorockets on lower stages, meanwhile, the succeeding stage may have ullage rockets, both to aid separation and ensure good starting of liquid-fuel engines. When a spacecraft in orbit is slowed sufficiently, its altitude decreases to the point at which aerodynamic forces begin to slow the motion of the vehicle. Therefore, it is critical that spacecraft have extremely reliable retrorockets, one was sufficient to return the spacecraft to earth if the other two failed. Gemini used four rockets, each 2,500 pounds-force, burning for 5.5 seconds in sequence and these were mounted in the retrograde section of the adapter module, located just behind the capsules heat shield. The Apollo program did not require retrorockets for lunar flights, as the flight from the moon was directed to fly the spacecraft back to earth. However, the flights in earth orbit for tests required retrorockets, so the large, the Space Shuttle would use a similar multipurpose engine for reentry. The Space Shuttle Orbital maneuvering system provided the vehicle with a pair of powerful liquid-fueled rockets for both reentry and orbital maneuvering, one was sufficient for a successful reentry, and if both systems were to fail, the reaction control system could slow the vehicle enough for reentry. As pointed out above the main rocket on a spacecraft can be re-oriented to serve as a retrorocket, the Soyuz capsule uses small rockets for the last phase of landing. New uses for retro-thrust rockets emerged in the 2010s for reusable launch systems, launch vehicle first stages in the first sixty years of spaceflight have been routinely destroyed after a single use by atmospheric reentry and high-speed impact in the ocean. An earlier test vehicle, the Grasshopper v1.0, began low-altitude, low-velocity return-to-Earth landing tests in late 2012 using a Merlin 1D main engine to reduce descent speed for vertical landing
39.
1960 U-2 incident
–
Powers parachuted safely and was captured. The U-2 flew at altitudes that could not be reached by Soviet fighter jets of the era, a facility established in Badaber,10 miles from Peshawar, was a cover for a major communications intercept operation run by the United States National Security Agency. Badaber was an excellent location because of its proximity to Soviet central Asia and this enabled the monitoring of missile test sites, key infrastructure and communications. The U-2 spy-in-the-sky was allowed to use the Pakistan Air Force portion of Peshawar Airport to gain photo intelligence in an era before satellite observation. At a time like the Cold War, any act of aggression could spark open conflict between the two countries, with the United Kingdom still reeling from the aftermath of the Suez Crisis and in no position to snub American requests, the British government was amenable to the proposal. The final two missions before the summit were to be flown by American pilots, the U-2 left Soviet air space and landed at an Iranian airstrip at Zahedan. It was clear that the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency had successfully performed an extraordinary intelligence operation. The next flight of the U-2 spyplane from Peshawar airport was planned for late April, Lockheed U-2C spy plane, Article 358, was ferried from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey to the US base at Peshawar airport by pilot Glen Dunaway. Fuel for the aircraft had been ferried to Peshawar the previous day in a US Air Force C-124 transport, a US Air Force C-130 followed, carrying the ground crew, mission pilot Francis Gary Powers, and the back up pilot, Bob Ericson. On the morning of 29 April, the crew in Badaber was informed that the mission had been delayed one day, as a result, Bob Ericson flew Article 358 back to Incirlik and John Shinn ferried another U-2C, Article 360, from Incirlik to Peshawar. On 30 April, the mission was delayed one day further because of bad weather over the Soviet Union, at the time, the USSR had six ICBM launch pads, two at Baikonur and four at Plesetsk. Mayak, then named Chelyabinsk-65, an important industrial center of plutonium processing, was another of the targets that Powers was to photograph. A close study of Powerss account of the shows that one of the last targets he overflew. Because of the U-2s extreme operating altitude, Soviet attempts to intercept the plane using fighter aircraft failed. The U-2s course was out of range of several of the nearest SAM sites, the U-2 was eventually brought down near Kosulino, Ural Region, by the first of three SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles fired by a battery commanded by Mikhail Voronov. The SA-2 site had previously identified by the CIA, using photos taken during Vice President Richard Nixons visit to Sverdlovsk the previous summer. Powers bailed out but neglected to disconnect his oxygen hose first and struggled with it until it broke, Powers was captured soon after parachuting safely down onto Russian soil. Powers carried with him a silver dollar which contained a lethal, shellfish-derived saxitoxin-tipped needle
40.
Mission control center
–
A mission control center is a facility that manages space flights, usually from the point of launch until landing or the end of the mission. It is part of the segment of spacecraft operations. A staff of flight controllers and other support personnel monitor all aspects of the mission using telemetry, the training for these missions usually falls under the responsibility of the flight controllers, typically including extensive rehearsals in the MCC. Prior to liftoff, missions are controlled from the Launch Control Center located at NASAs Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, the MCC also manages the U. S. portions of the International Space Station. European Space Operations Centre is responsible for ESAs satellites and space probes and it is located in Darmstadt, Germany. The Mission Control Center of the Russian Federal Space Agency, also known by its acronym ЦУП is located in Korolyov and it contains an active control room for the ISS. It also houses a control room for the Mir where the last few orbits of Mir before it burned up in the atmosphere are shown on the display screens. Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center is a center for the Chinese space program which includes the Shenzhou missions. The building is inside a complex nicknamed Aerospace City, the city is located in a suburb northwest of Beijing. America Boeing Satellite Development Center Mission Control Center in El Segundo, California, in charge of several military satellites. Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland provides mission control for the Hubble Space Telescope, lockheed Martin A2100 Space Operations Center in Newtown, Pennsylvania, US. In charge of military satellites. Mercury Control Center was located on the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and was used during Project Mercury, one of its still standing buildings now serves as a makeshift bunker for the media if a rocket explodes near the ground. Mobile Servicing System Control and Training at Saint-Hubert, Quebec, Canada, supports Canadarm2 and dextre robotics operations. Space Systems/Loral Mission Control Center in Palo Alto, California, US, the MESSENGER and New Horizons missions were controlled from the Applied Physics Laboratory near Baltimore, Maryland. Asia ISRO SHAR Mission Control Centre, Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, jAXAs satellite operations are also based here. Europe The ATV Control Centre is located at the Toulouse Space Centre in Toulouse and it is the mission control center for the European Automated Transfer Vehicles, that regularly resupply ISS. The Columbus Control Center at the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen and it is the mission control center for the European Columbus research laboratory at the International Space Station
41.
Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics
–
The Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics is a museum in Moscow, Russia, dedicated to space exploration. It is located within the base of the Monument to the Conquerors of Space in the north-east of the city. The museum contains a variety of Soviet and Russian space-related exhibits and models which explore the history of flight, astronomy, space exploration, space technology. According to the Russian tourist board, the collection holds approximately 85,000 different items, primarily from the Soviet period. Though the space monuments tower was erected in 1964, the museum did not exist for another seventeen years. Opening ceremonies took place on April 10,1981, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the day Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth in space. The museum primarily focuses on the Soviet space program with major themes like Gagarin, Sergey Korolev, Sputnik, on Cosmonautics Day,2009, the museum was reopened after three years of reconstruction. It has virtually tripled its size and has added new sections dedicated to space programs worldwide, including the USA, Europe, China. The museum now features original interactive exhibits, as well as a refurbished promenade, the museum is a favourite of students worldwide and a primary tourist attraction of the city. Monument to the Conquerors of Space Cosmonauts Alley Museum of Cosmonautics official website The Museum of cosmonautics from The official Russian museums list, Museum of Cosmonautics at Google Cultural Institute
42.
Moscow Time
–
Moscow Time is the time zone for the city of Moscow, Russia, Belarus, and most of western Russia, including Saint Petersburg. It is the second-westernmost of the time zones of Russia. It has been set to UTC+3 permanently on 26 October 2014, Moscow Time is used to schedule trains, ships, etc. throughout Russia, while airplane travel is scheduled using local time. Times in Russia are often announced throughout the country on radio stations as Moscow Time, descriptions of time zones in Russia are often based on Moscow Time rather than UTC. For example, Yakutsk is said to be MSK+6 within Russia, on 27 March 2011, Muscovites set their clocks forward for a final time, effectively observing MSD, or UTC+4, permanently. On 1 July 2014, the State Duma passed a bill repealing the 2011 change, most of the European Russia uses Moscow Time. In Kaliningrad Oblast, Kaliningrad time is used, Samara Oblast and Udmurtia use Samara time and Perm Krai, Bashkortostan and Orenburg Oblast use Yekaterinburg time. Prior to 27 March 2011, Moscow Time was UTC+3, daylight saving time was used in the summer, advancing it to UTC+4. UTC+3 was also used in European parts of what was then the USSR, Belarus, in 1930–1991. Estonia, in 1940–1989 Latvia, in 1940–1989 Lithuania, in 1940–1989 Moldova, in 1940–1991 Ukraine, in 1930–1990 Kaliningrad Oblast, in 1946–1991 Samara Oblast, in 1989–1991, and again from 2010–2011. Moscow Summer Time, was first applied in 1981 and was used, until 1988 in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania until 1989 in Belarus, Moldova, between 1989 and 1990 and in 2010 in Samara Oblast. In 1922–1930 and 1991–1992, Moscow observed EET, daylight saving time was observed in the summer of 1991, and the city and region reverted to UTC+3 by the summer of 1992. The time in Moscow has been as follows, Time in Russia East Africa Time, also in UTC+03,00 Current time in Moscow Moscow time
