1.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
2.
Bosna (river)
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It is the namesake of Bosnia. The Bosna flows for 271 kilometers, the river is possibly mentioned for the first time during the 1st century AD by Roman historian Marcus Velleius Paterculus under the name Bathinus flumen. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root *bhoĝ-, meaning the running water. The Bosna river also makes up the Bosna River Valley, the industrial center and home to close to a million people. The rivers biggest tributaries are the Željeznica, Miljacka, Fojnica, Lašva, Gostović, Krivaja, Usora and its source is at the spring Vrelo Bosne, at the foothills of the Mount Igman, on the outskirts of Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The spring is one of Bosnia and Herzegovinas chief natural landmarks, from there, the Bosna flows northwards, through the heart of Bosnia, eventually becoming a right tributary of the Sava River in Bosanski Šamac. The Bosna flows through a number of cantons, from its starting point in the Sarajevo Canton, it flows through Zenica-Doboj Canton, Doboj Region, and Posavina Canton, in that order. On its way north the River Bosna also passes through the cities of Visoko, Zenica, Maglaj, Doboj, Modriča and Bosanski Šamac
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Foothills
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Foothills are geographically defined as gradual increase in elevation at the base of a mountain range, higher hill range or an upland area. They are a zone between plains and low relief hills to the adjacent topographically higher mountains, hills, and uplands. Foothills primarily border mountains, especially those which are reached through low ridges that increase in size closer and closer to the mountain, generally the area from Ferntree Gully/Boronia/The Basin through to Belgrave. Another word for a region is piedmont, derived from foot of the mount in Romance languages. The Piedmont region of Italy lies in the foothills of the Alps and they are also known as submontane zones, especially when referring to montane ecosystems
5.
Igman
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Igman is a mountain plateau in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. Geologically, Igman is part of the Dinaric Alps and formed largely of secondary and tertiary sedimentary rock and it is located southwest of Sarajevo, bordering the Bjelašnica range in the south and west, Hadžići and Ilidža in the north, and the river Željeznica in the east. Igmans highest point, Crni vrh, west of the Malo Polje road, at an altitude of 1,510 metres, most of Igman is covered with mixed forest with local pastures. Igman was the location of the lowest recorded temperature in the region, when the weather is right, from Igman mountaineers can see all the way to Montenegro and the Adriatic Sea. Igman has been the site of combat during the 1992-95 Siege of Sarajevo and certain areas, in particular the surroundings of former front lines. During the 1984 Winter Olympics, Igman was, along with Jahorina and Bjelašnica, Igman hosted primarily the Nordic disciplines, the Igman Olympic Jumps in the Malo Polje area were the site of the ski jumping events and also the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined events. Meanwhile, the Veliko Polje hosted the biathlon, cross-country skiing, in preparation of the Games a road was constructed across the Igman plateau connecting Sarajevo through Hadžići to the Malo Polje, Veliko Polje and Babin Dol venues. There were numerous structures constructed on Igman at this time, although many stand destroyed or bear the scars of the 1992-1995 conflict, one of the most eye catching structures remains the Ski Jumping platform at Malo Polje. The area became of substantial military significance during the struggle between Titos Partisans and the German occupational forces during the Second World War, a renowned episode of this struggle took place on Igman during Operation Südost Kroatien associated with what is known as the Second Enemy Offensive in January 1942. The Partisan 1st Proletarian Brigade, pursued by the German 342, infanterie-Division, crossed Igman in what is known as the Igman March. With temperatures reaching −32 °C,172 Partisans suffered severe hypothermic injury,6 of whom died, when they approached the German–Italian demarcation line south of Sarajevo, the Partisans were able to infiltrate through the weak Italian cordon. A monument in memory of the Partisan struggle in this area is to be found on Veliko Polje, mount Igman became in the course of the 1991-95 conflict suddenly an area of major strategic importance as part of the 1992-1995 Siege of Sarajevo. After the completion of the Sarajevo Tunnel under the airport in July 1993, the ARBiH-controlled central plateau of Igman came under increased Serb military pressure when the suspicion became stronger that the area had become a major logistical artery of the besieged city. A major BSA offensive started July 1993 and on August 4,1993 Serb forces captured part of the Igman supply road, the BSA advance was stopped under threat of NATO airstrikes. The area was declared a Demilitarized Zone by the UN after the BSA retreated and UNPROFOR units were stationed on Igman, the supply road into Sarajevo was agreed to be used for humanitarian goods only, but ARBiH logistical activity on the road and through the tunnel continued nevertheless. Trucks on the Igman supply roads narrow last stretch descending the steep north-eastern slope became fully exposed to fire from BSA artillery positions in Ilidža, the Igman supply road remained the almost exclusive supply route into Sarajevo until the end of the war. It was also the entry and exit road for the Bosnian political leadership. Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović and foreign secretary Muhamed Sacirbey traveled this road, foreign negotiators tended to avoid the road as it was often described as the most dangerous road in Europe
6.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
7.
Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Within the boundaries of today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina, there have been many layers of prehistoric cultures whose creation and disappearance are linked to migrations of unidentified ethnic groups. The Paleolithic in Bosnia is marked by the oldest Paleolithic monument in southeastern Europe, a magnificent one is Horse attacked by arrows, preserved in fragments and dated around 14-12000 BC. During the time when Neolithic cultures were appearing in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Herzegovina was under the influence of impresso ceramics from the western Mediterranean, as seen in Green Cave near Mostar, Čairi near Stolac, Lisičići near Konjic and Peć Mlini near Grude. People then lived in caves or simple settlements on hilltops, on the upper mainstream of the Bosna river and in northeast parts of Bosnia, people lived in wooden houses built by the river. In this culture we can see influences from Adriatic cultures in the south, original expressions of this culture are ceramic pots on four legs, called riton. We can also find them in the Danilo culture on the Croatian coast, due to these objects, Kakanj culture is considered a part of the wide circle of Neolithic populations that followed a cult of life force. The Butmir culture near Sarajevo is distinctive, with glazed ceramics. Figures from Butmir are unique sculptures modeled with hand, heads are almost like portraits with emphasized parts of body, bronze age settlements in Herzegovina were built like citadels, and in Bosnia we have necropolises with stone tumuli. During this time, bronze arms, decorated plates, flat necklaces, from 8th century BC, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded kingdom in Illyria was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BC, the era in which we observe other Illyrian kingdoms begins approximately at 400 BC and ends at 167 BC. The Autariatae under Pleurias were considered to have been a kingdom, the Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last, Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. From the 7th century BC, bronze was replaced by iron, after which only jewelry, Illyrian tribes, under the influence of Halstat cultures to the north, formed regional centers that were slightly different. A very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, japodian tribes had an affinity to decoration. In the 4th century BC, the first invasion of Celts is recorded and they brought the technique of the pottery wheel, new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia, Celtic migrations displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages, in the Neretva Delta in the south, there were important Hellenistic influence of the Illyrian Daors tribe. Daors made unique bronze coins and sculptures, conflict between the Illyrians and ancient Romans started in 229 BC
8.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
9.
Duck
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Duck is the common name for a large number of species in the waterfowl family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the family Anatidae, they do not represent a group but a form taxon, since swans. Ducks are mostly birds, mostly smaller than the swans and geese. Ducks are sometimes confused with several types of unrelated water birds with similar forms, such as loons or divers, grebes, gallinules and this word replaced Old English ened/ænid duck, possibly to avoid confusion with other Old English words, like ende end with similar forms. Other Germanic languages still have similar words for duck, for example, Dutch eend duck, the word ened/ænid was inherited from Proto-Indo-European, compare, Latin anas duck, Lithuanian ántis duck, Ancient Greek nēssa/nētta duck, and Sanskrit ātí water bird, among others. A duckling is a duck in downy plumage or baby duck. A male duck is called a drake and the female is called a duck, the overall body plan of ducks is elongated and broad, and the ducks are also relatively long-necked, albeit not as long-necked as the geese and swans. The body shape of diving ducks varies somewhat from this in being more rounded, the bill is usually broad and contains serrated lamellae, which are particularly well defined in the filter-feeding species. In the case of some fishing species the bill is long, the scaled legs are strong and well developed, and generally set far back on the body, more so in the highly aquatic species. The wings are strong and are generally short and pointed. Three species of duck are almost flightless, however. Many species of duck are temporarily flightless while moulting, they seek out protected habitat with good food supplies during this period, the drakes of northern species often have extravagant plumage, but that is moulted in summer to give a more female-like appearance, the eclipse plumage. The plumage of birds generally resembles that of the female. Over the course of evolution, female ducks have evolved to have a corkscrew shaped vagina to prevent rape, Ducks exploit a variety of food sources such as grasses, aquatic plants, fish, insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluscs. Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, along the edge of the beak there is a comb-like structure called a pecten. This strains the water squirting from the side of the beak, the pecten is also used to preen feathers and to hold slippery food items. Diving ducks and sea ducks forage deep underwater, to be able to submerge more easily, the diving ducks are heavier than dabbling ducks, and therefore have more difficulty taking off to fly. A few specialized species such as the mergansers are adapted to catch, to avoid injury when digging into sediment it has no cere, but the nostrils come out through hard horn
10.
Swan
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Swans are birds of the family Anatidae within the genus Cygnus. The swans close relatives include the geese and ducks, Swans are grouped with the closely related geese in the subfamily Anserinae where they form the tribe Cygnini. Sometimes, they are considered a subfamily, Cygninae. There are six or seven species of swan in the genus Cygnus, in there is another species known as the coscoroba swan. Swans usually mate for life, though divorce does sometimes occur, particularly following nesting failure, and if a mate dies, the number of eggs in each clutch ranges from three to eight. The English word swan, akin to the German Schwan, Dutch zwaan, an adult male is a cob, from Middle English cobbe, an adult female is a pen. Swans are the largest extant members of the waterfowl family Anatidae, the largest species, including the mute swan, trumpeter swan, and whooper swan, can reach a length of over 1.5 m and weigh over 15 kg. Their wingspans can be over 3.1 m, compared to the closely related geese, they are much larger and have proportionally larger feet and necks. Adults also have a patch of unfeathered skin between the eyes and bill, the sexes are alike in plumage, but males are generally bigger and heavier than females. The Northern Hemisphere species of swan have pure white plumage but the Southern Hemisphere species are mixed black, the Australian black swan is completely black except for the white flight feathers on its wings, the chicks of black swans are light grey. The South American black-necked swan has a body with a black neck. The legs of swans are normally a dark grey colour. Bill colour varies, the four species have black bills with varying amounts of yellow. The mute swan and black-necked swan have lumps at the base of their bills on the upper mandible, Swans are generally found in temperate environments, rarely occurring in the tropics. A group of swans is called a bevy or a wedge in flight, four species occur in the Northern Hemisphere, one species is found in Australia and New Zealand and one species is distributed in southern South America. They are absent from tropical Asia, Central America, northern South America, one species, the mute swan, has been introduced to North America, Australia and New Zealand. Several species are migratory, either wholly or partly so, the mute swan is a partial migrant, being resident over areas of Western Europe but wholly migratory in Eastern Europe and Asia. The whooper swan and tundra swan are wholly migratory, and the swans are almost entirely migratory
11.
Bosnian War
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The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992, the war ended on 14 December 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia and this was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs, who had boycotted the referendum. The Croats also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian, Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict. After the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war. The war was brought to an end after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia, Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio and were finalised on 21 November 1995. According to a report compiled by the UN, and chaired by M, the report echoed conclusions published by a Central Intelligence Agency estimate in 1995. By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia had convicted 45 Serbs,12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia, the most recent estimates suggest that around 100,000 people were killed during the war. Over 2.2 million people were displaced, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II, in addition, an estimated 12, 000–20,000 women were raped, most of them Bosniak. There is debate over the date of the Bosnian War. Mulaj reports that Misha Glenny gives a date of 22 March, Tom Gallagher gives 2 April, while Mary Kaldor and Laura Silber, philip Hammond claimed that the most common view is that the war started on 6 April 1992. The Sijekovac killings of Serbs took place on 26 March and the Bijeljina massacre on 1–2 April. Some Bosniaks consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina came about as a result of the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia as a result of the weakening of the system at the end of the Cold War. In Yugoslavia, the national communist party, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, was losing its ideological potency, meanwhile, ethnic nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s, after violence broke out in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to the federalisation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a former Ottoman province, has historically been a multi-ethnic state. According to the 1991 census, 44% of the population considered themselves Muslim,32. 5% Serb and 17% Croat, with 6% describing themselves as Yugoslav. In March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after the adoption of amendments to the Serbian Constitution which allowed the government of Serbia to dominate the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina
12.
Ecology
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Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is a field that includes biology, geography. Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with other, other organisms. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities make up. Ecosystem processes, such as production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits, biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services. Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, natural history and it is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function, Ecology is a human science as well. For example, the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment out there and it is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living and non-living components of the planet, the word ecology was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics, ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology became a more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory, the scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level to a planetary scale phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms, an ecosystems area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem. Several generations of a population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, support diverse bacterial communities, biodiversity describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are ways to index, measure, characterize
13.
Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team
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The Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team, represents Bosnia and Herzegovina in association football and is governed by the Football Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Until 1992, Bosnian and Herzegovinian players were part of the Yugoslavia national football team, Bosnia and Herzegovina achieved their best result when they reached the 2014 FIFA World Cup as winners of their qualifying group. They were eliminated after group stage narrow losses to Argentina and Nigeria, Bosnia and Herzegovinas home ground is Bilino Polje Stadium in the city of Zenica. The teams highest FIFA World Ranking was 13th in August 2013, Bosnia and Herzegovina have seen a steady rise in their fortunes on the international football stage in recent times. Historically, Bosnia, a war torn and divided nation, has managed multiple playoff appearances and has qualified to one FIFA World Cup, more often than not, the team produces solid results in qualifiers and challenges for a top spot. From 1920 to 1992, the players lined out for Yugoslavia, but following the outbreak of the Bosnian war and subsequent independence, the early period saw Bosnia-Herzegovina have to wait until the 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifiers to compete for a place in a major competition. Bosnia finished fourth in a group that included Greece, Denmark and this was then subsequently followed by further disappointment with lackluster campaigns in the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifiers, as well as the 2002 FIFA World Cup. This early period was followed by Bosnia coming very close to qualifying directly for their first ever major competition, UEFA Euro 2004, narrowly missing out by a single goal against Denmark. Bosnia failed to make the grade in the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, despite being unbeaten at home, and the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers, which saw their poor home form cost them. Bosnia managed to finish a third in a group which included Argentina at their first ever major competition. Nigeria pipped Bosnia for second place in the group with a 1–0 win marred with controversy following an incorrectly disallowed goal scored by Edin Džeko in the first half, Bosnia finished third in the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifiers behind Belgium and Wales. After the slow start, the Bosnian performance improved dramatically, with five wins in their six matches, including victories over Wales. However, they failed to qualify after a two legged playoff encounter with the Republic of Ireland. On 9 November 2015, the Bosnian FA extended the contract with Baždarević through the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, Bosnia-Herzegovina was drawn to face Belgium, Greece, Estonia, Cyprus and Gibraltar during the qualifying stage. The following players were called up for the game against Albania on 28 March 2017. Caps. The following players have called up for the team within the last twelve months. During qualifiers for 1998 World Cup, Bosnias first home match against Croatia was played at Bologna, the match was held at the neutral venue due to the renovation of the Asim Ferhatović Hase Stadium. The team finished in place during 2006 World Cup qualifying, recording two draws with Spain along the way
14.
Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark
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The Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark is the currency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is divided into 100 pfenigs or fenings, and locally abbreviated KM, the convertible mark was established by the 1995 Dayton Agreement. It replaced the Bosnia and Herzegovina dinar, Croatian kuna and Republika Srpska dinar as the currency of Bosnia. Mark refers to the German mark, the currency to which it was pegged at par, the names derive from the German language. Three official languages in Bosnia and Herzegovina have adopted German nouns die Mark and der Pfennig as loanwords marka, the Official Gazette of BiH, Official newspaper of FBiH and other official documents recognized pfenig or пфениг as the name of the subdivision. Banknotes of 50 fenings/pfenigs were in circulation from 1998 to 2000 and they were denoted as 50 KONVERTIBILNIH PFENIGA /50 КОНВЕРТИБИЛНИХ ПФЕНИГА, however, the word convertible should never be next to the pfenig because only the mark can be convertible. Coins of 10,20 and 50 pfenigs have been in circulation since 1998, all of them are inscribed ~ feninga / ~ фенинга on the obverse. Misspelling fening/фенинг has never been corrected, and it took that much hold that is now officially adopted, Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian have a complicated case system. In addition, it is important to note that use three plural forms. A syllable after a syllable whose vowel is pronounced as a long. These matters should be noted when one uses the names in English. For example, English plural ten pfenigas / ten feningas is incorrect as the final a in BSC plural pfeniga/feninga already indicates the plural, so, ten pfenigs / ten fenings should be used instead. The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina uses fenings as the English plural, likewise, twenty-one markas / two markes / twelve marakas is incorrect, twenty-one marks / two marks / twelve marks should be used instead. In December 1998, coins were introduced in denominations of 10,20 and 50 fenings/pfenigs, coins of 1,2 and 5 marks were introduced later. The coins were designed by Bosnian designer Kenan Zekic and minted at the Royal Mint in Llantrisant, in 1998, notes were introduced in denominations of 50 fenings/pfenigs,1 mark,5,10,20,50 and 100 marks. 200-mark notes were added in 2002, whilst the 50-fening/pfenig, 1-, all current notes are valid throughout the country. On the notes of the Republika Srpska, inscriptions are printed in Cyrillic, then Latin script, banknotes, with the exception of the 200-mark note, are printed by the French company Oberthur. The portraits of Ivan Franjo Jukić and Meša Selimović, which are both writers, were featured by consensus between both entities on all 1 and 5 KM notes used between 1998 and 2010
15.
History of Sarajevo
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This article is about the history of Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is part of the History of Sarajevo series, and includes articles for each of the discussed periods of time. The present day site of Sarajevo has a long and rich history dating back to the Stone Age, There were no people in the region in the Paleolithic era, although the remains of ancient animals have been found, including those of the ancient bear species, Ursus spelaeus. Excavation for the period has never been very comprehensive, and if the Sarajevo area was indeed inhabited during the Paleolithic era, during the neolithic era, the Sarajevo region was home to the Butmir Culture. Specifically, these found themselves in Butmir, a satellite neighborhood of Ilidža. The area is rich in flint, essential for making tools and weapons, the Butmir culture is most famous for its ceramics. Unique and artistic, it is one of the reasons why the Butmir people are identified as a unique culture today. The finds were so sensational when they were made in the late 19th century, today, all excavated material can be found in the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Butmir Culture disappeared around 2400 BC, probably conquered by the next prominent inhabitants of Sarajevo and they lived primarily in the West Balkans, mostly around the river Miljacka and Sarajevo valley. The most prominent of these was Debelo Brdo in today’s Old Town, numerous Illyrian forts also existed in other parts of the city, as well as at the base of Trebević mountain. The Illyrians in the Sarajevo region belonged to the tribe Daesitates and their last revolt occurred in 9 AD, and was crushed by the emperor Tiberius, marking the start of Roman rule in the region. During Roman rule, Sarajevo was part of the province of Dalmatia, a major Roman road ran through the Miljacka river valley connecting the rich coastal cities of Dalmatia and the Adriatic coast with Pannonia to the North. The importance of the road can be seen by the numerous Roman artifacts found in the heart of Sarajevo itself over the years, on the left bank of the Miljacka there were once found Roman bricks and an inscription indicating a construction yard and, nearby, a bathhouse. The biggest known settlement in the region was known as ‘’Aquae S. ’’ on top of present-day Ilidža, the Slavs came to Bosnia in the 7th century, but details of their movement and settlement through the country remain a mystery. Some Slavic artifacts remain from the time however, and it is certain that they settled in the Sarajevo valley. Katera, one of the two original Bosnian towns that were mentioned by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in De Administrando Imperio, was found to the southeast of Sarajevo. By the time of the Ottoman occupation there was little settlement left in the region, the first mentions of Bosnia describe a small region, which was basically the Bosna river valley, stretching from modern-day Zenica to Sarajevo. In the 12th century, when Bosnia became a vassal of Hungary, the area of present-day Sarajevo was part of the Bosnian province of Vrhbosna, near the traditional center of the kingdom
16.
Sarajevo in Austria-Hungary
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In late summer 1878, the city of Sarajevo, along with the rest of Bosnia Vilayet, was occupied by Austria-Hungary. This lasted until 1908 when the territory was annexed and turned into a condominium. The uprising lasted more than two years before the Ottomans, aided by the local Muslim population, managed to put it down. The Ottoman reaction to the Bulgarian insurrection was swift and brutal, another Great Power, the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, closely followed the events of the 1875 Serb peasant rebellion in Bosnia. In the document, known as the Andrássy Note, the foreign minister outlined his vision for Bosnia as a territory governed and administered by Austria-Hungary, after obtaining general assent from the UK and France, the document became official basis for negotiations. Simultaneous with their defeats in the Russo-Turkish War, the Ottoman rule in the Bosnia Vilayet was rapidly weakening as well. By the spring of 1878, the Ottoman Army in the vilayet was in such a state of disarray that many troops simply deserted after essentially being left to their own means. As a consequence, a three thousand armed deserters were roaming the countryside in small bands, frequently terrorizing peasants. With no organized force implementing the law, groups of outlaws operated with impunity in many rural areas, all of the events of the so-called Eastern Crisis from 1875 until 1878, echoed resoundingly among the population of Sarajevo. By late winter 1878 it became clear that circumstances for the weakening of the Ottoman grip might finally be in place, the Treaty of San Stefano — imposed on 3 March 1878 by the victorious Russia upon the defeated Ottomans — confirmed that line of thinking. Muslim population of the Bosnia Vilayet welcomed the greater autonomy thus rekindling their autonomy aspirations. However, international reaction to the Russian-initiated treaty was mostly negative, the United Kingdom soon decided to support Austria-Hungarys aspirations in Bosnia. On the other end of the spectrum, in addition to Bosnian Muslims. Bosnian Muslim reaction to the prospect of Austro-Hungarian rule was divided along social lines and this economic class divide among the Bosnian Muslims on the Austro-Hungarian issue was clearly evident around Sarajevo during spring 1878. Although the petition reportedly included some five hundred signatures, most Muslim landowners refused to sign it, the petitioners demand to eliminate all Christians would thus have removed Konstan from office and secured the Muslim Mazhars post had the San Stefano agreement been implemented. The new petition, formally submitted to governor Mazhar on 2 June 1878, was seen as a win for the leading Muslim landowners who managed to purge it of its anti-Christian and anti-reform provisions. Its only two points were now a demand that a popular assembly rule the land and an appeal to all groups to unite in opposition to Austro-Hungarian occupation. The new body, called the Peoples Assembly, met for the first on 5 June with a membership consisting of thirty individuals from the Muslim landowning elite
17.
1984 Winter Olympics
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The 1984 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XIV Olympic Winter Games, was a winter multi-sport event which took place from 8–19 February 1984 in Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Yugoslavia. Other candidate cities were Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden and it was the first Winter Olympics held in a Communist state. It was also the second Olympics overall, as well as the second consecutive Olympics, to be held in a Communist nation after the 1980 Summer Olympics were held in Moscow, All of these have been in China. During the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia, numerous newspapers drew attention to the venues of the Sarajevo Olympic games from 30 years prior. The host city for the XIV Winter Olympics was announced on 18 May 1978 during an 80th session of the International Olympic Committee in Athens, Sarajevo was selected over Sapporo, Japan by a margin of three votes. Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, was part of the united Yugoslavia at the time, the torch relay for the 1984 Sarajevo Olympic games started in Olympia and then proceeded by airplane to Dubrovnik. The total distance of the relay through Yugoslavia was 5,289 kilometres. There were two main routes – one in the west and the other in the east, the final torchbearer, from a total of 1600, was figure skater Sanda Dubravčić, who received the torch from skier runner Ivo Čarman. Today one of the two original torches is in Slovenia in a collection in Žalec, Slovenia. The Olympic flag was raised upside down during the ceremony by mistake. First Games under the presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch, the 20 kilometre race was added to womens Nordic skiing. Skier Jure Franko won Yugoslavias first Winter Olympic medal, a silver in the giant slalom, marja-Liisa Hämäläinen won all three individual cross-country races for women. Gaétan Boucher and Karin Enke each won two medals in speed skating, while East German women won all but three out of the twelve medals in the sport. Austria, usually a formidable winter sports nation, won one bronze medal. Biathlete Eirik Kvalfoss earned a complete set of medals, twin brothers Phil and Steve Mahre took first and second place in the slalom. Torvill and Dean of Great Britain earned across-the-board perfect scores for artistic impression in the free dance ice dancing competition, the gold medals for Figure Skating were split among four nations. Disabled skiing was a sport for the first time. Bill Johnson became the first American to win an Olympic downhill event, lamine Guèye of Senegal was the first Black African skier to compete in the Winter Olympics
18.
Siege of Sarajevo
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The Siege of Sarajevo was the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. The siege lasted three times longer than the Battle of Stalingrad and more than a longer than the Siege of Leningrad. From there they assaulted the city with artillery, tanks and small arms, from 2 May 1992, the Serbs blockaded the city. The Bosnian government defence forces inside the city, numbering some 70,000 troops, were poorly equipped. A total of 13,952 people were killed during the siege, the ARBiH suffered 6,137 fatalities, while Bosnian Serb military casualties numbered 2,241 soldiers killed. The 1991 census indicates that before the siege the city and its surrounding areas had a population of 525,980, there are estimates that prior to the siege the population in the city proper was 435,000. The estimates of the number of living in Sarajevo after the siege ranged from between 300,000 and 380,000. After the war, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted two Serb officials for numerous counts of crimes against humanity committed during the siege, stanislav Galić and Dragomir Milošević were sentenced to life imprisonment and 29 years imprisonment respectively. One of the 11 indictments against Radovan Karadžić, the president of the Republika Srpska, is for the siege. When Yugoslavias longtime leader Marshal Tito died in 1980 this policy of containment underwent a dramatic reversal, nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s after violence erupted in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of a Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to federalisation, croatia and Slovenias subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation or to seek independence and this Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became the Republika Srpska in August 1992. A declaration of Bosnian sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 and this referendum was boycotted by the vast majority of the Serbs. The turnout in the referendum was 63. 4% and 99. 7% of voters voted for independence. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992 and these minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March, on Bosanski Brod on 24 and 30 March 1992 on Bijeljina. On 1 March 1992, an Orthodox wedding in downtown Sarajevo was attacked, nikola Gardović, the grooms father, was killed. It continued through the run-up to Bosnia and Herzegovinas recognition as an independent state, on 5 April, ethnic Serb policemen attacked police stations and then an Interior Ministry training school. The attack killed two officers and one civilian, the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared a state of emergency the following day
19.
Centar, Sarajevo
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Centar is a municipality of central Sarajevo in Bosnia. It is located between the parts of the city under Stari Grad, and the newer more modern parts of the city under the municipalities Novi Grad. The Centar municipality, according to the government website, is the administrative, business, commercial, cultural, educational, although some of these may be disputed, Centar is certainly the most important part of Sarajevo, housing most major branches of the city and national governments. The municipality of Centar occupies 3,313 hectrates of land, the amount of private and state owned land is nearly equal, with 1600 and 1713 hectrates respectively. Centar is also home to many Olympic complexes such as Dvorana Mirza Delibašić and sports venues Asim Ferhatović Hase Stadium, the Siege of Sarajevo had a tremendous effect on Centar. Prior to the aggression, Centar municipality had 79.000 citizens,7,000 citizens of the municipality were killed by the aggressors during the war, as major battles took place on its grounds. There was also a presence of land mines in the area. Since the end of the war, the municipality has received 12 major awards, indicating its current well-being, census, Zavod za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine - Bilten no.234, Sarajevo 1991. The official web site of Centar municipality Sarajevo
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Novi Grad, Sarajevo
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Not to be confused with Novi Grad, another municipality. Novi Grad is the westernmost of the four municipalities that make up the city of Sarajevo, Sarajevo Canton in Bosnia, during the 1970s, Sarajevo was undergoing a rapid economic and cultural development, with great expansion focused on population and industry. Novi Grad was a result of this period of heavy growth. By the time the Novi Grad municipality was recognized, it had some 60,000 citizens. According to the 1991 census, the municipality of Novi Grad had 136,746 citizens, four years of Bosnian War brought that number down tremendously. Some sections of Novi Grad were among the first to be occupied by the aggressors, of the municipalitys 33,517 residential buildings, 92% were damaged during the Siege of Sarajevo. Novi Grad has since made a fantastic recovery, although many bullet holes and mortar shell impacts are visible throughout the municipality, it is overall healthy and functioning. As the most modern part of Sarajevo, Novi Grad is also ground to many new developments, in 2005, 86% of population of the municipality were ethnic Bosniaks
21.
Novo Sarajevo
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Novo Sarajevo is a municipality in Sarajevo, and Sarajevo Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the middle of the Sarajevo field, predominantly on the bank of the Miljacka. Prior to the siege, Novo Sarajevo had some 47.6 km², following the Siege of Sarajevo, 75% of the lesser populated urban area was transferred to the Republika Srpska, leaving Novo Sarajevo municipality with 11.43 km². As a result, Novo Sarajevo has the highest number of people per km² and these two municipalities combine for 60. 9% of the Sarajevo Canton GDP, even though they account for merely 3. 5% of the total area of Sarajevo Canton, and 27% of its population
22.
Stari Grad, Sarajevo
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Not to be confused with Stalingrad. Stari Grad is a municipality in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and it is the oldest and most historically significant part of Sarajevo. At its heart is the Baščaršija, the old town market sector where the city was founded by the Ottoman general Isa-Beg Isaković in the 15th century, the municipality of Stari Grad is characterized by its many religious structures, and examples of unique Bosnian architecture. The population of Stari Grad is slightly above 50,000 and its population density of 742.5 inhabitants per km² also ranks it last among four. Stari Grad contains numerous hotels and tourist attractions including the Gazi Husrev-begs Mosque, Careva Džamija, the land had a home on it and, despite offering the owner money, he refused and continued to refuse even when told that he had to move. When the officials threatened him, he moved the house and rebuilt it, piece by piece, on the side of the Miljacka river. The Sarajevo spite house operates today as a restaurant is called Inat Kuća which means Spite House, Sarajevo Sarajevo Canton Stari Grad, Sarajevo website
23.
Trnovo, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Trnovo is one of the nine municipalities of the Sarajevo Canton. It is located a 30 kilometers southeast of the city of Sarajevo, the seat of the municipality is in Trnovo, although the municipal council uses the Maršal Hotel on Mount Bjelašnica as the official meeting hall. As a result of the 1995 Dayton Accords, the municipality was divided between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. 81% and Serbs 29. 45%, the Muslim-inhabited settlements became part of the Trnovo municipality of Federation B&H. According to data from the municipality, it is the least populous municipality in the Sarajevo Canton and it is also the least densely populated of the nine municipalities, and has the highest percentage of people over 65 years of age. Ethnically,95. 4% are Bosniaks and 4. 6% are Serbs, the mountain of Bjelašnica is located within the municipality, offering possibilities for tourism development. However, until there is sufficient infrastructure for tourism development, agriculture remains the main branch of the economy, the stunning Rakitnica canyon is also located within Trnovo municipality. Suvad Katana, footballer Sarajevo Canton http, //www. trnovo. ba
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Pale, Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Pale is a town and a municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina, located southeast of Bosnias capital Sarajevo. The municipality of Pale is one of the six municipalities of the City of Istočno Sarajevo located in the Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia, Pale always represented an important junction between east and west that is the Sarajevo Valley and the Drina River basin. There are preserved ruins of roads and building from the Roman times in the villages of Miosici. From early on this area served as a place of trade, in the late 14th and early 15th century the area surrounding Pale belonged to the Feudal House of Pavlović. There were several fortified settlements, Pavlovac on the River Praca, Gradina in the Upper Pale, the Hodidjed settlement served as an administrative center for the surrounding area. The feudal house of Pavlović belonged to the upper crust of the Bosnian aristocracy, Pavle Radenović, the founder of the Pavlović line, aside from his ancestral holdings around Pale also owned the mines in Olovo, the city of Trebinje, and parts of Konavle and Cavtat. The area under his control enjoyed prosperous trade between the locals and the Merchants from Dubrovnik, the main trading center was the town of Praca, part of the Pale Municipality today. After the death of Pavle in 1415 during a duel, his younger son Radoslav Pavlović would take over from his father, after the death of the Bosnian King Tvrtko I in 1391 the Bosnian feudals houses struggled to gain the throne. The sons of Pavle, under the threat from other Bosnian aristocrats, the Ottomans pursued a strategy of divide and conquer that eventually resulted in complete conquest. After the fall of Bosnia the feudal holdings of the House of Pavlovic were divided into 11 districts, the first Ottoman census in the year 1468–69 the town of Pale is recorded under the name of Bogazi Yumry as the seat of one of the 11 districts. The district of Bogazi Yumry contained six villages of two were located on the plane of Pale. Due to the conditions in which the local Christian population found itself. The area continued to be viable and valuable to the new rulers. The town of Praca continued to grow and expand until the great fire, the name Pavli Vilayet continued to be used for this area until the beginning of the 19th century and the town eventually came to be known as Pale. One of the earliest recordings of this new name is a map from 1877, during the 19th century the Ottoman Empire found itself under the two politically and socially completely different power struggles. The early decades of the 19th century were marked with a series of national, the Ottoman aristocracy on the other hand was deeply conservative and was resisting any efforts towards reform and development of a centralized state. The aristocracy in Bosnia was among the most dissatisfied in the empire, in 1831, Captain Husein Gradaščević, one of the wealthiest and most powerful members of the Bosnian aristocracy, came to lead the rebel aristocrats. After the conquest of Travnik, the seat of the Ottoman Viceroy, in addition they wanted the right to vote for and appoint the Viceroy from among their ranks
25.
Sokolac
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Sokolac is a town and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the part of the City of East Sarajevo in the Republika Srpska entity. For many years, agriculture has been an important part of Sokolac, for most inhabitants, agriculture is the only way to make a living, but also a family tradition. Sokolac used to be known for its high quality potato, until recently, livestock production is the second largest agriculture industry in the community. The beef cattle and sheep is the second largest export of the community, although Sokolac has a small dairy factory, the milk market production is very small. Sokolac is surrounded by high quality woodlands, which have largely destroyed in last ten years. Although this industry generates most revenue for the community, a percentage of people work in the industry. Sokolac is the important intersection of the regional roads, the important intersection of the regional roads from Sarajevo to the Adriatic Sea, Belgrade, Užice, Banja Luka and Bijeljina. The municipality possess 38.013 hectares of forest and the forest land,94, 76% of it is state-owned forest and 5, 24% is private property. The overall supply of timber is 8.482.000 cubic meters, the forest resources are much larger than utilized by Republika Srpska. Agricultural land, meadows and pastures and fields and orchards, energy sector, investment opportunity for the production of electric and thermal energy based on biomass and the construction of the mini hydro power plants on Bioštica and Kaljina rivers. Tourism, good strategic and geographical location, great natural resources, sports facilities, religious facilities, archaeological sites, the completely preserved environment, the healthy food etc. Municipalities of Republika Srpska The following links can be regarding the municipality Sokolac, Interview with Milovan Bjelica
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Trnovo, Republika Srpska
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Trnovo is a town and municipality in the city of Istočno Sarajevo, Republika Srpska in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of one third of the pre-war municipality of Trnovo. Roughly two thirds of the municipality is now in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Trnovo is situated south of Sarajevo on the M-18 road Sarajevo-Trnovo-Foča-Trebinje and it is surrounded by the Jahorina, Bjelašnica and Treskavica mountains which were the locations of Olympic competitions during the 1984 Winter Olympics. Those mountains are popular destinations for a variety of winter sports, the Željeznica river is one of the towns chief geographic features. It flows through the town and municipality from south through the center of Trnovo, Kijevo and East Sarajevo to west part of Sarajevo City eventually meets with the Bosna river. 81%, most of the Serb-inhabited settlements became part of the Trnovo municipality of Republika Srpska. The 2013 census preliminary results counted 2,192 inhabitants of the municipality of Trnovo in RS, and 1,018 in the settlement of Trnovo in RS
27.
Breza, Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Breza is a town and municipality in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, famous for the local mining activities and production of coal. It covers an area of 73 km2 and is part of the Zenica-Doboj Canton in the Federation of Bosnia, total area of municipality of Breza is 83 square kilometers. It is located in the Zenica-Doboj Canton and it borders four municipalities, Ilijaš, Kakanj, Vareš. Its economic environment is based on coalmine, which was established in year 1907, Breza as a settlement was first time mentioned in documents dating from the 2nd century as Hedum Kastelum. The ancient town was the capital of the infamous Daesitiates, an Ilyrian tribe which had most of the territory of modern central Bosnia under control before being crushed by the Romans. Information from the last census held in October 2013 tell that the municipality has a population of 14,564 inhabitants, Breza is sometimes visited from tourists who usually visit the old town or explore the hills surrounding the town. The whole municipality is wanted by foreign investors mainly because of its mining activities, the municipality has 3 primary schools and two secondary schools of which one is a Gymnasium and the other one is a technical/vocational school. Breza is famous for having one of the oldest clubs formed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the town is also famous for many local volleyball and basketball clubs. In the 1971 census, In the 1991 census, the municipality of Breza had 17,317 residents, Haris Silajdžić, politician Alija Sirotanović, miner Hedum Kastelum Official Web Page
28.
Visoko
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Visoko is a city and municipality in central Bosnia and Herzegovina of rich historical heritage. It was a centre of the Bosnian medieval state. Located between Zenica and Sarajevo, Visoko lies on the Bosna river where the river Fojnica merges into it, the municipality is organized into 25 local communities. The municipality is administered by the Zenica-Doboj Canton of the Federation, the region of Visoko has approximately 46,000 residents, with an estimated 17,000 residents within the actual city limits. With 173 residents per square kilometer it is one of the most densely populated areas in the Federation of Bosnia, the altitude of the region ranges from 400 –1,050 metres. Visokos natural environment is defined by the river-valleys of the Bosna, the municipality borders the towns of Kiseljak, Busovača, Kakanj, Vareš, Breza, Ilijaš and Ilidža, and is connected by rail to the Adriatic coast. It is also on the Sarajevo–Zenica magistral road to the north, the Visoko region shows evidence of long continuous occupation, with the first traces of life dating back to 4000 BC. Because there are two rivers that go through Visoko, the Bosna and Fojnica, the area of Visoko was always inhabited, in the Neolithic period, the area of Central Bosnia played an important role as a mediator between the settlements of Adriatic Coast and the central Balkans. These metropolitan areas were connected by Neretva and Bosna rivers, since Visoko was situated on the Bosna River, it has gained a lot of economic traffic between the two larger cities. Neolithic emplacements were founded on the shores of the rivers in places known today as Arnautovići, Donje Moštre, Okolište, Zbilje, Ginje, in these settlements, many tools, and other objects have been found from this period. Since 2002, smaller excavations and geophysical prospectus ions in the big settlement hill Okolište were carried out, as the first, the result of these activities showed a geomagnetic plan of a 5 house settlement with house lines and connection systems. During the first excavations,65 x 5 m surfaces were uncovered, the age of settlement is estimated by Radiocarbon dating to be around 4700 to 4500 years B. C. E. This is one of the largest settlements found in Bosnia, confirmed by materials found, the Visoko area was inhabited by the Illyirian tribe of Daesitiates. The Roman empire established its rule in 9 AD and built roads and fortresses in places like Kralupi, Seoča, area of Visoko was part of Roman province Illyricum. Visoko is named after the Visoki Castle and the town of Visoki, Visoki and other historical places in the Visoko valley were the early center of the once powerful medieval Bosnian kingdom. Visoki was also a place where important documents and legislation of medieval Bosnia were signed. The town of Visoki had a role in protecting trade center Podvisoki which was located just below the town and was one of earliest examples of the medieval urban environments in Bosnia. Podvisoki was long time trade center in medieval Bosnia
29.
Olovo
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Olovo is a town and municipality situated about 50 kilometers northeast of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The town Olovo was first mentioned in the year 1382 under the name Plumbum, the word olovo in Bosnian means lead, which is meant to characterize the city for its well-known lead ore deposits. Olovo stands on the Sarajevo-Tuzla highway M18, and is located 50 km northeast of Bosnia, Olovo is a part of the Zenica-Doboj Canton. Recently, there have been aims to try to have Olovo be a part of the Sarajevo Canton, however as of today, since the Middle Age there have been well-known lead ore deposits, and was at that time considered a mining town. Today, Olovo is best known for its coniferous forests, big blue skies, Olovo hosts annual bull-fights and festivals. It is a spot for the youth visiting it from nearby villages. An extremely superior characteristic of Olovo is its very effective spa, Olovo is also a tryst for resting and changing directions when traveling to cities such as Zenica and Zavidovići
30.
Grbavica (Sarajevo)
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Grbavica is a quarter of the city of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Today it is part of the municipality of Novo Sarajevo and administratively distinguished between Grbavica I and Grbavica II, the area was developed as a new residential neighbourhood by the authorities of Socialist Yugoslavia, on the west back of the Miljacka river. On its north-west corner the new British embassy to Bosnia and Herzegovina has been built, Grbavica II, between Grbavica I and Hrasno, hosts the Grbavica shopping centre and the Ummu Arif Zabadne mosque. South of Zagrebacka ulica are the Grbavica Stadium, home of FK Željezničar, during the 1992-1995 war, Grbavica was occupied early by the Army of Republika Srpska and remained under Serb control throughout the siege. From the tall buildings by the Miljacka river, Serb snipers target the Sarajevo populace along Sniper Alley. During the Dayton negotiations, Milosevic was ready to give back Sarajevo to the Bosniaks, in the two weeks before, the RS leadership from Pale ordered all Serbs in the area to burn their flats and leave the town, broadcasting by radio precise instructions. Arsonists from Pale roamed the streets, threatening the population - including Sarajevo Serbs who could have been willing to stay - to comply with orders. Gorinko Klickovic, head of the Bosnian Serb resettlement office, had declared that We must not allow a single Serb to remain in the territories that fall under Muslim-Croat control. IFOR forces did not intervene to stop the attacks claiming that the Serbs have the right to burn their own houses, nor did they protect Bosniak fire-fighters, were seeing a multi-ethnic Bosnia being flushed down the toilet, decried UN official Kris Janowski at NATO/IFOR inactivity. The episode, with the resettlement of Sarajevo Serbs elsewhere in the RS was later used by the RS leadership to impede the return of Bosniak refugees in those areas, the Bosnian film “Grbavica” was based on events that happened in the city during the Bosnian War
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