1.
Leonard Nimoy
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Leonard Simon Nimoy was an American actor, film director, photographer, author, singer and songwriter. He was known for his role as Spock of the Star Trek franchise, foreshadowing his fame as a semi-alien, he played Narab, one of three Martian invaders, in the 1952 movie serial Zombies of the Stratosphere. The character has had a significant cultural impact and garnered Nimoy three Emmy Award nominations, TV Guide named Spock one of the 50 greatest TV characters. After the original Star Trek series, Nimoy starred in Mission, narrated Civilization IV, and made several well-received stage appearances. He also had a role in the science fiction series Fringe. Nimoys public profile as Spock was so strong that both of his autobiographies, I Am Not Spock and I Am Spock, were written from the viewpoint of sharing his existence with the character, in 2015 an asteroid was named 4864 Nimoy in his honor. In September 2016, For the Love of Spock, a documentary that covered his life. Leonard Simon Nimoy was born on March 26,1931, in the West End of Boston, Massachusetts and they reunited after arriving in the United States. His mother, Dora, was a homemaker, and his father, Max Nimoy and he had an elder brother, Melvin. He also began acting at the age of eight in a childrens, Nimoy also realized he had an aptitude for singing, which he developed while a member of his synagogues choir. His singing during his bar mitzvah at age 13 was so good that he was asked to repeat his performance the week at another synagogue. He is still the only man I know whose voice was two bar mitzvahs good and his first major role was at 17, as Ralphie in an amateur production of Clifford Odets Awake and Sing. Which dealt with the struggles of a matriarchal Jewish family similar to his during the Great Depression, playing this teenage kid in this Jewish family that was so much like mine was amazing, he said. The same dynamics, the tensions in the household. The role lit a passion that led him to pursue an acting career, I never wanted to do anything else. Shatner notes that Nimoy also worked on radio shows for children, often voice acting Bible stories, adding, Obviously. Many years later as Captain Kirk, I would be busy rescuing civilizations in distress on distant planets while Leonards Mr. Spock would be examining the morality of man– and alienkind. Nimoy took drama classes at Boston College, and after moving to Los Angeles and he took method actor Marlon Brando as a role model, and like him, wore jeans and T-shirt
2.
Hand gesture
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Gestures are a form of nonverbal communication in which visible bodily actions are used to communicate important messages, either in place of speech or together and in parallel with spoken words. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body, physical non-verbal communication such as purely expressive displays, proxemics, or displays of joint attention differ from gestures, which communicate specific messages. Gestures are culture-specific and can convey different meanings in different social or cultural settings. Gesture is distinct from sign language, a single emblematic gesture can have very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive. This list includes links to Wikipedia pages that discuss particular gestures, not included are the specialized gestures, calls, and signals used by referees and umpires in organized sports. Police officers also make gestures when directing traffic, mime is an art form in which the performer utilizes gestures to convey a story. Charades is a game of gestures, a-ok or Okay, made by connecting the thumb and forefinger in a circle and holding the other fingers straight, may signal the word okay. The offending person first touches the object with the fingertips and then the forehead and/or chest, in North America or Northern Europe a beckoning sign is made with the index finger sticking out of the clenched fist, palm facing the gesturer. The finger moves repeatedly towards the gesturer as to draw something nearer and it has the general meaning of come here. In Northern Africa, calling someone is using the full hand. In several Asian and European countries, a sign is made with a scratching motion with all four fingers. In Japan, the faces the recipient with the hand at heads height. Bellamy salute was used in conjunction with the American Pledge of Allegiance prior to World War II, the benediction gesture is a raised right hand with the ring finger and little finger touching the palm, while the middle and index fingers remain raised. The hands shape is said to spell the name of Jesus Christ in Greek. The fingers are straight and together, held horizontal or upwards. The fingers and thumb then snap together repeatedly to suggest a mouth talking, the gesture can be used to indicate that someone talks too much, gossips, is saying nothing of any consequence, or is boring. To signal for the bill in Japan, although not widely used by younger people and this is to signal the end of a meal which is called Shime (〆 in Japanese. The crossed fingers represent this sign resembling an X. Chinese number gestures are a method of using one hand to signify the numbers one through ten
3.
Star Trek: The Original Series
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Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry that follows the adventures of the starship USS Enterprise and its crew. It later acquired the retronym of Star Trek, The Original Series to distinguish the show within the franchise that it began. The show is set in the Milky Way galaxy, roughly during the 2260s, the ship and crew are led by Captain James T. Kirk, first officer and science officer Spock, and chief medical officer Leonard McCoy. Shatners voice-over introduction during each episodes opening credits stated the purpose, Space. These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise and its five-year mission, to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before. The series was produced from September 1966 to December 1967 by Norway Productions and Desilu Productions, Star Trek aired on NBC from September 8,1966 to June 3,1969 and was actually seen first on September 6,1966, on Canadas CTV network. Star Treks Nielsen ratings while on NBC were low, and the network cancelled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. Several years later, the became a bona fide hit in broadcast syndication, remaining so throughout the 1970s, achieving cult classic status. The series contains significant elements of Space Western, as described by Gene Roddenberry, on March 11,1964, Gene Roddenberry, a long-time fan of science fiction, drafted a short treatment for a science-fiction television series that he called Star Trek. This was to be set on board a large interstellar spaceship S. S. Yorktown in the 23rd century, whose crew was dedicated to exploring a small portion of our galaxy. Some of the influences on his idea that Roddenberry noted included A. E. van Vogts tales of the spaceship Space Beagle, Eric Frank Russells Marathon series of stories, and the film Forbidden Planet. Roddenberry also drew heavily from C. S. Foresters Horatio Hornblower novels that depict a sea captain who exercises broad discretionary authority on distant sea missions of noble purpose. Roddenberry often humorously referred to Captain Kirk as Horatio Hornblower in Space, Roddenberry had extensive experience in writing for series about the Old West that had been popular television fare earlier in the 1960s and the 1950s. Armed with this background, the first draft deliberately characterizes the new show as Wagon Train to the stars. Like the familiar Wagon Train, each episode was to be an adventure story, set within the overarching structure of a continuing journey. With the notable exception of Star Trek, Deep Space Nine, all future television, in Roddenberrys original concept, the protagonist was Captain Robert April of the starship S. S. Yorktown. This character was developed into Captain Christopher Pike, first portrayed by Jeffrey Hunter, in April 1964, Roddenberry presented the Star Trek draft to Desilu Productions, a leading independent television production company. He met with Herb Solow, Desilus Director of Production, Solow saw promise in the idea and signed a three-year program-development contract with Roddenberry
4.
Ring finger
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The ring finger is the fourth proximal digit of the human hand, and the second most ulnar finger, located between the middle finger and the little finger. It is also called digitus medicinalis, the finger, digitus annularis, digitus quartus. It may also be referred to as the finger, excluding the thumb. According to László A. Magyar, the names of the finger in many languages reflect an ancient belief that it is a magical finger. It is named after magic or rings, or called nameless, in Sanskrit and other languages like Finnish or Russian, the ring finger is called respectively - Anamika, Nimetön and Безымянный. In Arabic and Hebrew, the finger is called respectively - bansur -. Before medical science discovered how the system functioned, people believed that a vein ran directly from the fourth finger on the left hand to the heart. Because of the connection, they chose the descriptive name vena amoris, Latin for the vein of love. Based upon this name, their contemporaries, purported experts in the field of matrimonial etiquette, wrote that it would only be fitting that the ring be worn on this finger. By wearing the ring on the finger of the left hand. In Western cultures, a ring is traditionally worn on the ring finger. This developed from the Roman anulus pronubis when the man gave a ring to the woman at the betrothal ceremony, blessing the wedding ring and putting it on the brides finger dates from the 11th century. In medieval Europe, the Christian wedding ceremony placed the ring in sequence on the thumb, index, middle, the ring was then left on the ring finger. In a few European countries, the ring is worn on the hand prior to marriage. For example, a Greek Orthodox bride wears the ring on the hand prior to the ceremony. In England, the 1549 Prayer Book declared the ring shall be placed on the left hand, by the 17th and 18th centuries the ring could be found on any finger after the ceremony — even on the thumb. The wedding ring is worn on the ring finger of the left hand in the former British Empire, certain parts of Western Europe, certain parts of Catholic Central and Eastern Europe. In Eastern Europe, these include, Bulgaria, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Serbia, in Central or Western Europe, these include, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, Norway, and Spain
5.
Vulcan (Star Trek)
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Vulcans are a fictional extraterrestrial humanoid species in the Star Trek franchise who originate from the planet Vulcan. In the various Star Trek television series and movies, they are noted for their attempt to live by logic and they were the first extraterrestrial species in the Star Trek universe to observe first contact protocol with humans. Vulcans are depicted as similar in appearance to humans, the main physical differences are their eyebrows and ears, the former are arched and upswept, while the latter feature pinnae that taper to a point at the top. The ears have been the subject of jokes on many occasions, Vulcans have been portrayed as various races. Most caucasoid-like Vulcans typically appear with a greenish hue to their skin, due to Vulcans copper-based blood. Other features described include an inner eyelid, or nictitating membrane, which protects their vision from bright lights, Vulcans are vegetarians by choice and were omnivores in ages past. Vulcans are repeatedly stated to be herbivorous in the TAS episode The Slaver Weapon, Vulcans do not like to touch their food with their hands, preferring to use utensils whenever possible. It is a Vulcan custom for guests in the home to prepare meals for their hosts, Vulcans are said to not drink alcohol, though they are depicted indulging on special occasions or as a storyline warrants. In the Star Trek, Voyager episode Repression, humans and Vulcans are shown drinking a Vulcan alcoholic drink called Vulcan Brandy, in Star Trek, First Contact, when the Vulcans first meet Zefram Cochrane, Cochrane serves them alcoholic beverages, which they take in lieu of dancing. In non-canon Trek-related literature, such as the novelization of Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home, There are references to Vulcans becoming inebriated by ingesting chocolate. The novelization of Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home also shows Spock reacting almost as if drunk to the ingestion of sucrose, or common table sugar and he tells Kirk that it has the same effect on Vulcans as alcohol does on humans. Once triggered, a Vulcan must have intercourse with someone. If this is not possible, meditation may be used to stabilize their chemical imbalances and help them cope, in the event that neither of these solutions can be achieved, the Vulcan will face insanity, loss of self-control, and death. If a mate is not available, there are ways to relieve the effects of the pon farr. The first is meditation, by means of which the Vulcan must overcome the urge to mate through mental discipline and this is seen in the Voyager episode Blood Fever, when BElanna Torres and Ensign Vorik fight in the traditional Vulcan manner. The violence ends the pon farr, the other option is extreme shock, in the TOS episode Amok Time, Spock believed he had killed James T. Kirk, his best friend, thus providing sufficient shock to nullify the effects of pon farr. When he experienced pon farr, Tuvok of the USS Voyager made use of a simulation of a temporary mate that resembled his wife. Infection is another mechanism writers have used to induce pon farr in Vulcan characters, likewise in the film Star Trek III, The Search for Spock, the regenerated adolescent Spock went through at least two pon farr episodes at accelerated speed
6.
Spock
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Spock, commonly Mr. Spock, is a fictional character in the Star Trek media franchise. In addition, numerous actors portrayed the various stages of Spocks rapid growth, due to the effects of the Genesis Planet, in the 1984 Star Trek film Star Trek III, The Search for Spock. In the 2009 film Star Trek, Nimoy reprised his role with Zachary Quinto, both reprised their roles in the 2013 sequel Star Trek Into Darkness and Quinto reprised his role again in 2016s Star Trek Beyond. Spock serves aboard the starship Enterprise, as officer and first officer. Spocks mixed human-Vulcan heritage serves as an important plot element in many of the characters appearances, Kirk and Dr. Leonard Bones McCoy, he is one of the three central characters in the original Star Trek series and its films. After retiring from Starfleet, Spock serves as a Federation ambassador, born to the Vulcan Sarek and the human Amanda Grayson, Spock has a troubled childhood due to his mixed heritage. On his homeworld, he was bullied and tormented by full-blooded Vulcan children. For a time, he grew up alongside his older half-brother Sybok, in the episode Amok Time, it is revealed that Spock became betrothed to TPring during his childhood. Sarek supported Spocks scientific learning and supporting his application to the Vulcan Science Academy, in the 2009 film Star Trek, Spock is seen rejecting his acceptance into the Vulcan Science Academy on the basis that they would never fully accept someone who was only half-Vulcan. Because Spock did not enter the VSA, and sought to join Starfleet instead, Spock appeared as the science officer on the USS Enterprise in the first pilot for the series, The Cage. Spock was one of the members of the team who joined Captain Christopher Pike on a mission to Talos IV in order to investigate a distress call. Spock did appear in the pilot, Where No Man Has Gone Before. During the events of that pilot, Spock became concerned at the risk to the ship posed by Lieutenant Commander Gary Mitchell, the earliest appearance of Spock in the series as broadcast was The Man Trap, the first such episode. When he needs to knock out a version of Kirk in The Enemy Within. Together with Chief Engineer Montgomery Scotty Scott work together to rejoin the good and evil versions of the Captain, during Miri, he finds himself to be the only member of the landing party to be immune to the physical affects of the disease affecting human adults on the planet. However, he realises that he is probably a carrier and could infect the Enterprise if he were to return, doctor Leonard McCoy manages to devise a cure, allowing the team to return to the ship. When Simon van Gelder enters the bridge armed with a phaser in Dagger of the Mind and he later conducts a mind meld with van Gelder as part of the investigation into the activities of the nearby colony. After the power to the colony is shut down, and a force field drops
7.
New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
8.
Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
9.
Victory sign
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The V sign is a hand gesture in which the index and middle fingers are raised and parted, while the other fingers are clenched. It has various meanings, depending on the context and how it is presented. When displayed with the palm inward towards the signer, it has long been a gesture in some Commonwealth nations. In the 1940s, during the Second World War, a campaign by the Western Allies to use the sign with the back of the hand towards the signer as a V for Victory sign proved quite effective. During the Vietnam War, in the 1960s, the V sign was adopted by the counterculture as a symbol of peace. Shortly thereafter, it became adopted as a gesture used in photographs. The number 2 in American Sign Language, with the back of the hand facing the signer, it can mean, The number 2 Victory – in a setting of wartime or competition. It is sometimes made using both hands with upraised arms as United States President Dwight Eisenhower, and in imitation of him, Richard Nixon, Peace, or friend – used around the world by peace and counter-culture groups, popularized in the American peace movement of the 1960s. The commonality with the use from the 1940s was it meaning the end of war. V – used when spelling in American Sign Language, when used with movement, it can mean, Air quotes – flexing fingers, palm out, both hands. This hand shape is used in a number of signs in many sign languages. When the pointer and middle fingers are pointed at the signers eyes then turned, the ordinal second in American Sign Language has the V-sign palm forward, then the hand turns until the palm faces backward. The insulting version of the gesture is often compared to the gesture known as the finger. The two-fingered salute, is performed by flicking the V upwards from wrist or elbow. It is frequently used to signify defiance, contempt, or derision, the Sun urged its readers to stick two fingers up at then President of the European Commission Jacques Delors, who had advocated an EU central government. Ferguson also lost the captaincy of Rangers as a result of the controversy, mcGregors ban was lifted by then SFA manager Craig Levein and he returned to Scotland national squad in 2010. Steve McQueen gives the sign in the scene of the 1971 motorsport movie. A still picture of the gesture was recorded by photographer Nigel Snowdon and has become an icon of both McQueen and the film itself, the gesture was also flashed by Spike in Hush, a Season 4 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer
10.
Manual dexterity
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Fine motor skill is the coordination of small muscles, in movements—usually involving the synchronization of hands and fingers—with the eyes. The complex levels of manual dexterity that humans exhibit can be attributed to, Fine motor skills aid in the growth of intelligence and develop continuously throughout the stages of human development. Motor skills are movements and actions of the muscles, typically, they are categorized into two groups, gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs and they participate in actions such as running, crawling, swimming, etc. Fine motor skills are involved in movements that occur in the wrists, hands, fingers. They participate in actions such as picking up objects between the thumb and finger, writing carefully, and even blinking. These two motor skills work together to provide coordination, the index is usually the most dexterous and sensitive finger of the hand. Through each developmental stage of a life and throughout our lifetime motor skills gradually develop. They are first seen during a child’s development stages, infancy, toddlerhood, basic” fine motor skills gradually develop and are typically mastered between the ages of 6-12 in children. These skills will keep developing with age, practice and the use of muscles while playing sports, playing an instrument, using the computer. If deemed necessary, occupational therapy can improve overall fine motor skills. The first motor skills, beginning from birth, are characterized by involuntary reflexes. The most notable involuntary reflex is the Darwinian Reflex, a primitive reflex displayed in new-born babies and these involuntary muscle movements are temporary and often disappear after the first two months. After eight weeks, the infant will begin to use their fingers to touch. However, their ability to grab objects is still undeveloped at this point, at two or five months the infant will begin to develop hand-eye coordination, and they will start reaching for and grasping objects. In this way, they improve their overall grasping skills, a child will start randomly grabbing tangible and intangible objects indiscriminately. The next developmental milestone is between seven and twelve months, when a series of motor skills begins to develop. By the time a child is one old, their fine motor skills have developed to allow the manipulation of objects with greater intent
11.
Star Trek: First Contact
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Star Trek, First Contact is a 1996 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures. It is the feature film in the Star Trek film franchise. In the films plot, the crew of the Starship USS Enterprise-E travel back in time to the mid-21st century to stop the cybernetic Borg from conquering Earth by changing the past. After the release of the film, Star Trek Generations, Paramount tasked writers Brannon Braga. Braga and Moore wanted to feature the Borg in the plot, after two better-known directors turned down the job, cast member Jonathan Frakes was chosen to direct, to make sure the task fell to someone who understood Star Trek. It was Frakes first theatrical film, the script required the creation of new starship designs, including a new USS Enterprise. Production designer Herman Zimmerman and illustrator John Eaves collaborated to make a ship than its predecessor. Principal photography began with weeks of shooting in Arizona and California before production moved to new sets for the ship-based scenes. Effects company Industrial Light & Magic rushed to complete the special effects in less than five months. Traditional optical effects techniques were supplemented with computer-generated imagery, Jerry Goldsmith and his son Joel collaborated to produce the films score. First Contact was the film on its opening weekend, making $30.7 million. The film made $92 million in the United States & Canada, critical reception was mostly positive, critics including Roger Ebert considered it one of the best Star Trek films. The Borg and the effects were lauded, while characterization was less evenly received. First Contact was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Makeup, the film has been released on videotape, LaserDisc, DVD and Blu-ray home video formats. Scholarly analysis of the film has focused on Captain Jean-Luc Picards parallels to Herman Melvilles Ahab, Captain Jean-Luc Picard wakes from a nightmare in which he relived his assimilation by the cybernetic Borg six years earlier. Starfleet informs him of a new Borg attack against The Federation, intercepting the overwhelmed fleets audio communications, Picard disobeys orders and heads the Enterprise for Earth, where a single, damaged Borg Cube destroys opposing Starfleet vessels. The Enterprise arrives in time to save the crew of the USS Defiant, Picard takes command of the fleet and, after hearing Borg communications in his mind, orders it to concentrate its firepower on a seemingly non-vital section of the Borg ship. The Cube is destroyed but manages to launch a smaller sphere ship towards the planet before disintegrating, the Borg sphere generates and enters a temporal vortex
12.
Zefram Cochrane
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Zefram Cochrane is a fictional character in the Star Trek universe. Created by writer Gene L. Coon, the character first appeared in the 1967 Star Trek episode Metamorphosis, James Cromwell later played Cochrane in the 1996 feature film Star Trek, First Contact and the 2001 Star Trek, Enterprise pilot, Broken Bow. Footage of Cromwell from Star Trek, First Contact was used in the Enterprise episode In a Mirror, Darkly, Cochrane was born in 2030, according to Star Trek, First Contact. He constructed humanitys first warp-capable vessel, the Phoenix, in Bozeman, Montana and he started the project for financial gain, and found the accounts of his future accolades as told by the crew of the Enterprise-E from the future deeply disturbing. On April 5,2063, Cochrane made Earths first warp flight, the Phoenixs warp flight was detected by a Vulcan survey ship, the TPlana Hath, which then makes peaceful first contact with humans, including Cochrane, at the Phoenixs launch site. The aphorism Dont try to be a man, just be a man. And let history make its own judgments, is attributed to Cochrane, who is said to have uttered it in 2073. The Phoenixs launch facility became a historical monument, a 20-meter marble statue was erected there, depicting Cochrane heroically reaching toward the future. Cochranes name became revered among humans, with universities, cities. Enterprise-D and Enterprise-E Chief Engineer Geordi La Forge, for example, according to the original Star Trek episode Metamorphosis, Cochrane was presumed dead after disappearing from Alpha Centauri in 2117. James T. Nancy Hedford, who was traveling with the three Starfleet officers, is an ill Federation commissioner, the Companion, who loves Cochrane, merges with the commissioner, ridding her of her illness and providing the Companion with a corporeal form. The combined entity no longer has power to force Cochrane to stay with her, before departing, Kirk, Spock and McCoy promise not to reveal Cochranes existence. In the Mirror Universe, rather than reciprocating the Vulcans peaceful greeting, Cochrane, humans conquer other worlds as part of the brutal Terran Empire. In Metamorphosis, Cochrane was played by Glenn Corbett, who was 34 at the time of that episodes airing. In Star Trek, First Contact, Cochrane was played by the 56-year-old James Cromwell, at a point when the character, in 2063, the novel suggested he retired to Alpha Centauri at some point between his first warp flight and his disappearance. This follows a suggestion made in the Star Trek Chronology, on the humans could not have settled the Alpha Centauri system prior to the warp drives invention. In the novel, Cochranes warp experiments are the result of a mysterious billionaires financial and his self-identification with Alpha Centauri results from it being the destination of his first warp voyage and his subsequent founding role in the first colony in the system. His lifes story beyond his encounter with Kirk at Gamma Canaris in Metamorphosis is depicted up to his death during the events of the season of Star Trek
13.
I Am Not Spock
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I Am Not Spock is Leonard Nimoys first autobiography. He maintained he was clarifying the difference between himself and Spock, whom he always enjoyed playing. However, he later published I Am Spock in an attempt to address the misconceptions, Nimoy stated that the title originated from an incident in an airport where a mother introduced him to her daughter as Spock. The child was not convinced, and I am not Spock subsequently became the title for a chapter in the autobiography that discussed how he went about building the character. In the book he compared Spocks life to his own, in order to explain the differences between the personas of the two and he did state that if he were to portray any fictional character, then he would choose Spock. During a discussion with the publishers, they decided that the book needed to have Spock in the title, Nimoy called the reaction a firestorm. Nimoy later followed up with an autobiography in 1995, this time entitled I Am Spock. He discussed the response to I Am Not Spock in a feature called Reflections on Spock, Nimoy recalled that the fan reaction to the memoir was publicized as being negative and created an assumption that he was no longer interested in playing Spock. He responded to this rumor in his autobiography, I Am Spock. Based on that rumor, when Star Trek, The Motion Picture was being made, in 2002, Star Trek, The Next Generation actor Brent Spiner joked that his autobiography would be entitled I Am Not Spock, Either. Prior to playing the role of Spock in the 2009 film Star Trek, I Am Not Spock at Memory Alpha
14.
Priestly Blessing
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The Priestly Blessing or priestly benediction, also known in rabbinic literature as raising of the hands, or Dukhanen, is a Hebrew prayer recited by Kohanim - the Hebrew Priests. According to the Torah, Aaron blessed the people offering sacrifices. Various interpretations of these verses connect them to the three Patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, or to three attributes of God, Mercy, Courage, and Glory. Versions of the blessing are often found in mortuary and cultic contexts, only Kohanim can perform the Priestly Benediction. And the blessing should be performed only in the presence of a minyan – even if the Kohanim themselves must be included for a total of ten. Tradition prohibits a Kohen from reciting the blessing while under the influence of alcohol, all Kohanim present are obligated to participate, unless disqualified in some way. If a Kohen does not wish to participate, he must leave the sanctuary for the duration of the blessing, a Kohen who is on bad terms with the congregation or who is unwilling to perform the ritual should not perform it. It is customary that, once the Kohanim are assembled on the platform, the cantor or prayer leader will prompt them by reciting each word of the blessing and this custom is especially followed if only one Kohen is available to give the blessing. Apparently this prompting is done to avoid errors or embarrassment if any of the Kohanim should be ignorant of the words of the recitation. However, if there are a number of kohanim, they may say the first word of the blessing without the prompting, if the prayer leader is a Kohen himself, he does not prompt the other Kohanim in the blessing. Instead, a non-Kohen is designated with that task, and the leader remains silent, the Jewish Mishnah records advice that a person who is troubled by a dream should reflect on it when the Kohanim recite their blessing. This practice is still done in many Orthodox communities and it is also recited at bedtime. In many traditional Jewish communities it is the custom for congregants to spread their tallitot over their own heads during the blessing, if a man has children, they will come under his tallit to be blessed, even if they are quite old. This blessing is recited by Jewish parents to bless their children on Friday night before the beginning of the Shabbat meal. Some rabbis will say the blessing to a boy at his bar mitzvah or to a girl at her bat mitzvah, for girls the traditional request is God to make them like Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel and Leah, the Matriarchs of the Jewish people. It also may be said before a journey, and some people will write it out. It is often used in the liturgy as the first section of Torah to be read in the morning after reciting the blessing before studying Torah. In the case where no Kohanim are present in the synagogue the hazzan will read the verse by verse
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Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
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Kohen
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Kohen or cohen is the Hebrew word for priest used colloquially in reference to the Aaronic priesthood. Jewish kohanim are traditionally believed and halakhically required to be of direct descent from the biblical Aaron. The term is used colloquially in Orthodox Judaism in reference to modern day descendants of Aharon, during the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, kohanim performed the daily and holiday duties of sacrificial offerings. Today, kohanim retain a lesser though distinct status within Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism, in the Samaritan community, the kohanim have remained the primary religious leaders. The noun kohen is used in the Torah to refer to priests, the Hebrew noun kohen is most often translated as priest, whether Jewish or pagan, such as the priests of Baal or Dagon, though Christian priests are referred to in Hebrew by the term komer. The word derives from a Semitic root common, at minimum, to the Central Semitic languages, as a starkly different translation the title worker, Rashi on Exodus 29,30 and servant Targum to Jeremiah 48,7, have been offered as a translation as well. Some have attempted to resolve this contradiction by suggesting that, although the priest does enjoy specific privileges. The status of priest kohen was conferred on Aaron, the brother of Moses, during the 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and until the Holy Temple was built in Jerusalem, the priests performed their priestly service in the portable Tabernacle. Their duties involved offering the daily and Jewish holiday sacrifices, and blessing the people in a Priestly Blessing, in a broader sense, since Aaron was a descendant of the Tribe of Levi, priests are sometimes included in the term Levites, by direct patrilineal descent. However, not all Levites are priests, when the Temple existed, most sacrifices and offerings could only be conducted by priests. The Torah mentions Melchizedek king of Salem, identified by Rashi as being Shem the son of Noah, the second is Potiphera, priest of Heliopolis, then Jethro, priest of Midian both pagan priests of their era. When Esau sold the birthright of the first born to Jacob, Rashi explains that the priesthood was sold along with it, because by right the priesthood belongs to the first-born. Only when the first-born sinned in the incident of the calf, the priesthood was given to the Tribe of Levi. Aaron received the priesthood along with his children and any descendants that would be born subsequently, however, his grandson Phinehas had already been born, and did not receive the priesthood until he killed the prince of the Tribe of Simeon and the princess of the Midianites. Thereafter, the priesthood has remained with the descendants of Aaron, in every generation when the Temple was standing, one kohen would be singled out to perform the functions of the High Priest. His primary task was the Day of Atonement service, another unique task of the high priest was the offering of a daily meal sacrifice, he also held the prerogative to supersede any priest and offer any offering he chose. Although the Torah retains a procedure to select a High Priest when needed, in the absence of the Temple in Jerusalem, prior to that time, the priestly courses numbered a mere eight. This newly instated a cycle of courses, or priestly divisions
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Hebrew alphabet
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Historically, there have been two separate abjad scripts to write Hebrew. In the remainder of this article, the term Hebrew alphabet refers to the Jewish square script unless otherwise indicated, the Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters. It does not have case, but five letters have different forms used at the end of a word. Hebrew is written right to left. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants, as with other abjads, such as the Arabic alphabet, scribes later devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as niqqud. In both biblical and rabbinic Hebrew, the letters א ה ו י are also used as matres lectionis to represent vowels. There is a trend in modern Modern Hebrew toward the use of matres lectionis to indicate vowels that have traditionally gone unwritten, the paleo-Hebrew alphabet was used in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Samaritans, who remained in the Land of Israel, continued to use the paleo-Hebrew alphabet, after the fall of the Persian Empire in 330 BCE, Jews used both scripts before settling on the Assyrian form. The square Hebrew alphabet was adapted and used for writing languages of the Jewish diaspora – such as Karaim, the Judeo-Arabic languages, Judaeo-Spanish. In the traditional form, the Hebrew alphabet is an abjad consisting only of consonants and it has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word. Also, a system of points to indicate vowels, called niqqud, was developed. In modern forms of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish and to some extent Modern Hebrew, today, the trend is toward full spelling with the weak letters acting as true vowels. When used to write Yiddish, vowels are indicated, using letters, either with or without niqqud-diacritics, except for Hebrew words. To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalization, one of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed. Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, and his family for generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are used only for special purposes, such as Biblical books intended for study. The Tiberian system also includes a set of marks, called trope. These are shown below the normal form in the following table, although Hebrew is read and written from right to left, the following table shows the letters in order from left to right
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Shin (letter)
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Shin is the name of the twenty-first letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician Shin, Hebrew Shin ש, Aramaic Shin, Syriac Shin ܫ, and Arabic Shin ش. Its sound value is a sibilant, or. The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek Sigma, and the letter Sha in the Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts, the South Arabian and Ethiopian letter Śawt is also cognate. The Phoenician šin letter expressed the continuants of two Proto-Semitic phonemes, and may have based on a pictogram of a tooth. The Encyclopaedia Judaica,1972, records that it represented a composite bow. The history of the letters expressing sibilants in the various Semitic alphabets is somewhat complicated, a letter variant س sīn takes the place of Samekh at 15th position. Šīn represents /ʃ/, and is the 13th letter of the modern alphabet order and is written thus, in the transcription into Spanish, the Greek letter chi was used which was later transcribed into Latin x. According to some sources, this is the origin of x used for the unknown in the equations, however, according to other sources, there is no historical evidence for this. In Modern Arabic mathematical notation, س sīn, i. e. šīn without its dots, in Aramaic, where the use of shin is well-determined, the orthography of sin was never fully resolved. To express an etymological /ś/, a number of dialects chose either sin or samek exclusively, for example, Regardless of how it is written, /ś/ in spoken Aramaic seems to have universally resolved to /s/. The Hebrew letter represents two different phonemes, a sibilant /s/, like English sour, and a /ʃ/, like English shoe, the two are distinguished by a dot above the left-hand side of the letter for /s/ and above the right-hand side for /ʃ/. In the biblical name Issachar only, the second letter is always written without any dot. This is because the second sin/shin is always silent, in gematria, Shin represents the number 300. Shin, as a prefix, bears the meaning as the relative pronouns that, which. In colloquial Hebrew, Kaph and Shin together have the meaning of when and this is a contraction of כּאשר, kaasher. Shin is also one of the seven letters which receive special crowns when written in a Sefer Torah, see Gimmel, Ayin, Teth, Nun, Zayin, and Tzadi. From this episode we get the English word shibboleth, Shin also stands for the word Shaddai, a name for God. Because of this, a forms the letter Shin with his hands as he recites the Priestly Blessing
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Shekinah
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Shekinah, Shechinah, or Schechinah, is the English transliteration of a Hebrew word meaning dwelling or settling and denotes the dwelling or settling of the divine presence of God. This term does not occur in the Bible, and is from rabbinic literature, ‹See Tfd› Shekinah is derived from the Hebrew verb שכן. The Semitic root means to settle, inhabit, or dwell and this abstract noun is not present in the Bible, and is first encountered in rabbinic literature. The word for the Tabernacle, mishkan, is a derivative of the root and is used in the sense of dwelling-place in the Bible, e. g. Psalms 132,5. The concept is similar to that in the Gospel of Matthew 18,20, some Christian theologians have connected the concept of Shekhinah to the Greek term Parousia, presence or arrival, which is used in the New Testament in a similar way for divine presence. The Shekinah is held by some to represent the attributes of the presence of God. The Shekinah is referred to as manifest in the Tabernacle and the Temple in Jerusalem throughout Rabbinic literature and it is also reported as being present in the acts of public prayer. So too in the Talmud Sanhedrin 39a, we read, Whenever ten are gathered for prayer, there the Shekinah rests, it also connotes righteous judgment, and personal need. The word shekina does not occur in the Bible, although the similar word shakan, there is also no occurrence of the word in pre-rabbinic literature such as the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is only afterwards in the targums and rabbinic literature that the Hebrew term shekinah, or Aramaic equivalent shekinta, is found, and then becomes extremely common. In the Targum the addition of the noun term Shekinah paraphases Hebrew verb phrases such as Exodus 34,9 let the Lord go among us which Targum paraphrases with Gods shekinah. In the post-temple era usage of the term Shekinah may provide a solution to the problem of God being omnipresent, and it came to pass, when the minstrel played, that the hand of the Lord came upon him. And the spirit of the LORD will come mightily upon thee, and thou shalt prophesy with them, isaiah wrote I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne high and lifted up, and his train filled the Temple. Jeremiah implored Do not dishonor the throne of glory and referred to Thy throne of glory, on high from the beginning. The Book of Ezekiel speaks of the glory of the God of Israel was there and this recurrent theme is best known from the writings and songs of the legendary mystic of the 16th century, Rabbi Isaac Luria. For the Shabbat is a queen and a bride and this is why the masters of the Mishna used to go out on the eve of Shabbat to receive her on the road, and used to say, Come, O bride, come, O bride. And one must sing and rejoice at the table in her honor, one must receive the Lady with many lighted candles, many enjoyments, beautiful clothes, and a house embellished with many fine appointments. The tradition of the Shekinah as the Shabbat Bride, the Shabbat Kallah, the 17th blessing of the daily Amidah prayer said in Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform services is Blessed are You, God, who returns His Presence to Zion
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Shalom
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Shalom is a Hebrew word meaning peace, harmony, wholeness, completeness, prosperity, welfare and tranquility and can be used idiomatically to mean both hello and goodbye. As it does in English, it can refer to either peace between two entities, or to the well-being, welfare or safety of an individual or a group of individuals. Stendebach and Ringgren writes that a more thorough analysis of Hebrew roots reveal that Lom was the basic root word for Shalom. The word shalom is also found in other expressions and names. Its equivalent cognate in Arabic is salaam, sliem in Maltese, Shlama in Syriac-Assyrian and sälam in Ethiopian Semitic languages from the Proto-Semitic root Š-L-M. In Hebrew, the root of the word, and depending on the vowels that are used, has several meanings, as for example, One meaning is whole, another could be the actual verb pay usually in command form. The conjugated verb has other spins that are worth noting, such as, hence one can jokingly say that, when its paid-for, then there is peace. The Hebrew term shalom is roughly translated to languages as peace. Pax, in Latin, means peace, but it was used to mean truce or treaty. So, deriving from the definition and use in Latin, most Romance terms simply use the word peace to mean such, Peace is an important word in the Christian sacred scriptures and liturgy. Eirene, the Greek term translated to peace, also means quietness, Shalom, in the liturgy, means more than a state of mind, of being or of affairs. Derived from the Hebrew root shalam – meaning to be safe or complete, Shalom, as term and message, seems to encapsulate a reality and hope of wholeness for the individual, within societal relations, and for the whole world. To say joy and peace, meaning a state of affairs where there is no dispute or war, the word shalom means safe, for example, well and happy. On a more abstract application, its use points to welfare, for example, health, prosperity and it is the verb form shalam, though, that provides a deeper understanding of this term in theology, doctrine, and liturgy. Literally translated, shalam signals to a state of safety, in its use in Scripture, shalom describes the actions that lead to a state of soundness, or better yet wholeness. So to say, shalom seems not to speak of a state of affairs, but describes a process, an activity. Shalom is seen in reference to the wellbeing of others, to treaties, coincidentally, the root shalem, means peaceful - though it is sometimes posited that this root is found in the name of the city Jerusalem, this is likely a re-etymologization. Yet, its transcendence lies in its relationship to truth and justice and it is also employed in benedictions, like that in I Thessalonians 5.23 and Hebrews 13. 20–21, perhaps making echo to prayers of peace common throughout the Hebrew Scriptures and Jewish benedictions
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Orthodox Judaism
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Orthodox Judaism includes movements such as Modern Orthodox Judaism and Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism. As of 2001, Orthodox Jews and Jews affiliated with an Orthodox synagogue accounted for approximately 50% of British Jews,26. 5% of Israeli Jews, among those affiliated to a synagogue body, Orthodox Jews represent 70% of British Jewry, and 27% of American Jewry. Orthodoxy is not one single movement or school of thought, there is no single rabbinical body to which all rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing member congregations. In the 20th century, a segment of the Orthodox population disagreed with Modern Orthodoxy, such rabbis viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. This form of Judaism may be referred to as Haredi Judaism or Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, several local Jewish papers, including New Yorks Jewish Week and Philadelphias Jewish Exponent have also dropped use of the term. According to Rabbi David Bar-Hayim, the term Orthodox Judaism was coined as a response to the rise of Reform Judaism in early 19th century Germany, some researchers attempted to argue that the importance of daily practice and punctilious adherence to Jewish Law relegated theoretical issues to an ancillary status. Others dismissed this view entirely, citing the many debates in ancient rabbinic sources which castigated various heresies without any reference to observance, however, while lacking a uniform doctrine, Orthodox Judaism is basically united in affirming several core beliefs, disavowal of which is considered major blasphemy. As in other aspects, Orthodox positions reflect the mainstream of traditional Rabbinic Judaism through the ages, attempts to codify these were undertaken by several medieval authorities, including Saadia Gaon and Joseph Albo. Yet the 13 Fundamentals expounded by Maimonides in his Commentary on the Mishnah, but in recent centuries the 13 Principles became standard, and are considered binding and cardinal by Orthodox authorities in a virtually universal manner. More specific doctrines refer to the times of Godly salvation and afterlife – in Judaism, Olam haBa and these include belief in divine reward for those who observe the Lords commandments and likewise, punishment meted unto the transgressors. Maimonides reserved one article for this tenet, oft mentioned in sources, stating merely that God rewards. This issue has been subject to debate and interpretation. Nahmanides offered a comprehensive system, with divine remuneration for better or worse both in this world, via natural means, and in a celestial heaven and hell. One of the most important teachings concerning afterlife in Judaism is the Resurrection of the Dead, the Talmud listed deniers of this faith as heretics who shall have no part in the World to Come. Maimoindes specified it apart as a separate article and this particular notion is closely linked with Reward and Punishment. They will live ordinary, corporeal life but will not die, then all mankind shall be resuscitated and be given each his just due. The eternal reward shall be preserved for their soul, as beforehand, preceding the miraculous events linked with afterlife is the Advent of the Messiah, also independently listed among Maimonides Thirteen as a tenet of faith. Orthodox Judaism maintains the historical understanding of Jewish identity, a Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition
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Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
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White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
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NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
25.
Terry W. Virts
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Terry W. Virts, Jr. is a NASA astronaut, and Colonel in the United States Air Force. Virts was born in 1967 in Baltimore, Maryland, but considers Columbia, Maryland and he graduated from Oakland Mills High School in Columbia, Maryland in 1985. While at the Air Force Academy, Virts attended the École de lAir in 1988 on an exchange program, Virts was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant upon graduation from the United States Air Force Academy in 1989 and earned his pilot wings at Williams Air Force Base, Arizona. He was then assigned to the 31st Tactical Fighter Wing at Homestead Air Force Base, after Hurricane Andrew struck southern Florida in 1992, his squadron was moved to Moody Air Force Base, Georgia. He was later assigned to the 36th Fighter Squadron at Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea, Virts was selected for Test Pilot School in 1997 at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Following graduation, he was an Experimental Test Pilot at the F-16 Combined Test Force and he has logged over 3,000 flight hours in more than 40 different aircraft. Selected as a pilot by NASA in July 2000, Virts reported for training in August 2000 and his technical assignments have included lead astronaut for the NASA T-38 program, Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory test crewmember, and Expedition 9 crew support astronaut. He was the pilot of STS-130 aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour and as of 2015 is assigned as a CAPCOM, on November 23,2014, Soyuz TMA-15M carrying Terry and two other astronauts launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan. It successfully docked at the International Space Station roughly six hours later, with the impending scheduled departure of Soyuz TMA-14M in March 2015, Virts assumed command of the International Space Station as commander of Expedition 43. Virts retired from NASA in August 2016 and his military decorations include the Meritorious Service Medal, the Air Medal, Aerial Achievement Medal, and the Air Force Commendation Medal. NASA bio Spacefacts biography of Terry W. Virts, Jr. Howard County Times, Oakland Mills grad set for space launch
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Twitter
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Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy
27.
International Space Station
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The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
28.
Boston, Massachusetts
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
29.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
30.
Astronaut
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An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists. Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, with the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created, the commercial astronaut. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of 100 kilometers. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles are awarded astronaut wings. As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these,24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon, the three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie. As of 17 November 2016, under the U. S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days in space, as of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman,377 days, dryden preferred cosmonaut, on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos, while the astro prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred astronaut, which survived by common usage as the preferred American term, when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to cosmonaut. In English-speaking nations, a space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron, meaning star, the first known use of the term astronaut in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Deaths Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier, for example, in Percy Gregs 1880 book Across the Zodiac, astronaut referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de lInfini of J. -H, rosny aîné, the word astronautique was used. The word may have inspired by aeronaut, an older term for an air traveler first applied to balloonists. An early use in a publication is Eric Frank Russells poem The Astronaut in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond, NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps
31.
ESA
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The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
32.
Samantha Cristoforetti
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Samantha Cristoforetti is an Italian European Space Agency astronaut, Italian Air Force pilot and engineer. She holds the records for longest single space flight by a woman and she is also the first Italian woman in space. Samantha Cristoforetti is also known as the first person who brewed an espresso coffee in space, Cristoforetti was born in Milan in 1977. She spent her childhood in Malè, in Val di Sole, Trentino, when she was 18, she took a US foreign exchange program and attended Space Camp. She studied in Bolzano and Trento and graduated from the Technical University of Munich with a degree in Mechanical Engineering and she studied at the École nationale supérieure de laéronautique et de lespace in Toulouse, France, and at the Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology in Moscow. She graduated in Aeronautics Sciences at the Accademia Aeronautica in Pozzuoli, becoming one of the first women to be a lieutenant and she is the second Space Camp alumnus in orbit. As part of her training, she completed the Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot training and she has logged over 500 hours and has flown six types of military aircraft, SF-260, T-37, T-38, MB-339A, MB-339CD and AM-X. She now holds the rank of captain, on 3 July 2012, the European Space Agency announced that Cristoforetti was set for a long-duration mission to the ISS in 2014. On 23 November 2014, Soyuz TMA-15M, carrying Cristoforetti and two other astronauts launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan and it successfully docked at the International Space Station roughly six hours later. Cristoforetti, along with her mates, returned safely from the ISS on 11 June 2015. She stayed 199 days in space and so became the holder of the record for the longest single mission for a woman, previously, the NASA astronaut Sunita Williams held that record with 195 days after her Expedition 33 mission to the ISS. Cristoforettis mission to the ISS was called Futura, during her stay she performed numerous scientific experiments simulating prolonged stay in space and Lunar and Mars orbit. She was the operator during the undocking of the ATV-5. Other outreach activities included learning how the Spirulina algae can be a source of food and that equipment for the ISS crew was on board of the failed Orb-3 mission is clear from the manifest of its cargo. It lists, Total Cargo,2,215 kg of which EVA Equipment,66 kg, ISS Expedition Mission 42 blog has a special section called dont panic. In that #Dragon, and again with the first cup of coffee brewed on the ISS, a one-month delay after the failure of two Russian rockets extended her stay in space past the European astronaut and female astronaut endurance records. On 16 July 2015 she was awarded the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic by President Mattarella and she has been followed with affection and love by all Italians said the Italian President. The Order of Merit is the order of knighthood, the highest ranking honour of the Republic
33.
Tweeted
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Twitter is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, tweets, restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them, users access Twitter through its website interface, SMS or a mobile device app. Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, United States, Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams and launched in July. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity, in 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. In 2013, it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has described as the SMS of the Internet. As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users. On the day of the 2016 U. S. presidential election, Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news, Twitters origins lie in a daylong brainstorming session held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then a student at New York University. The original project name for the service was twttr, an idea that Williams later ascribed to Noah Glass, inspired by Flickr. The developers initially considered 10958 as a code, but later changed it to 40404 for ease of use. Work on the project started on March 21,2006, when Dorsey published the first Twitter message at 9,50 PM Pacific Standard Time, Dorsey has explained the origin of the Twitter title. we came across the word twitter, and it was just perfect. The definition was a short burst of inconsequential information, and chirps from birds, and thats exactly what the product was. The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as a service for Odeo employees. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitters startup until 2011, Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007. Williams provided insight into the ambiguity that defined this early period in a 2013 interview, With Twitter and they called it a social network, they called it microblogging, but it was hard to define, because it didnt replace anything. There was this path of discovery with something like that, where over time you figure out what it is, Twitter actually changed from what we thought it was in the beginning, which we described as status updates and a social utility. It is that, in part, but the insight we eventually came to was Twitter was really more of an information network than it is a social network, the tipping point for Twitters popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000, the Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages, remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy
34.
George Takei
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George Hosato Takei is an American actor, director, author, and activist of Japanese descent. Takei is best known for his role as Hikaru Sulu, helmsman of the USS Enterprise in the television series Star Trek and he also portrayed the character in six Star Trek feature films and one episode of Star Trek, Voyager. Takeis involvement in media has brought him fresh attention. As of February 2017, his Facebook page has over 10 million likes since he joined in 2011, Takei is a proponent of LGBT rights and is active in state and local politics. He has won awards and accolades in his work on human rights and Japan–United States relations. His father was an Anglophile, and named him George after King George VI of the United Kingdom, whose coronation took place in 1937, shortly after Takeis birth. In 1942, the Takei family was forced to live in the horse stables of Santa Anita Park before being sent to the Rohwer War Relocation Center for internment in Rohwer. The family was transferred to the Tule Lake War Relocation Center in California. George Takei had several relatives living in Japan during World War II, among them, he had an aunt and infant cousin who lived in Hiroshima who were both killed during the atomic bombing that destroyed the city. In Takeis own words, my aunt and baby cousin found burnt in a ditch in Hiroshima, at the end of World War II, Takei and his family returned to Los Angeles. He attended Mount Vernon Junior High School, where he served as student body president at Los Angeles High School and he was a member of Boy Scout Troop 379 of the Koyasan Buddhist Temple. Upon graduation from school, Takei enrolled in the University of California. Later he attended the University of California, Los Angeles, where he received a Bachelor of Arts in theater in 1960 and he attended the Shakespeare Institute at Stratford-upon-Avon in England, and Sophia University in Tokyo, Japan. In Hollywood, he studied acting at the Desilu Workshop, Takei began his career in Hollywood in the late 1950s, providing voiceover for characters in the English dub of the Japanese monster films Godzilla Raids Again a. k. a. Gigantis the Fire Monster, for the latter of which he recalled, here was one word that we had difficulty getting the meaning of. The Japanese word was bakayaro, which means stupid fool, the director, Takei said, had him use the phrase banana oil. He went on to appear in the television series Playhouse 90. He guest starred in the season fifth episode of Hawaiian Eye Thomas Jefferson Chu
35.
Hikaru Sulu
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Hikaru Kato Sulu is a fictional character in the Star Trek media franchise. Originally known simply as Sulu, he was portrayed by George Takei in the original Star Trek series. Sulu also appears in the animated Star Trek series, the first six Star Trek movies, one episode of Star Trek, Voyager, and in books, comics. Sulus first name, Hikaru, appeared in a 1981 novel well over a decade after the series had ended. John Cho assumed the role of the character in both the 2009 film Star Trek and its sequels, Star Trek Into Darkness and Star Trek Beyond. Takei recalled Gene Roddenberry wanted the character to represent all of Asia, Roddenberry did not want a nationally specific surname, so he looked at a map and saw the Sulu Sea. He thought, Ah, the waters of that sea touch all shores, the actor recalled, historically, Sulu was a Muslim sultanate founded in 1405 until March 1915 when the Sultan abdicated when it had become part of the United States. The island province of Sulu continued to be a US territory until 1946, in the book Inside Star Trek, The Real Story, the characters name is noted as a pun on the name of vice president of Desilu Studios, Herb Solow. Novelist Vonda McIntyre first presents Hikaru as the characters first name in the novel The Entropy Effect, McIntyre derived the characters first name from The Tale of Genji. In some Japanese dubs, Commander Sulus family name is changed to Kato and this is because there is no lu syllable in Japanese, so to Japanese speakers Sulu does not sound like a Japanese name. However, in recent movies, it is slightly changed. The name スールー, is used as opposed to スル, which would be a closer transliteration, suru with short vowels in Japanese is the verb to do, and as such might also come across as odd to Japanese audiences. The fictional character Hikaru Sulu was born in San Francisco, and is of Japanese heritage and he was shown as the USS Enterprises staff physicist in the pilot episode, Where No Man Has Gone Before. An early Paramount press release described this initial conception of his character as follows, Physicist Sulu is the trim, frequently it is his assessment of the conditions on unexplored planets that finally determines when and how they will be approached, or if they can be explored at all. However, throughout the rest of the series, he served as officer and senior helmsman. Throughout the series, Sulu is shown having many interests and hobbies, including gymnastics, botany, fencing, in the episode The Naked Time, Spock observes that Sulu is at heart a swashbuckler out of the 18th century. The character is promoted to lieutenant commander some time before Star Trek, The Motion Picture, during the first five Star Trek movies, he serves as helmsman aboard both the USS Enterprise and USS Enterprise-A. He is promoted to captain and given command of the USS Excelsior three years before the events of Star Trek VI, The Undiscovered Country, Star Trek Generations introduces Hikarus daughter, Demora Sulu, whose origins are also depicted in Peter Davids non-canon novel The Captains Daughter
36.
Simon Pegg
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Simon John Pegg is an English actor, comedian, screenwriter, and producer. He co-wrote and starred in the Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy of films, Shaun of the Dead, Hot Fuzz and he and Nick Frost wrote and starred in the sci-fi film Paul. Pegg portrayed Benji Dunn in the Mission, Impossible film series and Montgomery Scott in Star Trek, Star Trek Into Darkness, and Star Trek Beyond, co-writing the latter. Pegg was born and raised in Brockworth, Gloucestershire, the son of Gillian Rosemary, a civil servant, and John Henry Beckingham. His parents divorced when he was seven and he took the surname of his stepfather after his mother remarried, Pegg attended Castle Hill Primary School, Brockworth Comprehensive Secondary School, and The Kings School, Gloucester. Pegg moved to Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire when he was 16 and studied English Literature and Theatre at Stratford-upon-Avon College. He graduated from the University of Bristol in 1991 with a BA in Theatre, Film, while there, he performed as a member of a comedy troupe called David Icke and the Orphans of Jesus, alongside David Walliams, Dominik Diamond, and Jason Bradbury. Peggs early appearances in TV series and films include Asylum, Six Pairs of Pants, Faith in the Future, Big Train, between 1998 and 2004, Pegg was regularly featured on BBC Radio 4s The 99p Challenge. He played various roles during the tour of Steve Coogans 1998 live stage show The Man Who Thinks Hes It, in 1999, he created and co-wrote the Channel 4 sitcom Spaced with Jessica Stevenson. The series was directed by Edgar Wright, with whom Pegg and Stevenson had previously worked on Asylum, for his performance in this series, Pegg was nominated for a British Comedy Award as Best Male Comedy Newcomer. At George A. Romeros invitation, Pegg and Wright made cameo appearances in Romeros zombie film, in 2004, Pegg starred in a spin-off of the television show Danger. 50,000 Zombies. in which he played a hunter named Dr. Fell. He played mutant bounty hunter Johnny Alpha, the Strontium Dog and he also narrated the first series of the making-of documentary series Doctor Who Confidential. When the film Mission, Impossible III was subsequently made, Pegg appeared in it as Benji Dunn and he reprised the role of Benji Dunn in the 2011 film Mission, Impossible – Ghost Protocol and the 2015 film Mission, Impossible – Rogue Nation. In 2006, he played Gus in Big Nothing alongside David Schwimmer, the same year, Pegg and Wright completed their second film, Hot Fuzz, released in February 2007. In 2007, Pegg starred in The Good Night and Run Fatboy Run directed by David Schwimmer and co-starring Thandie Newton, in 2008, he wrote the dialogue for an English language re-release of the cult 2006 animated Norwegian film, Free Jimmy. Pegg received screenwriting credit for this, and Pegg also voiced one of the characters in the English-language version. Pegg co-wrote the script for a film called Paul, about two men who encounter a comedic extraterrestrial alien during a road trip across the US
37.
Star Trek: The Motion Picture
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Star Trek, The Motion Picture is a 1979 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures. It is the first Star Trek film and stars the cast of the original 1966–1969 Star Trek television series, the film is set in the twenty-third century when a mysterious and immensely powerful alien cloud known as VGer approaches Earth, destroying everything in its path. Kirk resumes command of his previous starship—the recently refitted USS Enterprise—to lead it on a mission to save the planet, when the original television series was cancelled in 1969, Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry lobbied Paramount to continue the franchise through a film. The success of the series in syndication convinced the studio to work on a feature film in 1975. A series of writers attempted to craft a suitably epic script, Paramount instead planned on returning the franchise to its roots with a new television series, Star Trek, Phase II. With the cancellation of Phase II, writers rushed to adapt its planned pilot episode, In Thy Image, constant revisions to the story and shooting script continued to the extent of hourly script updates on shooting dates. The Enterprise was modified inside and out, costume designer Robert Fletcher provided new uniforms, Jerry Goldsmith composed the score, beginning an association with Star Trek that would continue until 2002. The final production cost ballooned to approximately $46 million, the film earned $139 million worldwide, falling short of studio expectations but enough for Paramount to propose a cheaper sequel. Roddenberry was forced out of control for The Wrath of Khan. In 2001, Wise oversaw a directors cut for a special DVD release of the film, with remastered audio, tightened and added scenes, and new computer-generated effects. In 2273, a Starfleet monitoring station, Epsilon Nine, detects an alien force, hidden in a cloud of energy. The cloud destroys three of the Klingon Empires new Ktinga-class warships and the station en route. On Earth, the starship Enterprise is undergoing a refit, her former commanding officer, James T. Kirk, has been promoted to Admiral. Starfleet dispatches Enterprise to investigate the cloud entity as the ship is the one in intercept range. Kirk takes command of the ship citing his experience, angering Captain Willard Decker, testing of Enterprises new systems goes poorly, two officers, including the science officer, are killed by a malfunctioning transporter, and improperly calibrated engines almost destroy the ship. Kirks unfamiliarity with the new systems of the Enterprise increases the tension between him and first officer Decker, Enterprise intercepts the energy cloud and is attacked by an alien vessel within. A probe appears on the bridge, attacks Spock and abducts the navigator and she is replaced by a robotic replica, another probe sent by VGer to study the crew. Decker is distraught over the loss of Ilia, with whom he had a romantic history and he becomes troubled as he attempts to extract information from the doppelgänger, which has Ilias memories and feelings buried within
38.
Theodore Sturgeon
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Theodore Sturgeon was an American writer, primarily of fantasy, science fiction and horror. The Internet Speculative Fiction Database credits him with about 400 reviews, Sturgeons most famous work may be the science fiction novel More Than Human, an expansion of Baby Is Three. Ranked by votes for all of their pre-1965 novellas, Sturgeon was second among authors, the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Sturgeon in 2000, its fifth class of two deceased and two living writers. Sturgeon was born Edward Hamilton Waldo in Staten Island, New York in 1918 and his name was legally changed to Theodore Sturgeon at age eleven after his mothers divorce and remarriage to William Dicky Sturgeon. He sold his first story in 1938 to the McClure Syndicate and his first genre story was Ether Breather, published by John W. Campbell in the September 1939 issue of Astounding Science Fiction. At first he wrote short stories, primarily for genre magazines such as Astounding and Unknown. He used the pen name E. Waldo Hunter when two of his stories ran in the issue of Astounding. A few of his stories were signed Theodore H. Sturgeon. Sturgeon ghost-wrote one Ellery Queen mystery novel, The Player on the Other Side. This novel gained critical praise from critic H. R. F. Keating, had almost finished writing Crime and Mystery, placing the book squarely in the Queen canon when he learned that it had been written by Sturgeon. Winner of Mystery Writers of America awards, selecting his ten favorite mystery novels for the magazine Armchair Detective and he said, This book changed my life. And made a mystery fan out of me. The book must be one of the most skilful pastiches in the history of literature, an amazing piece of work, whomever did it. Sturgeon wrote the screenplays for the Star Trek episodes Shore Leave, the latter is known for its invention of pon farr, the Vulcan mating ritual, first use of the sentence Live long and prosper, and first use of the Vulcan hand symbol. Sturgeon is also credited as having deliberately put homosexual subtext in his work, like the back-rub scene in Shore Leave. Sturgeon also wrote episodes of Star Trek that were never produced. One of these was notable for having first introduced the Prime Directive and he also wrote an episode of the Saturday morning show Land of the Lost, The Pylon Express, in 1975. Two of Sturgeons stories were adapted for The New Twilight Zone, One, A Saucer of Loneliness, was broadcast in 1986 and was dedicated to his memory
39.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
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Eric Frank Russell
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Eric Frank Russell was a British author best known for his science fiction novels and short stories. Much of his work was first published in the United States, in John W. Campbells Astounding Science Fiction, Russell also wrote horror fiction for Weird Tales and non-fiction articles on Fortean topics. To 1955 several of his stories were published under pseudonyms, at least Duncan H. Munro, Russell was born in 1905 near Sandhurst in Berkshire, where his father was an instructor at the Royal Military College. Russell became a fan of science fiction and in 1934, while living near Liverpool, he saw a letter in Amazing Stories from Leslie J. Johnson, Russell met up with Johnson, who encouraged him to embark on a writing career. Together, the two men wrote a novella, Seeker of Tomorrow, that was published by F. Orlin Tremaine in the July 1937 number of Astounding Stories, both Russell and Johnson became members of the British Interplanetary Society. Russells first novel was Sinister Barrier, cover story for the inaugural and it is explicitly a Fortean tale, based on Charles Forts famous speculation I think were property, Russell explains in the foreword. An often-repeated legend has it that Campbell, on receiving the manuscript for Sinister Barrier, There is no real evidence for it, despite a statement to that effect in the first volume of Isaac Asimovs autobiography, In Memory Yet Green. His second novel, Dreadful Sanctuary is an example of conspiracy fiction, in which a paranoid delusion of global proportions is perpetuated by a small. There are two different and mutually incompatible accounts of Russells military service during World War II, the official, well-documented version is that he served with the Royal Air Force, with whom he saw active service in Europe as a member of a Mobile Signals Unit. Russell took up writing full-time in the late 1940s and he became an active member of British science fiction fandom and the British representative of the Fortean Society. He won the first annual Hugo Award for Best Short Story in 1955 recognizing his humorous Allamagoosa as the years best science fiction. The 1962 novel The Great Explosion won a Prometheus Hall of Fame Award in 1985 — the third naming of two works to the science fiction hall of fame. The 1957 novel Wasp has been a finalist for the honor, the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Russell in 2000, its fifth class of two deceased and two living writers. Into Your Tent, a thorough and detailed biography of Russell by John L. Ingham, was published in 2010 by Plantech. Russell also wrote a number of shorter works, many of which have been reprinted in collections such as Deep Space, Six Worlds Yonder, Far Stars, Dark Tides. His short story Allamagoosa, which was essentially a retelling of a traditional tall story called The Shovewood. Russell wrote numerous essays on Fortean themes, some of which were collected in a compendium of Forteana entitled Great World Mysteries. His second non-fiction book was The Rabble Rousers, a look at human folly including the Dreyfus affair
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Wasp (novel)
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Wasp is a 1957 science fiction novel by English author Eric Frank Russell. Terry Pratchett stated that he cant imagine a funnier terrorists handbook, Wasp is generally considered Russells best novel. Set in a time in the future, the plot centres on protagonist James Mowry. The war has been in effect for nearly a year as the story begins, the Terrans, while technologically more advanced in most respects to the Sirians, are outnumbered and out-gunned by a factor of twelve-to-one. The Sirians are a species that share many of the same physical characteristics as their Terran enemies. Some of the noticeable differences are their purple-faced complexions, pinned-back ears. The novel begins by introducing James Mowry as he is being recruited by the Terran government to infiltrate enemy lines, to become a wasp and his recruitment is somewhat less than voluntary, Mowry is offered the alternative of conscription and assignment to the front. His dossier states that he can be counted on to do anything, so persuaded, he accepts the assignment. Notwithstanding the method of persuasion, Mowry is an ideal recruit, after extensive linguistic and cultural training and surgery designed to make him appear to be Sirian, he is sent to the Sirian outpost world of Jaimec to begin his mission. Completing his first objective, Mowry begins the second, sending letters to people of importance informing them of several deaths by his hand. These threats are always signed by a rebel organisation named Dirac Angestun Gesept and often emblazoned by the slogan, War makes wealth for the few. At the right time, Dirac Angestun Gesept will punish the former, bring aid, following this, Mowry moves on to phase three, the hiring of Sirian civilians as contract killers to kill prominent members of the Kaitempi and other government officials. With the Sirians becoming more concerned about the disruption they believe the D. A. G. is causing, the fourth phase involves Mowry planting fake wire tapping devices on several buildings to engender paranoia. He also continues to spread rumours via Sirian civilians to plant other seeds of doubt among the populace and this time, the Terrans strike and the invasion begins. Mowry is captured by a Terran spaceship and is held for a few days before a government man recognises that he is not Sirian, the novel ends with a government man informing Mowry that a wasp on another world has been captured, and that he is the replacement. The novel portrays the Sirian Empires censorship, suppression, and police state as folly, Wasp frequently employs wry, black humour when dealing with these ideas and themes. Terry Pratchett talks of the nature in Russells storytelling, that Wasp is a funn terrorists handbook. Purpose of organization, Destruction of present government and termination of war against Terra, customary meeting place, Wherever Kaitempi cant find us
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New International Version
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The New International Version is an English translation of the Protestant Bible. Biblica is the publisher and copyright holder of the NIV. Originally published in the 1970s, the NIV was updated in 1984 and 2011, a 2014 survey of Americans who read the Bible found that 19% use it. The NIV began in 1956 with the formation of a committee to study the value of producing a translation in the common language of the American people. Wenger, Stephen W. Paine, and Marten Woudstra, the New York Bible Society was selected to do the translation. The New Testament was released in 1973 and the full Bible in 1978, the English version underwent a minor revision in 1984. In 1990 the committee on Bible translation headed by Drs, a planned 1997 English edition was discontinued over inclusive language. An easy-reader version, New International Readers Version, was published in 1996, a revised English edition titled Todays New International Version released a New Testament in March 2002, with the complete Bible published February 2005. In 2011, a version was released. The update modified and dropped some of the language of the TNIV. Translational issues with Pauls letters were also addressed, the manuscript base for the Old Testament was the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Masoretic Hebrew Text. The manuscript base for the New Testament was the Koine Greek language editions of the United Bible Societies, the deuterocanonical books are not included in the translation. The core translation group consisted of fifteen Biblical scholars using Hebrew, Aramaic, the translation took ten years and involved a team of over 100 scholars. From the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the range of those participating included many different denominations such as Anglicans, Assemblies of God, Baptist, Christian Reformed, Lutheran and Presbyterian. The NIV is a balance between word-for-word and thought-for-thought or literal and phrase by phrase translations, recent archaeological and linguistic discoveries helped in understanding passages that have traditionally been difficult to translate. Familiar spellings of traditional translations were generally retained, in Genesis 2,19 a translation such as the NRSV uses formed in a plain past tense So out of the ground the LORD God formed every animal. But the NIV imposes a questionable pluperfect Now the LORD God had formed out of the all the wild animals. To try to make it appear that the animals had already been created, theologian John Sailhamer states Not only is such a translation
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Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
44.
Deuteronomy
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The Book of Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Torah and the Christian Old Testament. The Hebrew title is taken from the opening phrase Eleh ha-devarim, the English title is from a Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew phrase mishneh haTorah hazoth, a copy of this law, in Deuteronomy 17,18, as to deuteronomion touto – this second law. The book consists of three sermons or speeches delivered to the Israelites by Moses on the plains of Moab, shortly before they enter the Promised Land. Many scholars see the book as reflecting the needs and social status of the Levite caste. One of its most significant verses is Deuteronomy 6,4, the Shema Yisrael, which has become the definitive statement of Jewish identity, Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one. Verses 6, 4–5 were also quoted by Jesus in Mark 12, Patrick D. Miller in his commentary on Deuteronomy suggests that different views of the structure of the book will lead to different views on what it is about. Chapters 1–4, The journey through the wilderness from Horeb to Kadesh, chapters 4–11, After a second introduction at 4, 44–49 the events at Mount Horeb are recalled, with the giving of the Ten Commandments. Chapters 12–26, the Deuteronomic code, Laws governing Israels worship, the appointment and regulation of community and religious leaders, social regulation, chapters 27–28, Blessings and curses for those who keep and break the law. Chapters 29–30, Concluding discourse on the covenant in the land of Moab, including all the laws in the Deuteronomic code after those given at Horeb, Israel is again exhorted to obedience. Chapters 31–34, Joshua is installed as Mosess successor, Moses delivers the law to the Levites, and ascends Mount Nebo or Pisgah, the narrative of these events is interrupted by two poems, the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses. Deuteronomy 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code, is its oldest part of the book and it is a series of mitzvot to the Israelites regarding how they ought to conduct themselves in Canaan, the land promised by Yahweh, God of Israel. The following list organizes most of the laws into thematic groups, The worship of Canaanite gods is forbidden, native mourning practices such as deliberate disfigurement are forbidden. The worship at Asherah groves and setting up of ritual pillars are forbidden, all sacrifices are to be brought and vows are to be made at a central sanctuary. Sacrificed animals must be without blemish, first-born male livestock must be sacrificed. The procedure for tithing produce or donating its equivalent is given, the Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot are instituted. A catalog of which animals are permitted and which forbidden for consumption is given, the consumption of animals which are found dead and have not been slaughtered is prohibited. Judges are to be appointed in every city, judges are to be impartial and bribery is forbidden. Should the Israelites choose to be ruled by a King, regulations for the office are given, Regulations of the rights, and revenue, of the Levites are given
45.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
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Romeo and Juliet
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Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeares most popular plays during his lifetime and along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays, today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. The plot is based on an Italian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562, Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both but expanded the plot by developing a number of supporting characters, particularly Mercutio and Paris. Believed to have written between 1591 and 1595, the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597. The text of the first quarto version was of quality, however. Shakespeares use of his dramatic structure has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the character develops, Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet over the course of the play. Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times for stage, film, musical, during the English Restoration, it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant. David Garricks 18th-century version also modified several scenes, removing material then considered indecent, Performances in the 19th century, including Charlotte Cushmans, restored the original text and focused on greater realism. John Gielguds 1935 version kept very close to Shakespeares text and used Elizabethan costumes, the play, set in Verona, Italy, begins with a street brawl between Montague and Capulet servants who, like their masters, are sworn enemies. Prince Escalus of Verona intervenes and declares that further breach of the peace will be punishable by death, later, Count Paris talks to Capulet about marrying his daughter Juliet, but Capulet asks Paris to wait another two years and invites him to attend a planned Capulet ball. Lady Capulet and Juliets nurse try to persuade Juliet to accept Pariss courtship, meanwhile, Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo, Montagues son, about Romeos recent depression. Benvolio discovers that it stems from unrequited infatuation for a girl named Rosaline, one of Capulets nieces, persuaded by Benvolio and Mercutio, Romeo attends the ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline. However, Romeo instead meets and falls in love with Juliet, Juliets cousin, Tybalt, is enraged at Romeo for sneaking into the ball but is only stopped from killing Romeo by Juliets father, who does not wish to shed blood in his house. Romeo makes himself known to her and they agree to be married, with the help of Friar Laurence, who hopes to reconcile the two families through their childrens union, they are secretly married the next day. Tybalt, meanwhile, still incensed that Romeo had sneaked into the Capulet ball, Romeo, now considering Tybalt his kinsman, refuses to fight. Mercutio is offended by Tybalts insolence, as well as Romeos vile submission, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo attempts to break up the fight
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