1.
Tramway (industrial)
–
Tramways are lightly laid railways, sometimes worked without locomotives. In New Zealand, they are known as bush tramways, while in parts of Australia where American experts were influential. They generally do not carry passengers, although staff may use of them. Tramways can take many forms, sometimes just tracks temporarily laid on the ground to move materials around a factory, many, if not most, are narrow gauge railway technologies. At the other extreme they could be complex and lengthy systems, such as the Lee Moor Tramway in the county of Devonshire, England, motive power can be manual, animal, cable hauled by stationary engine, or utilize small locomotives. The term was applied to wagons running on primitive tracks in early England. The name seems to date from around 1517 and to be derived from an English dialect word for the shaft of a turn from Low German traam, literally. The tracks themselves were known as gangways, dating from before the 12th century. In south Wales and Somerset the term dramway is also used, the alternative term is Wagonway which originally consisted of horses, equipment and tracks which were used for hauling wagons. Usually the wheels would be guided along grooves, in time, to combat wear, the timber would be reinforced with an iron strip covering. This developed to use L-shaped steel plates, the track then being known as a plateway, the origin of the word railway is uncertain, but Benjamin Outram was referring to his lines as railways in the early 19th century. The fact that many of these lines were built for horse-drawn vehicles, an alternative appeared, the so-called edge-rail where the wagons were guided by having the wheels flanged instead of running in grooves. Since these rails were raised above the ground they were likely to be blocked by debris. They were, however, the forerunners of the modern railway and these early lines were built to transport minerals from quarries and mines to canal wharves. Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom the term became the term for passenger vehicles that ran on tracks in the public highway. Initially horse-drawn, they developed to use power from an overhead line. A development of the tramway in the United Kingdom dispensed with tracks, in 2000 the CarGoTram began operating as a cargo tram for the Volkswagen factory in Dresden. In Australia, most tramways were in practice heavy railways, or equivalent to British light railways and these include, Kerang–Koondrook Tramway, a 5 ft 3 in gauge private railway which junctioned with the Victorian Railways at Kerang
2.
Minecart
–
The minecart or mine cart is a type of rolling stock found on a mine railway, used for moving ore and materials procured in the process of traditional mining. Shaped like large, rectangular buckets, minecarts ride on metal tracks and were pushed or pulled by men. These were also used to pull trains transporting miners to the workfaces, minecarts range in size and usage, and are usually made of steel for hauling ore. Throughout the world, there are different titles for such carts, in South Africa, for instance, a minecart is referred to as a cocopan. In Great Britain, restored mine carts containing floral displays can commonly be seen on village greens and outside pubs in former mining areas such as Northumberland. Mine carts were an important source of transportation of ore. In Wales, UK, minecarts are known as drams, in the U. S. and elsewhere the term skip is used. Minecarts were very important in the history of technology because they evolved into railroad cars, minecarts have been depicted as a type of thrill ride, for instance Indiana Jones uses one in an escape scene. A minecart is also featured in Hoodwinked, minecarts and tracks can be crafted by the player in Minecraft and used for transportation. They are also found in abandoned mineshafts that generate naturally as a part of the procedural generation. Mine car Corf Media related to Mining carts at Wikimedia Commons
3.
Benjamin Outram
–
Benjamin Outram was an English civil engineer, surveyor and industrialist. He was a pioneer in the building of canals and tramways, in 1803 he had a son, James Outram, who became a general in the Indian Army and was later knighted. He died of a fever while visiting London in 1805. After his death, and some litigation, in 1807 Benjamin Outram. After his death, his wife Margaret, daughter of James Anderson, wrote that Outram was hasty in his temper, accustomed to command, he had little toleration for stupidity and slowness, and none for meanness or littleness of any kind. In spite of his prowess, Outrams wife and family were for a while reduced to poverty after his death until his liabilities could be settled through the courts. She died in Edinburgh and is buried in St Johns churchyard in one of the lower terraces, Joseph Outram was a promoter of the Cromford Canal, and when William Jessop was approached to design and build it he found an able assistant in 24-year-old Benjamin. Construction of the canal, particularly Butterley Tunnel, revealed substantial mineral deposits, the neighbouring Butterley Hall and its 200-acre estate came on the market at this time and Francis Beresford, solicitor to the canal company, bought the freehold of the hall and its estate. He leased it on a moiety to Outram until the latter had acquired enough capital for a fifty percent holding and this was the beginning of the ironworks, Benjamin Outram & Company which began trading in 1790. The following year William Jessop and John Wright, a Nottingham banker, starting with a nominal capital of £6000, Outram was the only partner active in the management of the company, assisted by his younger brother, Joseph. Over time the business expanded to include a limestone quarry, limekilns, collieries, Outram became a leading advocate in the construction of tramways using L-section rails, which along with the wagons were manufactured at his Butterley Ironworks. His first tramway was a slightly over 1 mile in length, built to carry limestone from quarries at Crich to Bullbridge Wharf on the Cromford Canal. In 1792 he became engineer for the Nottingham Canal and in 1793 the Derby Canal, one of his major works was the 44 feet long single-span Holmes Aqueduct on the Derby Canal, which opened in February 1796 and was one of the first cast-iron aqueducts. It was cast by Benjamin Outram & Company and predated Thomas Telfords longer aqueduct on the Shrewsbury Canal at Longdon-on-Tern by one month and it proved troublesome and needed substantial remedial work in 1802,1812 and 1930, eventually being demolished in 1971. An important extension to the Derby Canal was the Little Eaton Gangway, such tramways became an important part of his later canals. A common misconception is that the word comes from Outrams surname. Outram always referred to tramways as railways, Outram was the consulting engineer for the construction of the Huddersfield Narrow Canal, which included the pioneering Standedge Canal Tunnel. In 1794 he was the engineer for the Peak Forest Canal, the climb from Bugsworth was negotiated by the 6 miles Peak Forest Tramway
4.
Little Eaton Gangway
–
The Little Eaton Gangway, or, to give it its official title, the Derby Canal Railway, was a narrow gauge industrial wagonway serving the Derby Canal, in England, at Little Eaton in Derbyshire. The original report has been lost in time only a dated and signed map drawing surviving in Derbyshire Records Office. William Jessop on 3 November 1792 confirmed Outrams proposals, the Derby Canal Act of 1793 authorized a rail connection between the Derby Canal at Little Eaton and the collieries to the north. The wagonway ran four miles from the wharf to Smithy Houses. Further short branches served Salterwood North and Henmoor Collieries as well as the Denby Pottery, the purpose of this 5-mile long plateway was to carry coal from Kilburn and Denby down to the canal at Little Eaton and general goods including stone, pottery and clogs of wood. Outrams original plan was for a conventional waggonway with wooden sleepers, accordingly, an advertisement appeared in the Lincoln & Stamford Mercury for 16 August 1793 for oak sleepers 4 feet 6 inches long squared at each end for a length of 9 inches. However, by the time the railway was approved, Outram had decided to use the rails with which his name has become associated. In this he may have greatly influenced by William Jessop and also by Joseph Butler of Wingerworth near Chesterfield. Butler is believed to have been the first to do so in Derbyshire and supplied the rails, Outram considered himself the first to use stone blocks as sleepers. These were drilled with a hole into which an oak plug was fitted. The rails of cast iron were usually three feet long and of L-shaped cross-section, were attached by means of spikes into a notch at the end of the rail, the line was originally 3 ft 6 in gauge, being increased later to 4 ft at an unknown date. The cast iron used to build the track initially weighed 28 lb per yard although this was increased to 40 lb per yard for plates made after 1804. By 1825, there were nine passing places on the single-track line, each waggon carried a box of coal, with a load of between 1.65 and 1.87 tons, which was transferred to a barge at Little Eaton wharf by a crane. From Smithy Houses, several private lines served the Denby Main colliery, the waggons, built at Outrams Butterley works consisted of containers mounted loosely on a chassis, or tram, with four cast iron wheels. The container would be lifted off at Little Eaton and loaded complete into narrowboats or transferred to two-wheeled carts for carriage by road, the first load of coal from Denby was distributed to the poor of Derby. When the Midland Railway built its line to Ripley in 1856, it lost most of its trade. The trackbed was used for a new road, the A61 and this, in turn, was superseded at the end of the twentieth century by the A38 trunk road, demoting it to the B6179. Thus there are three generations of highway side-by-side, plus the remains of the railway, a wagon from this period of the gangways history was preserved in the National Mining Museum at Lound Hall, Bothamsall and is now in the National Railway Museum
5.
Plateway
–
A plateway is an early kind of railway or tramway or wagonway, with a cast iron rail. They were mainly used for about 50 years up to 1830, plateways consisted of L shaped rails where a flange on the rail guided the wheels in contrast to edgeways, where flanges on the wheels guide it along the track. Plateways were originally horsedrawn, but cable haulage and locomotives were used later on. The plates of the plateway were made of cast iron, often cast by the ironworks that were their users, plateways were particularly favoured in South Wales and the Forest of Dean, in some cases replacing existing edge rails. The plates of a plateway generally rested on stone blocks or sleepers, which served to spread the load over the ground, the plates were usually made from cast iron and had differing cross sections depending on the manufacturer. They were often short, typically about 3 feet long. The L section tramroad plate was introduced for use by John Curr of Sheffield Park Colliery in about 1787. Joseph Butler of Wingerworth near Chesterfield, constructed a line using similarly flanged plates in 1788, a leading advocate of plate rails was Benjamin Outram whose first line was from quarries at Crich to Bullbridge Wharf on the Cromford Canal. The early plates were prone to break so different cross sections were employed, however, after he became a partner in Benjamin Outram and Company he designed the Surrey Iron Railway and the Kilmarnock and Troon Railways as plateways. Plateways tended to get obstructed by stones and grit leading to wear. Edgeways avoid the stone obstruction problem, stone blocks had an advantage over timber sleepers in that they left the middle of the track unhindered for the hooves of horses. Even older than plateways were wagonways which used wooden rails, despite its ancient appearance, the Haytor Granite Tramway, the track with ledges cut in stone blocks to produce a similar effect as tram plates, was contemporary with plateways, being built in 1820. The early plateways were usually operated on a basis, with any rolling stock owner able to operate their wagons on the tracks. Sometimes the plateway company was forbidden to operate its own wagons, some plateways such as the Gloucester and Cheltenham Railway were single track with passing loops at frequent intervals. The single track sections were arranged so that drivers could see from one loop to the next. However others such as the Surrey Iron Railway, the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway the Monmouthshire Canal Companys tramroads and the Severn and Wye Railway were wholly or partly double track
6.
Diolkos
–
The Diolkos was a paved trackway near Corinth in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth. The shortcut allowed ancient vessels to avoid the long and dangerous circumnavigation of the Peloponnese peninsula, the phrase as fast as a Corinthian, penned by the comic playwright Aristophanes, indicates that the trackway was common knowledge and had acquired a reputation for swiftness. The main function of the Diolkos was the transfer of goods, the 6 km to 8.5 km long roadway was a rudimentary form of railway, and operated from c.600 BC until the middle of the 1st century AD. The scale on which the Diolkos combined the two principles of the railway and the transport of ships remained unique in antiquity. By contrast, both the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf were relatively sheltered waters. In addition, the passage of the Isthmus, a neck of land 6.4 km wide at its narrowest, offered a much shorter route to Athens for ships sailing to. Ancient literature is silent on the date of the construction of the Diolkos, for Thucydides the Diolkos already seemed to be something ancient. The Diolkos remained reportedly in regular service until at least the middle of the 1st century AD, possibly the trackway was put out of use by Neros abortive canal works in 67 AD. Much later transports of warships across the Isthmus in the late 9th century, the Diolkos played an important role in ancient naval warfare. Greek historians note several occasions from the 5th to the 1st century BC when warships were hauled across the Isthmus in order to speed up naval campaigning. In 220 BC, Demetrius of Pharos had a fleet of fifty vessels dragged across the Isthmus to the Bay of Corinth by his men. Three years later, a Macedonian fleet of 38 vessels was sent across by Philip V, after his victory at Actium in 31 BC, Octavian advanced as fast as possible against Marc Antony by ordering part of his 260 Liburnians to be carried over the Isthmus. Comments by Pliny the Elder and Strabo, which described the Diolkos as being in service during times of peace. The Diolkos ran across the narrowest part of the Isthmus, where the trackway followed the topography in a curved course in order to avoid steeper gradients. The roadway passed the Isthmus ridge at c.79 m height with a gradient of 1,70. Its total length is estimated at 6–7 km,8 km or 8.5 km depending on the number of supposed bends taken into account, a total of 1,100 m has been archaeologically traced, mainly at its western end close to the Bay of Corinth. From there on, the Diolkos either followed in a line the course of the modern canal. The roadway ended at the Saronic Gulf at the village Schoinos, modern-day Kalamaki, sections of the Diolkos have been destroyed by the 19th-century Corinth Canal and other modern installations
7.
Isthmus of Corinth
–
The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow land bridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the rest of the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth. The word isthmus comes from the Ancient Greek word for neck, the Isthmus was known in the ancient world as the landmark separating the Peloponnese from mainland Greece. In the first century CE the geographer Strabo noted a stele on the Isthmus of Corinth, to the west of the Isthmus is the Gulf of Corinth, to the east the Saronic Gulf. Since 1893 the Corinth Canal has run through the 6.3 km wide isthmus, today, two road bridges, two railway bridges and two submersible bridges at both ends of the canal connect the mainland side of the isthmus with the Peloponnese side. Also a military emergency bridge is located at the west end of the canal, the idea for a shortcut to save boats sailing all round the Peloponnese was long considered by the Ancient Greeks. The first attempt to build a canal there was carried out by the tyrant Periander in the 7th century BC and he abandoned the project owing to technical difficulties, and instead constructed a simpler and less costly overland stone ramp, named Diolkos, as a portage road. Remnants of Diolkos still exist today next to the modern canal, when the Romans took control of Greece, a number of different solutions were tried. Julius Caesar foresaw the advantages of a link for his newly built Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis, by the reign of Tiberius, engineers tried to dig a canal, but were defeated by lack of modern equipment. Instead they built an Ancient Egyptian device, boats were rolled across the isthmus on logs and this was in use by AD32. In AD67, the philhellene Roman emperor Nero ordered 6,000 slaves to dig a canal with spades, historian Flavius Josephus writes that the 6000 slaves were Jewish pirates, taken captive by Vespasian during the Jewish wars. According to Pliny the Elder, the work advanced four stadia, the following year Nero died, and his successor Galba abandoned the project as being too expensive. In the modern era, the idea was first seriously proposed in 1830, soon after Greeces independence from the Ottoman Empire, near the canal runs an ancient stone trackway, the Diolkos, once used for dragging ships overland. There are major concerns about preservation of this path, Greek campaigners are calling for greater effort by the Greek government to protect this archaeological site. The Hexamilion wall is a Roman defensive wall constructed across the Isthmus of Corinth guarding the land route into the Peloponnese peninsula from mainland Greece
8.
Greece
–
Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
9.
Limestone
–
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
10.
Egypt (Roman province)
–
The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai Peninsula. Aegyptus was bordered by the provinces of Creta et Cyrenaica to the West, the province came to serve as a major producer of grain for the empire and had a highly developed urban economy. Aegyptus was by far the wealthiest Eastern Roman province, in Alexandria, its capital, it possessed the largest port, and the second largest city, of the Roman Empire. As a province, Egypt was ruled by a uniquely styled Augustal prefect, the prefect was a man of equestrian rank and was appointed by the Emperor. The second prefect, Aelius Gallus, made an expedition to conquer Arabia Petraea. The Red Sea coast of Aegyptus was not brought under Roman control until the reign of Claudius, the third prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture. Petronius even led a campaign into present-day central Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe, failing to acquire permanent gains, in 22 BC he razed the city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north. From the reign of Nero onward, Aegyptus enjoyed an era of prosperity which lasted a century, under Trajan a Jewish revolt occurred, resulting in the suppression of the Jews of Alexandria and the loss of all their privileges, although they soon returned. Hadrian, who twice visited Aegyptus, founded Antinoöpolis in memory of his drowned lover Antinous, from his reign onward buildings in the Greco-Roman style were erected throughout the country. Under Antoninus Pius oppressive taxation led to a revolt in 139, of the native Egyptians and this Bucolic War, led by one Isidorus, caused great damage to the economy and marked the beginning of Egypts economic decline. Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war, declared emperor in 175. On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, Cassius was deposed and killed, a similar revolt broke out in 193, when Pescennius Niger was proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax. The Emperor Septimius Severus gave a constitution to Alexandria and the capitals in 202. There was a series of revolts, both military and civilian, through the 3rd century, under Decius, in 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution, but their religion continued to spread. This warrior queen claimed that Egypt was a home of hers through a familial tie to Cleopatra VII. She was well educated and familiar with the culture of Egypt, its religion, two generals based in Aegyptus, Probus and Domitius Domitianus, led successful revolts and made themselves emperors. Diocletian captured Alexandria from Domitius in 298 and reorganised the whole province and his edict of 303 against the Christians began a new era of persecution. This was the last serious attempt to stem the growth of Christianity in Egypt
11.
De re metallica
–
De re metallica is a book cataloguing the state of the art of mining, refining, and smelting metals, published a year posthumously in 1556 due to a delay in preparing woodcuts for the text. The author was Georg Bauer, whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola, the book remained the authoritative text on mining for 180 years after its publication. It was also an important chemistry text for the period and is significant in the history of chemistry, mining was typically left to professionals, craftsmen and experts who were not eager to share their knowledge. Much experiential knowledge had been accumulated over the course of time and this knowledge was consecutively handed down orally within a small group of technicians and mining overseers. In the Middle Ages these people held the leading role as the master builders of the great cathedrals. It was a small, cosmopolitan elite within which existing knowledge was passed on and further developed, only a few writers from that time wrote anything about mining itself. Partly, that was because this knowledge was very difficult to access, most writers also found it simply not worth the effort to write about it. Only in the Renaissance did this begin to change. With the improved transport and the invention of the printing press knowledge spread much more easily, in 1500, the first printed book dedicated to mining engineering, called the “Nutzlich Bergbuchleyn” by Ulrich Rulein von Calw, was published. The most important works in this genre were, however, the twelve books De Re Metallica by Georgius Agricola, Agricola had spent nine years in the Bohemian town of Joachimsthal, now in the Czech Republic. After Joachimsthal, he spent the rest of his life in Chemnitz, both Joachimsthal and Chemnitz are in the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains. The book was influential, and for more than a century after it was published. The German mining technology it portrayed was acknowledged as the most advanced at the time, the book was reprinted in a number of Latin editions, as well as in German and Italian translations. Publication in Latin meant that it could be read by any educated European of the time, the numerous woodcuts and detailed descriptions of machinery made it a practical reference for those wishing to replicate the latest in mining technology. In 1912, the first English translation of De Re Metallica was privately published in London by subscription, the translators were Herbert Hoover, a mining engineer, and his wife, Lou Henry Hoover, a geologist and Latinist. The translation is not only for its clarity of language, but for the extensive footnotes. The most important translation—outside English—was the one published by the Deutsches Museum in Munich The book consists of a preface and twelve chapters, labelled books I to XII and it also has numerous woodcuts that provide annotated diagrams illustrating equipment and processes described in the text. Agricola addresses the book to prominent German aristocrats, the most important of whom were Maurice, Elector of Saxony and his brother Augustus and he then describes the works of ancient and contemporary writers on mining and metallurgy, the chief ancient source being Pliny the Elder
12.
Georgius Agricola
–
Georgius Agricola was a German Catholic, scholar and scientist. Known as the father of mineralogy, he was born at Glauchau in Saxony and his birth name was Georg Pawer, Agricola is the Latinized version of his name, by which he was known his entire adult life, Agricola and Bauer mean farmer in their respective languages. He is best known for his book De Re Metallica, here, he also devoted himself to the study of medicine, physics, and chemistry. After the death of Mosellanus, he went to Italy from 1524 to 1526, in 1530, Prince Maurice of Saxony appointed him historiographer with an annual allowance, and he migrated to Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town physician in 1533, in that year, he published a book about Greek and Roman weights and measures, De Mensuis et Ponderibus. He was also elected burgomaster of Chemnitz, Chemnitz was a violent centre of the Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church, he was forced to resign his office. He now lived apart from the movements of the time. In 1544, he published the De ortu et causis subterraneorum, in which he laid the first foundations of a physical geology, the delay is thought to be due to the books many woodcuts. The work is a systematic, illustrated treatise on mining and extractive metallurgy and it shows processes to extract ores from the ground, and metals from ore. Until that time, Pliny the Elders work Historia Naturalis was the source of information on metals. Agricola acknowledged his debt to ancient authors, such as Pliny and Theophrastus, in geology, Agricola described and illustrated how ore veins occur in and on the ground. He described prospecting for ore veins and surveying in detail, as well as washing the ores to collect the valuable minerals, such as gold. The work shows water mills used in mining, such as the machine for lifting men and material into, Agricola described mining methods which are now obsolete, such as fire-setting, which involved building fires against hard rock faces. The hot rock was quenched with water, and the thermal shock weakened it enough for easy removal and it was a dangerous method when used in underground, made redundant by explosives. The work contains, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the terms used in the Latin text. Modern words that derive from the work include fluorspar and bismuth, in another example, believing the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen to be the same as Pliny the Elders basalt, Agricola applied this name to it, and thus originated a petrological term. In 1912, the Mining Magazine published an English translation of De re metallica, the translation was made by Herbert Hoover, the American mining engineer and his wife Lou Henry Hoover. Hoover was later President of the United States, in spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end his days in peace
13.
Transylvania
–
Transylvania is a historical region located in what is today the central part of Romania. Bound on the east and south by its borders, the Carpathian mountain range. The term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the regions of Crișana, Maramureș. The region of Transylvania is known for the beauty of its Carpathian landscape. It also contains major cities such as Cluj-Napoca, Brașov, Sibiu, in the English-speaking world it has been commonly associated with vampires, due to the influence of Bram Stokers famous novel Dracula and its many film adaptations. Transylvania was first referred to in a Medieval Latin document in 1075 as ultra silvam, Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means on the other side of the woods. Hungarian historians claim that the Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania, later Transylvania, was a translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve. That also was used as an name in German überwald. The German name Siebenbürgen means seven fortresses, after the seven Transylvanian Saxons cities in the region and this is also the origin of the regions name in many other languages, such as the Bulgarian Седмиградско, Polish Siedmiogród and the Ukrainian Семигород. The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the 12th-century Gesta Hungarorum as Erdeuleu or Erdő-elve, the word Erdő means forest in Hungarian, and the word Elve denotes a region in connection with this, similarly to the Hungarian name for Muntenia. Erdel, Erdil, Erdehstan, the Turkish equivalents, or the Romanian Ardeal were borrowed from this form as well, the first known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as Ardeliu. Transylvania has been dominated by different peoples and countries throughout its history. It was once the nucleus of the Kingdom of Dacia, in 106 AD the Roman Empire conquered the territory, systematically exploiting its resources. After the Roman legions withdrew in 271 AD, it was overrun by a succession of tribes, bringing it under the control of the Carpi, Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars. From 9th to 11th century Bulgarians ruled Transylvania, there is an ongoing scholarly debate over the ethnicity of Transylvanias population before the Hungarian conquest. The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century, according to Gesta Hungarorum, Transylvania was ruled by the Vlach voivode Gelou before the Hungarians arrived. The Kingdom of Hungary established a control over Transylvania in 1003. Between 1003 and 1526, Transylvania was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary, after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of János Szapolyai
14.
Germans
–
Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
15.
Mining
–
Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
16.
Keswick, Cumbria
–
Keswick is an English market town and civil parish, historically in Cumberland, and since 1974 in the Borough of Allerdale in Cumbria. The town, in the Lake District National Park, just north of Derwentwater, among the towns annual events is the Keswick Convention, an Evangelical gathering attracting visitors from many countries. Keswick became widely known for its association with the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge, together with their fellow Lake Poet William Wordsworth, based at Grasmere,12 miles away, they made the scenic beauty of the area widely known to readers in Britain and beyond. The town is first recorded in Edward Is charter of the 13th century, among the later scholars supporting the cheese farm toponymy are Eilert Ekwall and A D Mills, and Diana Whaley, for the English Place-Name Society. Evidence of prehistoric occupation in the area includes the Castlerigg stone circle on the fringe of the town. Neolithic-era stone tools were unearthed inside the circle and in the centre of Keswick during the 19th century, the antiquary W G Collingwood, commenting in 1925 about finds in the area, wrote that they showed Stone Age man was fairly at home in the Lake District. In Roman Britain Cumbria was the territory of the Carvetii, as the site of the western part of Hadrians Wall, it was of strategic importance. Such nearby settlements as can be traced from the era of the Romans, many local place names from the period, including that of the River Derwent, are Celtic, some closely related to Welsh equivalents. The former, the pupil and friend of St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne, lived as a hermit on an island in Derwentwater, now named after him. Kentigern, who lived and preached in the area before moving to Wales, is held to have founded Crosthwaite Church. Keswicks recorded history starts in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria in the seventh century, but Northumbria was destroyed by the Vikings in the late ninth. In the early tenth century the British Kingdom of Strathclyde seized the area, and it remained part of Strathclyde until about 1050, when Siward, Earl of Northumbria, conquered Cumbria. In 1181 Jocelyn of Furness wrote of a new church at Crosthwaite, Keswick, founded by Alice de Romilly, the Lady of Allerdale, in 1189, Richard I granted the rectory of Crosthwaite to the Cistercian order of Fountains Abbey. During the 13th century, agricultural land around the town was acquired by Fountains, the latter, already prosperous from the wool trade, wished to expand its sheep farming, and in 1208 bought large tracts of land from Alice de Romilly. She also negotiated with Fountains Abbey, to which she sold Derwent Island in Derwentwater, land at Watendlath, Keswick was at the hub of the monastic farms in the area, and Fountains based a steward in the town, where tenants paid their rents. Furness also enjoyed profitable rights to the extraction of iron ore, Keswick was granted a charter for a market in 1276 by Edward I. This market has a history lasting for more than 700 years. According to local tradition these stout walls and the entrances to the yards were for defence against marauding Scots
17.
Wollaton Wagonway
–
Nevertheless, its primacy has been recently questioned, it being suggested that a wagonway at Broseley in Shropshire was earlier, though not referred to until slightly later. The wagonway was the earliest form of railway and it ran for approximately two miles from Strelley to Wollaton to assist the haulage of coal. Earlier waggonways may have built, but the Wollaton Wagonway is the earliest surface-level waggonway on record anywhere in the world. The above is from Sir Percival Willoughbys agreement with Huntingdon Beaumont dated 1 October 1604, Sir Percival was Lord of the Manor of Wollaton and Huntingdon Beaumont was the lessee of the Strelley coal pits. They worked the Strelley mines in an equal partnership, comparatively little is known of the wagonway. It cost £172, and ended at Wollaton Lane End, from where most of the coal was taken onwards by road to Trent Bridge, the wagons or carriages were drawn by horses on wooden rails. The Strelley mines were worked only until about 1620, by which time all readily recoverable coal had probably been mined, the wagonway was presumably then abandoned. The success of the Wollaton Wagonway led to Huntingdon Beaumont building other wagonways for his other mining leases near Blyth in Northumberland, a continuous evolution of railways can be traced back to the Wollaton Wagonway. Diolkos Notes Sources Smith, R. S. Huntingdon Beaumont Adventurer in Coal Mines, Renaissance and Modern Studies, Smith, R. S. Englands First Rails, A reconsideration, Renaissance and Modern Studies, IV,119 to 134. Lewis, M J T, Early Wooden Railways, Routledge Keegan Paul, London, Early Coal Mining Around Nottingham 1500 -1650, University of Nottingham. New, J. R.400 years of English railways - Huntingdon Beaumont, new, J. R. Wollaton or Broseley. The gap narrows, in Gwyn, Dr. D, Early Railways 5, Six Martlets Publishing, Sudbury, UK, pp. 1–11 Lewis, M. J. T. Reflections on 1604, in Bailey, M. R, Early Railways 3, Six Martlets Publishing, Sudbury, UK, pp. 8–22 Ashworth, W. The History of the British coal industry, Oxford University Press, p.168 Waggonway Research Circle, the World’s First Overland Railway, August 2005
18.
Coal
–
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
19.
Wollaton
–
Wollaton is a suburb and former parish in the western part of Nottingham, England. Wollaton has two Wards in the City of Nottingham with a population as at the 2011 census of 24,693. It is home to Wollaton Hall with its museum, deer park, lake, walks and it also features historic cottages, an Elizabethan dovecote and a water pump. The village was incorporated into the City of Nottingham in 1933, most areas of the former parish were built-up by the end of the 1960s. Wollaton proper is situated in the City of Nottingham, although a small part of the Broxtowe borough may be referred to as Wollaton by local people. The current city ward boundaries divide Wollaton into Wollaton West, and it is considered one of the most desirable parts of the city in which to live, with relatively high house prices. This is largely due to the good quality schools, traditional houses and good access to the M1 via the A52 to the South. As a tribute to two of Nottinghams favourite sporting stars, Wollaton is home to the Torvill and Dean estate, on the site of Wollaton Colliery. Road names include Torvill Drive, Jayne Close, Bolero Close, most of the businesses are local family-run shops, although recently both small co-op and Sainburys stores have opened. Also in Wollaton are a cluster of shops at the Crown Island which includes a post office, florist. The largest supermarket in Wollaton is Waitrose, which is on Trowell Road, West to east it stretches from Trowell Moor and Balloon Woods on the west, across to Sutton Passeys Cresent and the former gatehouse to Wollaton Park, Lenton Lodge on Derby Road in the east. The local Middleton Primary and Nursery School along with Fernwood Juniors, Fernwood Infants and The Fernwood School are some of the best performing schools within Nottingham City, the three Fernwood schools are the a family of academies all within close proximity. The nearest sixth form college for education is Bilborough College in Bilborough. Also in and around Wollaton are Southwold Primary School and Firbeck Academy, the edge of Wollaton is also home to the Martins Pond Local Nature Reserve which is jointly maintained by Nottingham City Council and Nottinghamshire Wildlife Trust. The lake is maintained by Wollaton Piscatorial Club which provides a haven for plant and animal life, the park also hosts the citys annual War Veterans Memorial Weekend, being one of the largest memorial events outside London and including fly-overs by wartime aircraft. Also, the park hosts other annual events such as cross-county running championships, dog shows, steam shows. The Park is also where the sledgers of Nottingham descend whenever there is snowfall, Wollaton is also noted for the existence of one of the earliest recorded railway lines in the world, the Wollaton Wagonway. The wagonway ran between nearby Strelley and Wollaton, horse-drawn coal wagons travelled to their destination on wooden railway lines
20.
Nottingham
–
Nottingham is a city and unitary authority area in Nottinghamshire, England, located 128 miles north of London, in the East Midlands. Nottingham has links to the legend of Robin Hood and to the lace-making, bicycle and it was granted its city charter in 1897 as part of Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee celebrations. Nottingham is a tourist destination, in 2011, visitors spent over £1.5 billion - the thirteenth highest amount in Englands 111 statistical territories. In 2015, Nottingham had an population of 321,550 with the wider urban area. Its urban area is the largest in the east Midlands and the second largest in the Midlands, the population of the Nottingham/Derby metropolitan area is estimated to be 1,610,000. Its metropolitan economy is the seventh largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $50. 9bn, the city is also ranked as a sufficiency-level world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. It is also a sporting centre, and in October 2015 was named Home of English Sport. The city also has rugby, ice hockey and cricket teams, and the Aegon Nottingham Open. This accolade came just over a year after Nottingham was named as the UKs first City of Football, on 11 December 2015, Nottingham was named a Unesco City of Literature, joining Norwich, Melbourne, Prague and Barcelona as one of only a handful in the world. The title reflects Nottinghams literary heritage, with Lord Byron, DH Lawrence and it has two universities, the University of Nottingham and Nottingham Trent University, which are attended by over 70,610 students. In modern Welsh it is known poetically as Y Ty Ogofog, when it fell under the rule of a Saxon chieftain named Snot it became known as Snotingaham, the homestead of Snots people. Some authors derive Nottingham from Snottenga, caves, and ham, Nottingham Castle was constructed in 1068 on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen. Following the Norman Conquest the Saxon settlement developed into the English Borough of Nottingham and housed a Town Hall, a settlement also developed around the castle on the hill opposite and was the French borough supporting the Normans in the castle. Eventually, the space between was built on as the town grew and the Old Market Square became the focus of Nottingham several centuries later, defences, consisted initially of a ditch and bank in the early 12th century. The ditch was later widened, in the mid 13th century, a short length of the wall survives, and is visible at the northern end of Maid Marian Way, and is protected as a Scheduled Monument. On the return of Richard the Lionheart from the Crusades, the Castle was occupied by supporters of Prince John and it was besieged by Richard and, after a sharp conflict, was captured. In the legends of Robin Hood, Nottingham Castle is the scene of the showdown between the Sheriff and the hero outlaw. By the 15th century Nottingham had established itself as a centre of an export trade in religious sculpture made from Nottingham Alabaster
21.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
22.
Broseley
–
Broseley is a small town in Shropshire, England, with a population of 4,912, increasing to 4,929 at the 2011 Census. The River Severn flows to the north and east of the town, the first iron bridge in the world was built in 1779 across the Severn, linking Broseley with Coalbrookdale and Madeley. This was part of the industrial development in the Ironbridge Gorge. A settlement existed in 1086 and is listed as Bosle in the Domesday Book, the town is located on the south bank of the Ironbridge Gorge and so shares much of the history of its better known, but more recent, neighbour, Ironbridge. In 1600, the town of Broseley consisted of only 27 houses and was part of the Shirlett Royal Forest. The wagonways were almost certainly constructed for the transport of coal and clay, many of the developments celebrated by the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trusts collection of preserved industrial heritage sites either started in Broseley or were connected to the town. Broseley was a centre for ironmaking, pottery and clay pipes, the Broseley Pipeworks is one of the trusts ten museums, as is the Jackfield Tile Museum, which is situated in Jackfield, just northeast of the town. John Wilkinson constructed the worlds first iron boat whilst living in the town, Abraham Darby I, who developed the process of smelting iron using coking coal, is buried here. In the latter half of the 19th century the area suffered a decline and this left a legacy of uncapped mineshafts, derelict buildings, abandoned quarries, spoil heaps and pit mounds. In the last thirty years of the 20th century Broseley experienced a revival with the development of Telford across the River Severn. Broseley borders the Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site and evidence of involvement in the Industrial Revolution can be throughout the town. These include the railways, mines, ironworks, brickworks, kilns, houses, the jitties of Broseley Wood on the western boundary of Broseley are the remains of cottage settlements built for miners. At the other end of the spectrum the town has many examples of Ironmaster houses, dating from the late 18th. There are two wildlife areas maintained by local groups, the Hay Cop between Dark Lane and Ironbridge Road was the site of the towns water supply and was developed as a nature reserve in 2007. Penns Meadow on the border between Broseley and Benthall is a five-acre ancient meadow and is also being managed to protect, both projects have been supported by the Broseley/Barrow Local Joint Committee, a Shropshire Council initiative to encourage devolution of decision making to local people. Broseley has an amateur dramatics society, BroADS, which performs a number of plays every year. Every month, the Birchmeadow Centre is used by Broseley Cinema, there is also a thriving arts and crafts community, who form a group known as the Broseley Artists. Since 2009, the Birchmeadow Centre has hosted live music events, presenting an impressive array of artists from the UK
23.
Jackfield
–
Jackfield is a village in Shropshire, England, lying on the south bank of River Severn in the Ironbridge Gorge, downstream from Ironbridge. Like many of the settlements in the area, it is notable for its place in the Industrial Revolution, Jackfield grew as a river port for nearby Broseley and Benthall and is a notable part of the areas famous early industrial activity. It has recently suggested that this is older than the Wollaton Wagonway which is generally thought to be the earliest such wagonway. There was a pottery here from at least 1634 and corn mills existed along the stream flowed into the river. The wooden railway followed the route of this stream, which is the valley which Calcutts Road runs down. The potteries flourished and became known for their drinking mugs produced, and their Jackfield Ware became famous around the mid-18th century. The Jackfield Tile Museum is one of the ten museums of the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust, for about a hundred years, from 1862 to 1963, the Severn Valley railway line ran through the area, on its route between Shrewsbury and Bridgnorth. There were sidings to support the several works in the area. Little remains of the railway except the large level crossing gates. Some lengths of the trackbed today serve as a route for pedestrians. A major landslip in 1952 devastated a part of the centre of Jackfield. 27 cottages were lost in the 1952 landslide, in the Salthouses area, separately, the Werps was the most eastern part of Jackfield but had been abandoned by the end of the 1950s. During the stabilisation works in 2014, the remains of houses that were buried in 1952 were uncovered. The small town of Broseley is just to the southwest of Jackfield, Jackfield is in both the Telford and Wrekin Council area and the Shropshire Council area of Shropshire – the border runs through the settlement. The part within Telford and Wrekin forms part of The Gorge civil parish, the Gorge Parish Council has its offices and holds its meetings at the Maws Craft Centre in Jackfield. Jackfield encompasses the settlement spread along the steep southern bank of the Severn for approximately 1 mile. The village also reaches up the hill, towards Broseley, along Calcutts Road, the central portion of the village was constructed on a particularly unstable part of the Ironbridge Gorge, where several landslips have been recorded, most famously the landslip of 1952. The hillside is made unstable by abandoned, flooded mineshafts
24.
Shropshire
–
Shropshire Council was created in 2009, a unitary authority taking over from the previous county council and five district councils. The borough of Telford and Wrekin has been a unitary authority since 1998. The county has many towns, including Whitchurch in the north, Newport north-east of Telford. The Ironbridge Gorge area is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, covering Ironbridge, Coalbrookdale, there are other historic industrial sites in the county, such as at Shrewsbury, Broseley, Snailbeach and Highley, as well as the Shropshire Union Canal. The Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty covers about a quarter of the county, Shropshire is one of Englands most rural and sparsely populated counties, with a population density of 136/km2. The Wrekin is one of the most famous landmarks in the county, though the highest hills are the Clee Hills, Stiperstones. Wenlock Edge is another significant geographical and geological landmark, the River Severn, Great Britains longest river, runs through the county, exiting into Worcestershire via the Severn Valley. Shropshire is landlocked and with an area of 3,487 square kilometres is Englands largest inland county, the county flower is the round-leaved sundew. The area was part of the lands of the Cornovii. This was a tribal Celtic iron age kingdom and their capital in pre-Roman times was probably a hill fort on the Wrekin. Ptolemys 2nd century Geography names one of their towns as being Viroconium Cornoviorum, after the Roman occupation of Britain ended in the 5th century, the Shropshire area was in the eastern part of the Welsh Kingdom of Powys, known in Welsh poetry as the Paradise of Powys. It was annexed to the Angle kingdom of Mercia by King Offa in the 8th century, in subsequent centuries, the area suffered repeated Danish invasion, and fortresses were built at Bridgnorth and Chirbury. Many defensive castles were built at this time across the county to defend against the Welsh and enable effective control of the region, including Ludlow Castle, the western frontier with Wales was not finally determined until the 14th century. Also in this period, a number of foundations were formed, the county largely falling at this time under the Diocese of Hereford. The county contains a number of historically significant towns, including Shrewsbury, Bridgnorth, additionally, the area around Coalbrookdale in the county is seen as highly significant, as it is regarded as one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution. The village of Edgmond, near Newport, is the location of the lowest recorded temperature in England, the origin of the name Shropshire is the Old English Scrobbesbyrigscīr, which means Shrewsburyshire. The name may, therefore, be derived indirectly from a name such as Scrope. Salop is an old name for Shropshire, historically used as a form for post or telegrams
25.
Middleton Railway
–
The Middleton Railway is the worlds oldest continuously working public railway. It was founded in 1758 and is now a heritage railway, Coal has been worked in Middleton since the 13th century, from bell pits, gin pits and later day level or adits. Anne Leigh, heiress to the Middleton Estates, married Ralph Brandling from Felling near Gateshead on the River Tyne and they lived in Gosforth and left running of the Middleton pits to agents. In 1754, Richard Humble, from Tyneside, was his agent, Brandling was in competition with the Fentons in Rothwell who were able to transport coal into Leeds by river, putting the Middleton pits at considerable disadvantage. Humbles solution was to build waggonways which were common in his native north east, the first waggonway in 1755 crossed Brandling land and that of friendly neighbours to riverside staithes. In 1757 he began to build a waggonway towards Leeds, and to ensure its permanence Brandling sought ratification in an Act of Parliament, the first authorising the building of a railway. The Middleton Railway, the first railway to be granted powers by Act of Parliament, carried coal cheaply from the Middleton pits to Casson Close, not all the land belonged to Brandling, and the Act gave him power to obtain wayleave. Otherwise the line was privately financed and operated, initially as a waggonway using horse-drawn waggons, around 1799 the wooden tracks began to be replaced with superior iron edge rails to a gauge of 4 ft 1 in. In 1812 the Middleton Railway became the first commercial railway to use steam locomotives successfully, murrays design was based on Richard Trevithicks Catch me who can, adapted to use Blenkinsops rack and pinion system, and probably was called Salamanca. This 1812 locomotive was the first to use two cylinders and these drove the pinions through cranks which were at right angles, so that the engine would start wherever it came to rest. In 1812, Salamanca was the first commercial steam locomotive to operate successfully, three other locomotives were built for the Middleton colliery, and the railway was locomotive-operated for more than twenty years. A number of other firsts can be claimed by the railway, being the first line to use steam locomotives regularly on freight trains it was naturally the first line to employ a train driver. The worlds first regular, professional train driver was a former pit surface labourer named James Hewitt who had trained by Fenton. The first member of the public to be killed by a locomotive was almost certainly a 13-year-old boy named John Bruce killed in February 1813 whilst running alongside the tracks, Leeds Mercury reported that this would operate as a warning to others. Though it was considered a marvel at the time, a child who witnessed it was less impressed, the child, David Joy, became a successful engineer. Once I remember going with my nurse, who held my hand while we stood to watch the engine with its train of coal-wagons pass and we were told it would come up like a flash of lightning, but it only came lumbering on like a cart. This was the result of the tampering with the safety valves. Another boiler explosion occurred on 12 February 1834, again killing the driver and this time the most likely cause was a badly worn boiler, kept going by in-house repairs which were no longer expertly carried out after Blenkinsops death
26.
Leeds
–
Leeds /liːdz/ is a city in West Yorkshire, England. Historically in Yorkshires West Riding, the history of Leeds can be traced to the 5th century when the name referred to an area of the Kingdom of Elmet. The name has applied to many administrative entities over the centuries. It changed from being the appellation of a small borough in the 13th century, through several incarnations. In the 17th and 18th centuries Leeds became a centre for the production. During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a mill town, wool was the dominant industry but flax, engineering, iron foundries, printing. From being a market town in the valley of the River Aire in the 16th century Leeds expanded and absorbed the surrounding villages to become a populous urban centre by the mid-20th century. The city has the third largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is also ranked as a world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Leeds is served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and has the fourth largest urban economy. After London, Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in the UK, with over 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UKs third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, the largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Outside of London, Leeds has the third busiest railway station, Public transport, rail and road communications networks in the region are focused on Leeds and there are a number of twinning arrangements with towns and cities in other countries. The name Leeds derives from the old Brythonic word Ladenses meaning people of the fast-flowing river and this name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brythonic kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, a word of uncertain origin, the term Leodensian is also used, from the citys Latin name. Leeds developed as a town in the Middle Ages as part of the local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution it became a centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth. Leeds handled one sixth of Englands export trade in 1770, growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816
27.
Lewiston, New York
–
Lewiston is a village in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 2,701 at the 2010 census, the village is named after Morgan Lewis, an early 19th-century governor of New York. It is part of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area, the Village of Lewiston, NY is within the Town of Lewiston. The Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park lies at its southern border, Lewiston was selected by Rand McNally as one of the Top Ten Best Small Towns in America in November 2012. Lewiston is situated on the Niagara River, just across the river from Canada, the Niagara River intersects the Niagara Escarpment between Lewiston and Queenston, Ontario, identifying the Lewiston-Queenston section of the escarpment as the geologic origin of Niagara Falls. Over a roughly 12,500 year span, the falls has eroded nearly 7 miles south from Lewiston to its present location in Niagara Falls, NY, Lewiston lies halfway between the world-famous Niagara Falls and historic Fort Niagara in Youngstown, New York. Niagara Falls is about a ten-minute drive to the south, visitors from Canada can take the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge across the Niagara River. Popular summer festivals include the Outdoor Art Festival and the Historic Lewiston Jazz Festival, the famous Kiwanis Peach Festival takes place during the second weekend of September. Several other festivals, such as the Harvest Fest, take place during the year, most are held on or near Center Street, the Villages main street. Lewiston recently won an online voting contest sponsored by USA Today and Rand McNally for Best for Food small town in America, Lewiston has over 30 locally owned and operated restaurant/food establishments within a mile, located primarily on Center Street, catering to a variety of tastes. It was also designated in the same contest as one of the Top Ten Best Small Towns in America, various cultures of Native American tribes inhabited the Lewiston area for thousands of years, with the earliest known artifacts dating to 5000 B. C. By the 14th century, this area was inhabited by Iroquoian-speaking peoples, before the mid-17th century, they had coalesced into the Five Nations, the historic Iroquois tribes of the Haudenosaunee based in present-day New York. In the early 18th century, they were joined by the Iroquoian Tuscarora from the South, in 1722, the Iroquois accepted the Tuscarora as the Sixth Nation of the confederacy. The Tuscarora had a village here before the American Revolutionary War called Yehęwakwáʼthaʼ, during the war, Tuscarora and Oneida Iroquois bands allied individually with the colonists or the British. Those who allied with the British went north with Joseph Brant before the end of the war and are part of the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation in Ontario and those allied with the American colonists stayed in New York. The Village of Lewiston was the site of the first European settlement in western New York in 1720, french explorers arriving from Canada across the river had visited the area as early as 1615. The village, incorporated in 1822, claims to be the most historic square mile in America and it was named after Morgan Lewis, the 3rd Governor of New York. In addition to its ancient indigenous settlement, Lewiston became historically significant during European development of North America and it was the site from which the US invaded Canada in the Battle of Queenston Heights which took place October 13,1812
28.
Tonne
–
The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
29.
Canal
–
Canals and navigations are human-made channels for water conveyance, or to service water transport vehicles. In the vernacular, both are referred to as canals, and in most cases, the works will have a series of dams. These areas are referred to as water levels, often just called levels. In contrast, a canal cuts across a drainage divide atop a ridge, many canals have been built at elevations towering over valleys and others water ways crossing far below. Cities need a lot of water and many canals with sources of water at a higher level can deliver water to a destination where there is a lack of water. The Roman Empires Aqueducts were such water supply canals, a navigation is a series of channels that run roughly parallel to the valley and stream bed of an unimproved river. A navigation always shares the drainage basin of the river, a vessel uses the calm parts of the river itself as well as improvements, traversing the same changes in height. A true canal is a channel that cuts across a drainage divide, most commercially important canals of the first half of the 19th century were a little of each, using rivers in long stretches, and divide crossing canals in others. This is true for many canals still in use, there are two broad types of canal, Waterways, canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and people. These can be subdivided into two kinds, Those connecting existing lakes, rivers, other canals or seas and oceans and those connected in a city network, such as the Canal Grande and others of Venice Italy, the gracht of Amsterdam, and the waterways of Bangkok. Aqueducts, water canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human consumption, municipal uses, hydro power canals. Historically canals were of importance to commerce and the development, growth. In 1855 the Lehigh Canal carried over 1.2 million tons of burning anthracite coal, by the 1930s the company which built. By the early 1880s, canals which had little ability to compete with rail transport, were off the map. In the next couple of decades, coal was diminished as the heating fuel of choice by oil. Later, after World War I when motor-trucks came into their own, Canals are built in one of three ways, or a combination of the three, depending on available water and available path, Human made streams A canal can be created where no stream presently exists. Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by making dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, the water for the canal must be provided from an external source, like streams or reservoirs. Where the new waterway must change elevation engineering works like locks, lifts or elevators are constructed to raise, examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land, like Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal
30.
Industrial Revolution
–
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
31.
Coalbrookdale
–
Coalbrookdale is a village in the Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire, England, containing a settlement of great significance in the history of iron ore smelting. It lies within the parish called the Gorge. This is where iron ore was first smelted by Abraham Darby using easily mined coking coal, the coal was drawn from drift mines in the sides of the valley. As it contained far fewer impurities than normal coal, the iron it produced was of a superior quality, before the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Madeley and the adjacent Little Wenlock belonged to Much Wenlock Priory. At the Dissolution there was a bloomsmithy called Caldebroke Smithy, the manor passed about 1572 to John Brooke, who developed coal mining in his manor on a substantial scale. His son Sir Basil Brooke was a significant industrialist, and invested in ironworks elsewhere and it is probable that he also had ironworks at Coalbrookdale, but evidence is lacking. He also acquired an interest in the patent for the process of making steel in about 1615. Though forced to surrender the patent in 1619, he continued making iron and steel until his estate was sequestrated during the Civil War, but the works continued in use. In 1651, the manor was leased to Francis Wolfe, the clerk of the ironworks, the surviving old blast furnace contains a cast-iron lintel bearing a date, which is currently painted as 1638, but an archive photograph has been found showing it as 1658. What ironworks existed at Coalbrookdale and from precisely what dates thus remains obscure, by 1688, the ironworks were operated by Lawrence Wellington, but a few years after the furnace was occupied by Shadrach Fox. He renewed the lease in 1696, letting the Great Forge, some evidence may suggest that Shadrach Fox smelted iron with mineral coal, though this remains controversial. Fox was evidently an iron founder, as he supplied round shot and grenado shells to the Board of Ordnance during the Nine Years War, but not later than April 1703 and it remained derelict until the arrival of Abraham Darby the Elder in 1709. However the forges remained in use, a brass works was built sometime before 1712, but closed in 1714. In 1709, the first Abraham Darby rebuilt Coalbrookdale Furnace, Darby renewed his lease of the works in 1714, forming a new partnership with John Chamberlain and Thomas Baylies. They built a furnace in about 1715, which was intended to be followed up with a furnace at Dolgûn near Dolgellau. However, Darby died prematurely in 1717, followed quickly by his widow Mary, the partnership was dissolved before Marys death, Baylies taking over Vale Royal. After Marys death, Baylies had difficulty extracting his capital, the works then passed to a company led by his fellow Quaker Thomas Goldney II of Bristol and managed by Richard Ford. Darbys son Abraham Darby the Younger was brought into the business as an assistant manager when old enough, the companys main business was producing cast-iron goods
32.
Cast iron
–
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
33.
Cross section (geometry)
–
In geometry and science, a cross section is the intersection of a body in three-dimensional space with a plane, or the analog in higher-dimensional space. Cutting an object into slices creates many parallel cross sections, conic sections – circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas – are formed by cross-sections of a cone at various different angles, as seen in the diagram at left. Any planar cross-section passing through the center of an ellipsoid forms an ellipse on its surface, a cross-section of a cylinder is a circle if the cross-section is parallel to the cylinders base, or an ellipse with non-zero eccentricity if it is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the base. If the cross-section is perpendicular to the base it consists of two line segments unless it is just tangent to the cylinder, in which case it is a single line segment. A cross section of a polyhedron is a polygon, if instead the cross section is taken for a fixed value of the density, the result is an iso-density contour. For the normal distribution, these contours are ellipses, a cross section can be used to visualize the partial derivative of a function with respect to one of its arguments, as shown at left. In economics, a function f specifies the output that can be produced by various quantities x and y of inputs, typically labor. The production function of a firm or a society can be plotted in three-dimensional space, also in economics, a cardinal or ordinal utility function u gives the degree of satisfaction of a consumer obtained by consuming quantities w and v of two goods. Cross sections are used in anatomy to illustrate the inner structure of an organ. A cross section of a trunk, as shown at left, reveals growth rings that can be used to find the age of the tree. Cavalieris principle states that solids with corresponding sections of equal areas have equal volumes. The cross-sectional area of an object when viewed from an angle is the total area of the orthographic projection of the object from that angle. For example, a cylinder of height h and radius r has A ′ = π r 2 when viewed along its central axis, a sphere of radius r has A ′ = π r 2 when viewed from any angle. For a convex body, each ray through the object from the viewers perspective crosses just two surfaces, descriptive geometry Exploded view drawing Graphical projection Plans
34.
Rail profile
–
The rail profile is the cross sectional shape of a railway rail, perpendicular to its length. Early rails were made of wood, cast iron or wrought iron, all modern rails are hot rolled steel with a cross section approximate to an I-beam, but asymmetric about a horizontal axis. The head is profiled to resist wear and to give a ride. Unlike some other uses of iron and steel, railway rails are subject to high stresses and are made of very high quality steel. It took many decades to improve the quality of the materials, minor flaws in the steel that may pose no problems in other applications can lead to broken rails and dangerous derailments when used on railway tracks. By and large, the heavier the rails and the rest of the trackwork, the rails represent a substantial fraction of the cost of a railway line. Only a small number of sizes are made by steelworks at one time. Worn, heavy rail from a mainline is often reclaimed and downgraded for re-use on a branchline, the weight of a rail per length is an important factor in determining rails strength and hence axleloads and speeds. Weights are measured in pounds per yard or kilograms per metre, rails in Canada, the United Kingdom and United States are described using imperial units. In Australia, metric units are used as in mainland Europe, commonly, in rail terminology Pound is a contraction of the expression pounds per yard and hence a 132–pound rail means a rail of 132 pounds per yard. Rails are made in a number of different sizes. Some common European rail sizes include, In the countries of former USSR65 kg/m rails and 75 kg/m rails are common, the American Society of Civil Engineers specified rail profiles in 1893 for 5-pound-per-yard increments from 40 to 100 lb/yd. Height of rail equaled width of foot for each ASCE tee-rail weight, ASCE90 lb/yd profile was adequate, but heavier weights were less satisfactory. In 1909, the American Railway Association specified standard profiles for 10 lb/yd increments from 60 to 100 lb/yd, the trend was to increase rail height/foot-width ratio and strengthen the web. Disadvantages of the foot were overcome through use of tie-plates. AREA recommendations reduced the weight of rail head down to 36%. Attention was also focused on improved fillet radii to reduce stress concentration at the web junction with the head, AREA recommended the ARA90 lb/yd profile. Old ASCE rails of lighter weight remained in use, and satisfied the demand for light rail for a few decades
35.
Platelayer
–
A platelayer or trackman is a railway employee whose job is to inspect and maintain the permanent way of a railway installation. The term platelayer derives from the used to build plateways. Inspecting and maintaining the track, including all its component parts such as rails, sleepers, fishplates, bolts and his duties include greasing points, and generally watching for wear and tear. In British usage the term platelayers hut refers to a shelter in which a platelayer would historically be based. In the heyday of steam railway operation a platelayer might be assigned to each mile or two miles of track, with a hut as his shelter and working base. He would regularly patrol his section of track, platelayers huts were generally a single room, immediately adjacent to the running lines, equipped with a table, chairs, and a simple heating stove. In Sweden, each employed a number of platelayers with the responsibility for the maintenance of a designated part of the line. Instead of working from huts, they lived in cottages along the line and these cottages were usually designed to match the stations in architectural design. Each cottage would typically have a couple of rooms and a kitchen, the platelayer system was finally dismantled in the 1950s, but many cottages still stand, typically used for holiday purposes
36.
Track (rail transport)
–
The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties and ballast, plus the underlying subgrade. It enables trains to move by providing a surface for their wheels to roll upon. For clarity it is referred to as railway track or railroad track. Tracks where electric trains or electric trams run are equipped with a system such as an overhead electrical power line or an additional electrified rail. The term permanent way also refers to the track in addition to structures such as fences etc. Most railroads with heavy traffic use continuously welded rails supported by sleepers attached via baseplates that spread the load, a plastic or rubber pad is usually placed between the rail and the tieplate where concrete sleepers are used. The rail is held down to the sleeper with resilient fastenings. For much of the 20th century, rail track used softwood timber sleepers and jointed rails, jointed rails were used at first because contemporary technology did not offer any alternative. The joints also needed to be lubricated, and wear at the mating surfaces needed to be rectified by shimming. For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily operated railroads, timber sleepers are of many available timbers, and are often treated with creosote, copper-chrome-arsenic, or other wood preservative. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers are used where timber is scarce and where tonnage or speeds are high. Steel is used in some applications, the track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the sleepers and allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage. A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the demand for maintenance, particularly surfacing and lining to restore the desired track geometry. Weakness of the subgrade and drainage deficiencies also lead to maintenance costs. This can be overcome by using ballastless track, in its simplest form this consists of a continuous slab of concrete with the rails supported directly on its upper surface. There are a number of systems, and variations include a continuous reinforced concrete slab. Many permutations of design have been put forward, however, ballastless track has a high initial cost, and in the case of existing railroads the upgrade to such requires closure of the route for a long period. Its whole-life cost can be lower because of the reduction in maintenance, some rubber-tyred metros use ballastless tracks
37.
Butterley Company
–
The Butterley Company was an English manufacturing firm founded as Benjamin Outram and Company in 1790. Portions of it existed until 2009 and this area of Derbyshire had been known for its outcrops of iron ore which had been exploited at least since the Middle Ages. After the Norman Conquest, nearby Duffield Frith was the property of the de Ferrers family who were masters in Normandy. In 1793, William Jessop, with the assistance of Benjamin Outram, constructed the Cromford Canal to connect Pinxton, in digging Butterley Tunnel for the Cromford Canal, coal and iron were discovered. Fortuitously, Butterley Hall fell vacant and in 1790 Outram, with the assistance of Francis Beresford, bought it. The following year they were joined by Jessop and John, the grandson of Ichabod Wright, a wealthy Nottingham banker who was betrothed to Beresfords daughter and who owned the Butterley Park estate. In 1793 the French Revolutionary Wars broke out and by 1796 the blast furnace was producing nearly a thousand tons of pig iron a year, Outram died in 1805 and the name changed to the Butterley Company, with one of Jessops sons, also William, taking over. In 1814 the company produced the work for Vauxhall Bridge over the River Thames. The steep wagonway to the Cromford Canal at Bullbridge was called the Butterley Gangroad and incorporated the worlds oldest surviving railway tunnel, the intention of the rebels was to kill the three senior managers and ransack the works for weapons. When they arrived they were confronted by George Goodwin the factory agent, there is little to be seen of the event, but the hexagonal office where Goodwin stood his ground is a listed building in the yard of the works. Following this the country entered a period of prosperity, the company with it. In 1830 it was considered to be the largest coal owner, by this time the company owned a considerable number of quarries for limestone and mines for coal and iron, and installed a third blast furnace at Codnor Park. One of the two engines at Pode Hole and the engine in the Pinchbeck Engine land drainage museum were built by Butterley. They produced a vast array of goods, from rails for wagonways to heaters for tea urns, thomas Telfords Caledonian Canal used lock gates and machinery with castings produced at Butterley, and two steam dredgers designed by Jessop. The company also produced locomotives, mostly for its own use. It produced all the necessary castings for the new railways and two lines, the Croydon, Merstham and Godstone Iron Railway and the Cromford and High Peak Railway. A winding engine for the latter exists in working order at Middleton Top near Wirksworth, the licences were spread around the country in order to protect the trading interests of the licensees. Notable patents were taken out by the manager, Sir John Alleyne
38.
Cromford and High Peak Railway
–
One scheme that had been suggested would pass via Tansley, Matlock and Bakewell. The problem was not only carrying a canal over a height of around a thousand feet, finally Josias Jessop, the son of William Jessop, was asked to survey the route. He, his father and their former partner Benjamin Outram had gained experience in building tramways where conditions were unsuitable for canals. Even so, as almost the first long-distance line at 33 miles, moreover, to its summit at Ladmanlow, it would climb a thousand feet from Cromford, making it one of the highest lines ever built in Britain. The first part of the line from the wharf at High Peak Junction, on the Cromford Canal, to Hurdlow opened in 1830. From the canal it climbed over one thousand feet in five miles, through four inclines ranging from 1 in 14 to 1 in 8, Cromford, Sheep Pasture, Middleton and Hopton, the line then proceeded up the relatively gentle Hurdlow incline at 1 in 16. The second half from Hurdlow to Whaley Bridge opened in 1832 descending through four more inclines, the highest part of the line was at Ladmanlow, a height of 1,266 feet. For comparison, the present-day highest summit in England is Ais Gill at 1,169 feet on the Settle–Carlisle line. The railway was laid using so-called fishbelly rails supported on stone blocks, as was common in those days, rather than timber sleepers, since it would be powered by horses on the flat sections. On the nine inclined planes, stationary steam engines would be used, apart from the last incline into Whaley Bridge, the engines, rails and other ironwork were provided by the Butterley Company. It would take two days to complete the journey. Luckily it was laid to the Stephenson gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in, however, the unsuitability of cable railways for passengers became clear within a few years. Not only did the C&HPR have the steepest adhesion worked incline of any line in the country, in 1857 the northern end was connected to the Stockport, Disley and Whaley Bridge Railway. Around this time, the people of Wirksworth were agitating for a line, however, the Midland Railway began surveying a line from Duffield in 1862 and it was never used. The C&HPR was leased by the London and North Western Railway in 1862, then, built by the LNWR, the branch line to Ashbourne was opened in 1899. This used the section of the C&HP line from Buxton as far as Parsley Hay, from where a line ran south to Ashbourne. The formation was constructed to allow for double tracking if necessary, the line was worked by independent contractors until long after other lines, which had taken operations in house upon the introduction of locomotives. The line was initially under-capitalised because many of the subscribers did not meet their dues, and it was funded by the Butterley Company
39.
William Jessop
–
William Jessop was an English civil engineer, best known for his work on canals, harbours and early railways in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Jessop was born in Devonport, Devon, the son of Josias Jessop, Josias Jessop was responsible for the repair and maintenance of Rudyerds Tower, a wooden lighthouse on the Eddystone Rock. He carried out this task for twenty years until 1755, when the lighthouse burnt down, John Smeaton, a leading civil engineer, drew up plans for a new stone lighthouse and Josias became responsible for the overseeing the building work. Jessop worked as Smeatons assistant for a number of years before beginning to work as an engineer in his own right and he assisted Smeaton with the Calder and Hebble and the Aire and Calder navigations in Yorkshire. The first major work that Jessop is known to have carried out was the Grand Canal of Ireland and this had begun as a Government project in 1753, and it had taken seventeen years to build fourteen miles of canal from the Dublin end. In 1772 a private company was formed to complete the canal, Smeaton sent Jessop to take control of the project as principal engineer. Jessop re-surveyed the proposed line of the canal and carried the canal over the River Liffey and he also drove the canal across the great Bog of Allen, a feat comparable with George Stephensons crossing of the Chat Moss bog with the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The canal was carried over the bog on a high embankment, Jessop also identified sources of water and built reservoirs, so that the canal was in no danger of running dry. Having seen to all of the important details Jessop returned to England and this was finally done in 1805. It seems that Jessop was closely involved with the canal in Ireland until about 1787, after which time, Jessop was a very modest man, who did not seek self-aggrandisement. Unlike other engineers, he was not jealous of rising young engineers and he would also recommend another engineer if he was too busy to be able to undertake a commission himself. He recommended John Rennie for the post of engineer to the Lancaster Canal Company, when Jessop was consulting engineer to the Ellesmere Canal Company, in 1793, the company appointed the relatively unknown Thomas Telford as resident engineer. Telford had no experience as a designer of canals, but with Jessops advice and guidance. He supported Telford, even when the Company thought that the designs for aqueducts were too ambitious. In 1789 Jessop was appointed engineer to the Cromford Canal Company. The proposed canal was intended to carry limestone, coal and iron ore from the Derwent and upper Erewash valleys, the important features of this canal are the Derwent Viaduct, which was a single span viaduct carrying the canal over the River Derwent, and the Butterley Tunnel. In 1793, the Derwent Viaduct partially collapsed, and Jessop shouldered the blame and he had the viaduct repaired and strengthened at his own expense. The Butterley Tunnel was 2,966 yards long,9 ft wide and 8 ft high, Jessop built the Butterley Reservoir above the tunnel, extending for 50 acres
40.
Charnwood Forest Canal
–
It was also one of the first uses of edge-rails for a wagonway. Until the end of the century the City of Leicester had received its supplies of coal by packhorse from the Charnwood Forest coal mines around Swannington. Gradually, however, they warmed to the idea and even came to consider a canal of their own linked to either Loughborough or the proposed Ashby Canal. Wagonways also linked the other terminus of the Forest Line at Thringstone to the mines and to the limestone quarries at Barrow Hill. Considerable difficulties were encountered in constructing both the Soar Navigation and the Forest Line, and it was not until 1794 that they were both opened, use of the Forest Line was limited until the Blackbrook Reservoir feeder was finished. During the floods of 1799 this collapsed, destroying some earthworks and an aqueduct, even after some repairs were carried out, further damage occurred and what little trade there had been did not return. Stemmed partially from the nature of its construction. That is, it was part canal, part wagonway, however, note that Griffin has suggested that technical, financial and legal problems at the coal mines served by the canal caused the amount of coal to be carried to be reduced to uneconomic levels. In 1808 the company sought to abandon the Forest Line but were advised that this would require an act of parliament, so they turned this down. In 1830 the Leicester and Swannington Railway was authorised, which affected the transport situation in the area. The canal company was dismayed to receive a formal request by the Earl of Stamford that the Forest Line be put into order to carry limestone. A proposal was drawn up to convert the canal to a wagonway or railway throughout, the company tried to sell off the land of the canal piecemeal but this was deemed to be illegal without an act of parliament. In the end a landowner who wanted to buy some of the agreed to pay for a private bill. It was not until 1832 that the opening of the Leicester, the Nottinghamshire coal miners responded to this by proposing a railway line extending from the Mansfield and Pinxton Railway, which had been opened in 1819. This eventually led to the building of Midland Counties Railway, which became a partner in the Midland Railway. Subsequently the Charnwood Forest Railway took over part of the route of the Forest Line between Grace Dieu and Shepshed, including the aqueduct over the Blackbrook, canals of the United Kingdom History of the British canal system Canal Routes - LEICESTER AND SOAR RIVER NAVIGATIONS
41.
Loughborough
–
Loughborough is a town with the Charnwood borough of Leicestershire, England. It is the seat of Charnwood Borough Council and home to Loughborough University, the town had a population of 57,600 in 2004, making it the second largest settlement in Leicestershire. The town is close to the Nottinghamshire border and is within a distance of locations such as Nottingham. The first mention of Loughborough is in the 1086 Domesday Book, Loughboroughs local weekly newspaper is the Loughborough Echo. The town is served by Leicestershires daily newspaper, the Leicester Mercury. Loughboroughs earliest historical reference was as Lucteburne in the 1086 Domesday Book, Heathcoat, in partnership with the Nottingham manufacturer Charles Lacy, moved his business from there to the village of Hathern, outside Loughborough. The product of this Loughborough machine came to be known as English net or bobbinet, however, the factory was attacked in 1816 by Luddites thought to be in the pay of Nottingham competitors and 55 frames were destroyed. This prompted Heathcoat to move his business to a woollen mill in Tiverton, Devon. In 1888 a charter of incorporation was obtained, allowing a mayor, the population increased from 11,000 to 25,000 in the following ten years. In 1897, Herbert Morris set up a factory in the Empress Works in Moor Lane which become one of the foremost crane manufacturers by the mid-20th century. There was also strong municipal investment, a new works in 1895, then a waterworks in Blackbrook. The corporation took over Loughborough Gas Company in 1900, in 1841, Loughborough was the destination for the first package tour, organised by Thomas Cook for a temperance group from Leicester. Loughborough railway station is the national station serving the town. Network Rail has recently redeveloped the station, increasing the length of platforms, the local council has made concurrent improvements to the surrounding area. The station has services from London St. Pancras International, to which its twice-hourly London service goes, East Midlands Trains is the primary long-distance operator, running services between London and northern England, and provides local services throughout the East Midlands. These rail routes run north–south through Loughborough along the Midland Main Line, going south to Bedford, Luton and London, junctions at Leicester and Derby stations link with CrossCountry trains route, serving the far north-east of Scotland and the south-west of England. Today, the Great Central Railway line is in operation as the Great Central Steam Railway heritage railway and is the terminus of the section of the railway. It has an active Great Central station running services daily, the station was opened by the Great Central Railway on 15 March 1899, closed in 1969 and re-opened again in March 1974
42.
Nanpantan
–
Nanpantan is a small village in the Charnwood borough of Leicestershire, England. It is located in the south-west of the town of Loughborough and it is also the site of the Nanpantan Reservoir. The first edge rails used in a wagonway were on the Charnwood Forest Canal, there is a small church here, Saint Mary in Charnwood, which was originally built as a mission room by the owner of Nanpantan Hall in 1888. After some years as a chapel of ease to the parish of Emmanuel, Loughborough, Saint Mary in Charnwood became a parish in its own right
43.
Leicestershire
–
Leicestershire is a landlocked county in the English Midlands. The border with most of Warwickshire is Watling Street, the county has a population of just under 1 million with over half the population living in Leicesters built-up area. Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book in four wapentakes, Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote and these later became hundreds, with the division of Goscote into West Goscote and East Goscote, and the addition of Sparkenhoe hundred. In 1087, the first recorded use of the name was as Laegrecastrescir, Leicestershires external boundaries have changed little since the Domesday Survey. These actions were reversed on 1 April 1997, when Rutland, Rutland became a distinct Ceremonial County once again, although it continues to be policed by Leicestershire Constabulary. The symbol of the county council, Leicestershire County Cricket Club, Leicestershire is considered to be the birthplace of fox hunting as it is known today. Hugo Meynell, who lived in Quorn, is known as the father of fox hunting, Melton Mowbray and Market Harborough have associations with fox hunting, as has neighbouring Rutland. A large part of the north-west of the county, around Coalville, the highest point of the county is Bardon Hill at 278 metres, which is also a Marilyn. The lowest point is about 24. 8m, north of Bottesford where the River Devon leaves Leicestershire, the population of Leicestershire is 609,578 people. The county covers an area of 2,084 km2 and its largest population centre is the city of Leicester, followed by the town of Loughborough. Other large towns include Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Coalville, Hinckley, Market Harborough, Melton Mowbray, Oadby, Wigston, some of the larger of villages are, Burbage Birstall, Broughton Astley, Castle Donington, Kibworth Beauchamp, Great Glen, Ibstock, Countesthorpe and Kegworth. One of the most rapidly expanding villages is Anstey, which has seen a large number of development schemes. The United Kingdom Census 2001 showed a resident population for Leicester of 279,921. Approximately 62,000 were aged under 16,199,000 were aged 16–74,76. 9% of Leicesters population claim they have been born in the UK, according to the 2001 UK Census. Mid-year estimates for 2006 indicate that the population of the City of Leicester stood at 289,700 making Leicester the most populous city in East Midlands, the population density is 3, 814/km2 and for every 100 females, there were 92.9 males. Of those aged 16–74 in Leicester,38. 5% had no academic qualifications,23. 0% of Leicesters residents were born outside of the United Kingdom, more than double than the English average of 9. 2%. Engineering has long been an important part of the economy of Leicestershire, John Taylor Bellfounders continues a history of bellfounding in Loughborough since the 14th century. In 1881 John Taylors cast the largest bell in Britain, Great Paul, snibston Discovery Park is built on one of three coal mines that operated in Coalville from the 1820s until 1986
.jpg)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "article name needed". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.