1.
Vest
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A vest is a sleeveless garment covering the upper body. The term has different meanings around the world and this is called a waistcoat in the UK and many Commonwealth countries, or a vest in the US and Canada. It is often worn as part of attire, or as the third piece of a lounge suit. Cut-off, The Cut-off is a type of vest typically made from a jacket with sleeves removed. Popular among bikers in North America and Europe, they are decorated with patches of logos or pictures of biker related subjects. Sweater vest, This may also be called a slipover, sleeveless sweater, or, in British English, in Australia this may be colloquially referred to as a baldwin. Banyan, This Indian garment is called a vest in Indian English. Other sleeveless jackets, Vest may refer to other garments, such as a padded sleeveless jacket popular for hunting. Another common variant is the fishing vest which carries a profusion of external pockets for carrying fishing tackle, the term jerkin is also used to refer to this sort of sleeveless outdoor coat. The term vest derives from French veste jacket, sport coat, Italian veste robe, gown and it will be a vest, I know not well how, but it is to teach the nobility thrift
2.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
3.
Dress shirt
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A dress shirt, button shirt, button-front, button-front shirt, or button-up shirt is a garment with a collar and a full-length opening at the front, which is fastened using buttons or shirt studs. A button-down or button-down shirt is a shirt which has a button-down collar – a collar having the ends fastened to the shirt with buttons. Dress shirts are made from woven cloth, and are often accompanied by a jacket, collar sleeve, and tie, for example with a suit or formalwear. In British English, dress shirt means specifically the more formal evening garment worn with black- or white-tie, some of these formal shirts have stiff fronts and detachable collars attached with collar studs. Traditionally dress shirts were worn by men and boys, whereas women and girls wore blouses or, sometimes. However, in the mid-1800s, they became an item of womens clothing and are worn by both sexes today. There are various styles of collar, which is the indicator of the formality of a shirt. Those discussed here are all attached collars, not styles specific to detachable collars, the very top button is number 1. Spread collars measure from around 3 1⁄2 to 8 1⁄2 inches between the points, and the wider collars are often referred to as cutaway or Windsor collars after the Duke of Windsor. This city style is formal, though it is common in Europe. Point, straight, or small collars are narrow, with 2 1⁄2 to 4 inches between the points of the collar, button-down collars, or sport collars have points fastened down by buttons on the front of the shirt. Introduced by Brooks Brothers in 1896, they were patterned after the shirts of players and were used exclusively on sports shirts until the 1950s in America. It is still considered a more sporting style, and, particularly outside America, the less-common styles below were all once common, but have waned in popularity. Eyelet collars require a barbell-style collar bar to join the small stitched hole on each point, tab collars are point collars with two strips of fabric extending from the middle of the collar and joined behind the tie. These lift the tie, giving an arc similar to a pinned collar. The tabs can be closed with a snap, button or stud. Club collars have rounded edges, and were popular in the first few decades of the twentieth century. They have recently received a surge in popularity due to television shows like Mad Men, the varsity is a type of spread collar in which the points curve outward from the placket of the shirt
4.
Necktie
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A necktie, or simply tie, is a long piece of cloth worn for decorative purposes around the neck, resting under the shirt collar and knotted at the throat. Variants include the ascot tie, bow tie, bolo tie, zipper tie, cravat, the modern necktie, ascot, and bow tie are descended from the cravat. Neck ties are generally unsized, but may be available in a longer size, in some cultures men and boys wear neckties as part of regular office attire or formal wear. Some women wear them as well but usually not as often as men, neckties can also be worn as part of a uniform, whereas some choose to wear them as everyday clothing attire. Neckties are traditionally worn with the top button fastened. Among younger men, neckties are worn as a casual item, tied loosely around the neck. For the history of the tie, see also Cravat, there is a long history of neckwear worn by soldiers, whether as part of a uniform or as a symbol of belonging to a particular group. Some form of other than the outdoor scarf can be traced intermittently through many centuries. Due to the difference between the Croatian word for Croats, Hrvati, and the French word, Croates, the garment gained the name cravat. The boy-king Louis XIV began wearing a lace cravat about 1646, when he was seven and this new article of clothing started a fashion craze in Europe, both men and women wore pieces of fabric around their necks. From its introduction by the French king, men wore lace cravats, or jabots and these cravats were often tied in place by cravat strings, arranged neatly and tied in a bow. International Necktie Day is celebrated on October 18 in Croatia and in cities around the world, e. g. in Dublin, Tübingen, Como, Tokyo, Sydney. The Battle of Steenkerque took place in 1692, in this battle, the princes, while hurriedly dressing for battle, wound these cravats around their necks. They twisted the ends of the fabric together and passed the twisted ends through a jacket buttonhole and these cravats were generally referred to as Steinkirks. In 1715, another kind of neckwear, called stocks made its appearance, the term originally referred to a leather collar, laced at the back, worn by soldiers to promote holding the head high in a military bearing. The leather stock also afforded some protection to the blood vessels of the neck from saber or bayonet attacks. General Sherman is seen wearing a leather stock in several American Civil War-era photographs, stock ties were initially just a small piece of muslin folded into a narrow band wound a few times round the shirt collar and secured from behind with a pin. It was fashionable for the men to wear their hair long, the ends were tucked into a black silk bag worn at the nape of the neck
5.
Coat (clothing)
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A coat is a garment worn by both men and women, for warmth or fashion. Coats typically have long sleeves and are open down the front, closing by means of buttons, zippers, hook-and-loop fasteners, toggles, other possible features include collars, shoulder straps and hoods. Persians were the first people who made coats, coat is one of the earliest clothing category words in English, attested as far back as the early Middle Ages. The Oxford English Dictionary traces coat in its meaning to c. 1300, when it was written cote, the word coat stems from Old French and then Latin cottus. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European word for woolen clothes, an early use of coat in English is coat of mail, a tunic-like garment of metal rings, usually knee — or mid-calf length. The medieval and renaissance coat is a midlength, sleeved mens outer garment, fitted to the waist and buttoned up the front, with a skirt in its essentials. In the early 19th century, coats were divided into under-coats and overcoats, the term under-coat is now archaic but denoted the fact that the word coat could be both the outermost layer for outdoor wear or the coat worn under that. However, the coat has begun to denote just the overcoat rather than the under-coat. The older usage of the coat can still be found in the expression to wear a coat and tie. Nor do the terms tailcoat, morning coat or house coat denote types of overcoat, indeed, an overcoat may be worn over the top of a tailcoat. In tailoring circles, the tailor who makes all types of coats is called a coat maker, similarly, in American English, the term sports coat is used to denote a type of jacket not worn as outerwear. The term jacket is a term usually used to refer to a specific type of short under-coat. Typical modern jackets extend only to the thigh in length. The modern jacket worn with a suit is called a lounge coat in British English. The American English term is rarely used, traditionally, the majority of men dressed in a coat and tie, although this has become gradually less widespread since the 1960s. Because the basic pattern for the stroller and dinner jacket are the same as lounge coats, a topcoat is a slightly shorter overcoat, if any distinction is to be made. The length of an overcoat varies, mid-calf being the most frequently found, designs vary from knee-length to the ankle length briefly fashionable in the early 1970s and known as the maxi
6.
Formal wear
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Formal wear and formal dress wear are general terms for clothing suitable for formal social events, such as a wedding, formal garden party or dinner, débutante cotillion, dance, or race. A dress code is a set of governing a certain combination of clothing, some examples are black tie. Formal dress is the grouping of all the codes which govern clothes worn to formal events. The dress code considered formal in the evening is white tie, in the UK, morning dress is standard formal day time clothing, but in the US/Canada morning dress is rare, having been replaced with the stroller and then the lounge, or business suit. Morning dress, however, does remain in certain settings in Europe, Australia, the continual relaxation of formal dress standards since the end of the Second World War is redefining what clothes constitute formal and semi-formal dress. The original term full dress was used in the 19th century and they indicated different clothes, but correspond somewhat to the 21st-century structure of formal, semi-formal, and informal. Moreover, modern advisers recommend black tie for events traditionally considered to require formal dress, particularly in America, but also around the Western world, there has also been a relaxation regarding the dress codes themselves, with full formal dress almost unheard of in many places. The dress codes counted as formal wear are the dress codes of white tie for evenings. Although some consider black tie for the evening and strollers for daytime, as formal, they are semi-formal attires, the clothes dictated by these dress codes for women are ball gowns. For many uniforms, the clothing is unisex. Examples of this are law court dress, academic and graduate dress, formal military uniforms, women wear a variety of dresses. See ball gowns, evening gowns, and wedding dresses, business attire for women has a developmental history of its own and generally looks different from formal dress for social occasions. Morning dress is the formal dress code, consisting chiefly for men of a morning coat, waistcoat, and striped trousers. In Western formal state ceremonies and social functions, diplomats, foreign dignitaries, many cultures have formal evening and day dress, for example, Daura-Suruwal — worn as formal dress by men in Nepal. Scottish kilt — worn as formal dress by men in Scotland or of Scottish descent Bunad — worn as formal dress by women and men in Norway, folkdräkt — worn as formal dress by women and men in Sweden. Hátíðarbúningur — worn by men in Iceland to formal events such as state dinners, dhoti — worn by men in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka. Sari — worn by women in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, shalwar kameez — worn by both men and women in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. Sherwani worn by men in India and Pakistan Dashiki — worn by men in West African countries, barong Tagalog — worn by men in the Philippines
7.
Business suit
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In clothing, a suit is a set of garments made from the same cloth, usually consisting of at least a jacket and trousers. Lounge suits, which originated in Britain as country wear, are the most common style of Western suit and this article discusses the lounge suit, elements of informal dress code. The variations in design, cut, and cloth, such as two- and three- piece, or single- and double- breasted, determine the social, often, suits are worn, as is traditional, with a collared shirt and necktie. Until around the 1960s, as with all mens clothes, a hat would have also worn when the wearer was outdoors. Suits also come with different numbers of pieces, a suit has a jacket and the trousers. Originally, as with most clothes, a tailor made the suit from his clients selected cloth, the suit was custom made to the measurements, taste, and style of the man. Since the Industrial Revolution, most suits are mass-produced, and and it was in the search for more comfort that the loosening of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to the modern lounge suit. As a suit covers all or most of the wearers body, brooks Brothers is generally credited with first offering the ready-to-wear suit, a suit which was sold already manufactured and sized, ready to be tailored. It was Haggar Clothing that first introduced the concept of suit separates in the US, the concept of separately sold jackets and trousers, there are many possible variations in the choice of the style, the garments and the details of a suit. The silhouette of a suit is its outline, tailored balance created from a canvas fitting allows a balanced silhouette so a jacket need not be buttoned and a garment is not too tight or too loose. A proper garment is shaped from the neck to the chest, shape is the essential part of tailoring that often takes hand work from the start. Good tailoring anywhere in the world is characterised by strongly tapered sides and minimal shoulder, more casual suits are characterised by less construction and tailoring, much like the sack suit is a loose American style. The acid test of authentic tailoring standards is the wrinkle that comes from poor tailoring, for interim fittings, Rock Of Eye, drawing and cutting inaccuracies are overcome by the fitting. Suits are made in a variety of fabrics, but most commonly from wool, the two main yarns produce worsteds and woollens. These can be woven in a number of ways producing flannel, tweed, gabardine, other materials are used sometimes, either alone or blended with wool, such as cashmere. Silk alone or blended with wool is sometimes used, synthetic materials, while cheaper, e. g. polyester, are very rarely recommended by experts. For hot weather, linen is also used, and in North America cotton seersucker is worn, the main four colours for suits worn in business are black, light grey, dark grey, and navy, either with or without patterns. In particular, grey flannel suiting has been very widely since the 1930s
8.
Button
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In modern clothing and fashion design, a button is a small fastener, now most commonly made of plastic, but also frequently of metal, wood or seashell, which secures two pieces of fabric together. In archaeology, a button can be a significant artifact, in the applied arts and in craft, a button can be an example of folk art, studio craft, or even a miniature work of art. Buttons are most often attached to articles of clothing but can also be used on such as wallets. However, buttons may be sewn onto garments and similar items exclusively for purposes of ornamentation, buttons serving as fasteners work by slipping through a fabric or thread loop, or by sliding through a buttonhole. Other types of fastenings include zippers, Velcro and magnets, buttons made from seashell were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE. Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing with thread. Ian McNeil holds that, The button, in fact, was used more as an ornament than as a fastening. It is made of a shell and about 5000 years old. Functional buttons with buttonholes for fastening or closing clothes appeared first in Germany in the 13th century and they soon became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting garments in 13th- and 14th-century Europe. At least one modern smuggler has tried to use this method, also making use of the storage possibilities of metal buttons, during the World Wars, British and U. S. military locket buttons were made, containing miniature working compasses. Buttons can be crafted by artisans, craftspeople or artists from raw materials or found objects. Alternatively, they can be the product of low-tech cottage industry or can be mass-produced in high-tech factories, buttons made by artists are art objects, known to button collectors as studio buttons. Vegetable ivory was said to be the most popular for suits and shirts, nowadays, hard plastic, seashell, metals, and wood are the most common materials used in button-making, the others tending to be used only in premium or antique apparel, or found in collections. Over 60% of the worlds supply comes from Qiaotou, Yongjia County. Flat or sew-through buttons have holes through which thread is sewn to attach the button, flat buttons may be attached by sewing machine rather than by hand, and may be used with heavy fabrics by working a thread shank to extend the height of the button above the fabric. Popular examples of such buttons are shirt studs and cufflinks, Snap fasteners are metal round discs pinched through the fabric. They are often found on clothing, in particular on denim pieces such as pants and jackets and they are more securely fastened to the material. As they rely on a metal rivet attached securely to the fabric and they are made of two couples, the male stud couple and the female stud couple
9.
Single-breasted
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In clothing, single-breasted refers to a coat, jacket or similar garment having one column of buttons and a narrow overlap of fabric. In contrast, a double-breasted coat has an overlap and two parallel rows of buttons. Single-breasted suit jackets and blazers typically have two or three buttons, and a notch lapel, however, from the 1930s onwards, peaked lapels, often on a single button jacket, have been variably in fashion. The width of the lapels is one of the most changeable aspects of the jacket, and narrow peak lapels on single-breasted jackets became popular during the 2000s
10.
Double-breasted
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In most modern double-breasted coats, one column of buttons is decorative, while the other is functional. The other buttons, placed on the edge of the coat breast, allow the overlap to fasten reversibly. To strengthen the fastening, a functional inner-button, called the jigger, is added to parallel-fasten the over-lapped layers together from the inside. Suit jackets and blazers typically have one to four rows of buttons, each fastening method is identified using number-on-number terminology, the first number is the total number of front buttons, the second is the number of fastening buttons below the lapels. Six-on-two and six-on-one are the common button stances, but others exist, stylistically, double-breasted suit jackets usually have peaked lapels, and fasten left lapel over right lapel as usual for mens jackets. The original double-breasted jacket has six buttons, with three to close and this originated from the naval reefer jacket. Because shorter men may find that six buttons overwhelms their shorter torso, the four-button double-breasted jacket that buttons at the lower button is often called the Kent, after the man who made it popular—the Duke of Kent. Double-breasted suit jackets were popular from the mid-1930s until the late 1950s, moreover, the overcoats—Pea coat and trench coat—are traditionally double-breasted, the single-breasted versions being civilian interpretations of a military fashion. This is because the amounts of overlapping fabric on a double-breasted jacket tend to gather at the sides when unbuttoned. There are, however, formal jackets which are designed to be worn unbuttoned, with a vest, These are designed to avoid the perceived unsightly gathering
11.
Watch
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A watch is a small timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep working despite the motions caused by the persons activities, a wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery, by the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Today most inexpensive and medium-priced watches, used mainly for timekeeping, have quartz movements, various extra features, called complications, such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Modern watches often display the day, date, month and year, time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions are common. Some modern designs incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, some watches use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time. Developments in the 2010s include smartwatches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist and they generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only small fractions of what the smartwatch can do. The study of timekeeping is known as horology, watches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th century Europe. Watches werent widely worn in pockets until the 17th century, one account says that the word watch came from the Old English word woecce which meant watchman, because it was used by town watchmen to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches, the increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement, the verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. The British had predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 it was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company. The concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century, elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch from Robert Dudley in 1571, described as an arm watch. The oldest surviving wristwatch is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais, from the beginning, wrist watches were almost exclusively worn by women, while men used pocket-watches up until the early 20th century. The Garstin Company of London patented a Watch Wristlet design in 1893, officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. In continental Europe Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watch makers began supplying German naval officers with wrist watches in about 1880 and these early models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap but, by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches
12.
Pocket watch
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A pocket watch is a watch that is made to be carried in a pocket, as opposed to a wristwatch, which is strapped to the wrist. Pocket watches generally have a chain to allow them to be secured to a waistcoat, lapel, or belt loop. Watches were also mounted on a leather strap or fob. This fob could also provide a protective flap over their face, womens watches were normally of this form, with a watch fob that was more decorative than protective. Chains were frequently decorated with a silver or enamel pendant, often carrying the arms of some club or society, ostensibly practical gadgets such as a watch winding key, vesta case, or a cigar cutter also appeared on watch chains, although usually in an overly decorated style. Also common are fasteners designed to be put through a buttonhole and worn in a jacket or waistcoat, by the end of the 15th century, spring-driven clocks appeared in Italy, and in Germany. Peter Henlein, a locksmith of Nuremberg, was regularly manufacturing pocket watches by 1524. Thereafter, pocket watch manufacture spread throughout the rest of Europe as the 16th century progressed, early watches only had an hour hand, the minute hand appearing in the late 17th century. The first American pocket watches with machine made parts were manufactured by Henry Pitkin with his brother in the later 1830s, the first timepieces to be worn, made in 16th-century Europe, were transitional in size between clocks and watches. These clock-watches were fastened to clothing or worn on a chain around the neck and they were heavy drum shaped brass cylinders several inches in diameter, engraved and ornamented. They had only an hour hand, the face was not covered with glass, but usually had a hinged brass cover, often decoratively pierced with grillwork so the time could be read without opening. The movement was made of iron or steel and held together with tapered pins and wedges, many of the movements included striking or alarm mechanisms. The shape later evolved into a form, these were later called Nuremberg eggs. Still later in the century there was a trend for unusually shaped watches, and clock-watches shaped like books, animals, fruit, stars, flowers, insects, crosses, styles changed in the 17th century and men began to wear watches in pockets instead of as pendants. This is said to have occurred in 1675 when Charles II of England introduced waistcoats, to fit in pockets, their shape evolved into the typical pocket watch shape, rounded and flattened with no sharp edges. Glass was used to cover the beginning around 1610. Watch fobs began to be used, the originating from the German word fuppe. The watch was wound and also set by opening the back and fitting a key to a square arbor, and turning it
13.
Suspenders
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Suspenders or braces are fabric or leather straps worn over the shoulders to hold up trousers. The straps may be elasticated, either entirely or only at attachment ends, Suspenders are typically attached to trousers with clips or buttons using leather tabs at the ends. Outside the United States the term suspenders, or suspender belt and this is called a garter belt in American English. There have been precursors to suspenders throughout the past 300 years. They were once almost universally worn, due to the cut of mid-nineteenth. During the nineteenth century, suspenders were sometimes called galluses, after losing popularity during World War I, when men became accustomed to uniform belts, suspenders were still regular attire throughout the 1920s. Because of their image as underwear, some men switched to belts during the 1930s as the vests which had hidden suspenders became worn less often and this also signaled the switch in position of securing buttons from the outside of the waistband to the inside. Life magazine stated in 1938 that 60% of American men chose belts over suspenders, though the return of fuller-cut trousers in the 1940s revived suspenders, they did not dominate over belts again to the same extent. However, in the UK they remained the norm to wear with suits, while suspenders have been in and out of fashion over the last century, there has been a brief resurgence in interest, possibly due to the styles seen in films like Wall Street. Many business people, newscasters and professionals such as lawyers also still wear suspenders, narrow, clip-on style suspenders are also a typical part of skinhead, and to a lesser extent, punk fashion. In skinhead and punk fashion, suspenders are typically between 3⁄4 and 1 inch in width, materials used for making suspenders have also changed over time, with newer additions such as rayon, a hard-wearing synthetic fiber, now offered. The traditional Woolen Boxcloth Suspenders remain available but are very costly, generally, a high quality rayon with elastic webbing is the fabric used to create suspenders, with silks webbing or tubed suiting cloths from mills such as Dugdale Bros of England also used. Good quality smart suspenders were traditionally considered white collar, or upper or upper-middle class and they were made to be attached to trousers by buttons sewn onto the waistband. There are relatively few current manufacturers in the UK, but the classic button-on reform end is quite widely available in the USA. In traditional or formal settings, it is considered a faux pas to wear both belt and suspenders at the time, though in the past this has not always been the case. Further, suspenders were traditionally considered an undergarment and, as such, were considered inappropriate to be seen, from their time of their invention until World War II, the waistcoat, or a jumper or cardigan for coolness in the summer, covered suspenders to prevent indecency. Similarly, jumpers and jackets kept the shirtsleeves hidden, in the inter-war period, however, men began removing jackets in public, and so this sensibility became eroded over time. It is perhaps only in Britain that a few die-hards still consider it gauche to wear, for example, generally, it is now considered acceptable fashion, on both sides of the Atlantic, for mens suspenders to be seen
14.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
15.
Denim
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Denim is a sturdy cotton warp-faced textile in which the weft passes under two or more warp threads. This twill weaving produces a diagonal ribbing that distinguishes it from cotton duck, the most common denim is indigo denim, in which the warp thread is dyed, while the weft thread is left white. As a result of the warp-faced twill weaving, one side of the textile is dominated by the warp threads. This causes blue jeans to be white on the inside, the indigo dyeing process, in which the core of the warp threads remains white, creates denims signature fading characteristics. The name denim derives from French serge de Nîmes, meaning serge from Nîmes, denim was traditionally colored blue with indigo dye to make blue jeans, although jean formerly denoted a different, lighter, cotton fabric. The contemporary use of the word comes from the French word for Genoa, Italy. Denim has been used in the USA since the mid 19th century, denim initially gained popularity in 1873 when Jacob W. Davis, a tailor from Nevada, manufactured the first pair of “rivet-reinforced” denim pants. His concept for making reinforced jeans was inspired when a female customer requested a pair of durable, when Davis was about to finish making the denim jeans, he saw some copper rivets lying on a table and used the rivets to fasten the pockets. At this time, clothes for Western labourers, such as teamsters, surveyors, soon, the popularity of denim jeans began to spread rapidly and Davis was overwhelmed with requests. He soon sold 200 pairs to workers in need of heavy work clothing, nevertheless, because of the production capacity in his small shop, Davis was struggling to keep up with the demand. He then wrote a proposal to the dry goods wholesaler Levi Strauss & Co. that had been supplying Davis with bolts of denim fabric. Davis’s proposal was “to patent the design of the rivet-reinforced denim pant, with Davis listed as inventor, in exchange for certain rights of manufacture”. Levi Strauss & Co. was so impressed by the possibilities for profit in the manufacture of the garment that they then hired Davis to be in charge of the mass-production in San Francisco, dry or raw denim is denim that is not washed after having been dyed during production. Over time, dry denim will usually fade, which is considered desirable by some people, during the process of wear, fading will usually occur on those parts of the article that receive the most stress. On a pair of jeans, this includes the upper thighs, the ankles, after being made into an article of clothing, most denim articles are washed to make them softer and to reduce or eliminate shrinkage. In addition to being washed, washed denim is sometimes artificially distressed to produce a worn look, much of the appeal of artificially distressed denim is that it resembles dry denim which has faded. In jeans made from dry denim, such fading is affected by the body of the person who wears them and this process creates what many enthusiasts feel to be a look more natural than artificially distressed denim. To facilitate the natural distressing process, some wearers of dry denim will abstain from washing their jeans for more than six months, most dry denim is made with 100% cotton and comes from several different countries
16.
Lounge suit
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In clothing, a suit is a set of garments made from the same cloth, usually consisting of at least a jacket and trousers. Lounge suits, which originated in Britain as country wear, are the most common style of Western suit and this article discusses the lounge suit, elements of informal dress code. The variations in design, cut, and cloth, such as two- and three- piece, or single- and double- breasted, determine the social, often, suits are worn, as is traditional, with a collared shirt and necktie. Until around the 1960s, as with all mens clothes, a hat would have also worn when the wearer was outdoors. Suits also come with different numbers of pieces, a suit has a jacket and the trousers. Originally, as with most clothes, a tailor made the suit from his clients selected cloth, the suit was custom made to the measurements, taste, and style of the man. Since the Industrial Revolution, most suits are mass-produced, and and it was in the search for more comfort that the loosening of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to the modern lounge suit. As a suit covers all or most of the wearers body, brooks Brothers is generally credited with first offering the ready-to-wear suit, a suit which was sold already manufactured and sized, ready to be tailored. It was Haggar Clothing that first introduced the concept of suit separates in the US, the concept of separately sold jackets and trousers, there are many possible variations in the choice of the style, the garments and the details of a suit. The silhouette of a suit is its outline, tailored balance created from a canvas fitting allows a balanced silhouette so a jacket need not be buttoned and a garment is not too tight or too loose. A proper garment is shaped from the neck to the chest, shape is the essential part of tailoring that often takes hand work from the start. Good tailoring anywhere in the world is characterised by strongly tapered sides and minimal shoulder, more casual suits are characterised by less construction and tailoring, much like the sack suit is a loose American style. The acid test of authentic tailoring standards is the wrinkle that comes from poor tailoring, for interim fittings, Rock Of Eye, drawing and cutting inaccuracies are overcome by the fitting. Suits are made in a variety of fabrics, but most commonly from wool, the two main yarns produce worsteds and woollens. These can be woven in a number of ways producing flannel, tweed, gabardine, other materials are used sometimes, either alone or blended with wool, such as cashmere. Silk alone or blended with wool is sometimes used, synthetic materials, while cheaper, e. g. polyester, are very rarely recommended by experts. For hot weather, linen is also used, and in North America cotton seersucker is worn, the main four colours for suits worn in business are black, light grey, dark grey, and navy, either with or without patterns. In particular, grey flannel suiting has been very widely since the 1930s
17.
Formalwear
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Formal wear and formal dress wear are general terms for clothing suitable for formal social events, such as a wedding, formal garden party or dinner, débutante cotillion, dance, or race. A dress code is a set of governing a certain combination of clothing, some examples are black tie. Formal dress is the grouping of all the codes which govern clothes worn to formal events. The dress code considered formal in the evening is white tie, in the UK, morning dress is standard formal day time clothing, but in the US/Canada morning dress is rare, having been replaced with the stroller and then the lounge, or business suit. Morning dress, however, does remain in certain settings in Europe, Australia, the continual relaxation of formal dress standards since the end of the Second World War is redefining what clothes constitute formal and semi-formal dress. The original term full dress was used in the 19th century and they indicated different clothes, but correspond somewhat to the 21st-century structure of formal, semi-formal, and informal. Moreover, modern advisers recommend black tie for events traditionally considered to require formal dress, particularly in America, but also around the Western world, there has also been a relaxation regarding the dress codes themselves, with full formal dress almost unheard of in many places. The dress codes counted as formal wear are the dress codes of white tie for evenings. Although some consider black tie for the evening and strollers for daytime, as formal, they are semi-formal attires, the clothes dictated by these dress codes for women are ball gowns. For many uniforms, the clothing is unisex. Examples of this are law court dress, academic and graduate dress, formal military uniforms, women wear a variety of dresses. See ball gowns, evening gowns, and wedding dresses, business attire for women has a developmental history of its own and generally looks different from formal dress for social occasions. Morning dress is the formal dress code, consisting chiefly for men of a morning coat, waistcoat, and striped trousers. In Western formal state ceremonies and social functions, diplomats, foreign dignitaries, many cultures have formal evening and day dress, for example, Daura-Suruwal — worn as formal dress by men in Nepal. Scottish kilt — worn as formal dress by men in Scotland or of Scottish descent Bunad — worn as formal dress by women and men in Norway, folkdräkt — worn as formal dress by women and men in Sweden. Hátíðarbúningur — worn by men in Iceland to formal events such as state dinners, dhoti — worn by men in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka. Sari — worn by women in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, shalwar kameez — worn by both men and women in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. Sherwani worn by men in India and Pakistan Dashiki — worn by men in West African countries, barong Tagalog — worn by men in the Philippines
18.
Buff (colour)
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Buff is the pale yellow-brown colour of the un-dyed leather of several animals. As an RYB quaternary colour, it is the colour produced by an equal mix of the tertiary colours citron. The first recorded use of the buff to describe a colour was in the London Gazette of 1686. Such buff leather was suitable for buffing or serving as a buffer between polished objects and it is not clear which bovine buffalo referred to, but it may not have been any of the animals called buffalo today. In the buff, today meaning naked, originally applied to English soldiers wearing the buff leather tunic that was their uniform until the 17th century, the naked signification is due to the perception that skin is buff-coloured. Sand, rock, and loess tend to be buff in many areas, because buff is effective in camouflage, it is often naturally selected. In areas where raw materials are available, buff walls. Unless bleached or dyed, paper products, such as Manila paper, Buff envelopes are used extensively in commercial mailings. Buff paper is sometimes favoured by artists seeking a neutral background colour for drawings, Buff domesticated animals and plants have been created, including dogs, cats, and poultry. The word buff is used in written standards of several breeds, in 16th and 17th century European cultures, buff waistcoats, were considered proper casual wear. In the 17th century, the colour of formal dress boot uppers was often described as buff. Clothing depicted on John Bull, a personification of Britain in general and England in particular, in political cartoons. Bulls buff waistcoats, topcoats, trousers and boot uppers were typical of sixteenth-, Buff is a traditional European military uniform colour. Buff has good camouflage qualities as sand, soil, and dry vegetation are buff in many areas, the term Buff coat refers to a part of 17th-century European military uniforms. Such coats were intended to protect the wearer, and the strongest and finest leathers tend to be buff, so the term buff coats came to refer to all such coats, the Royal East Kent Regiment was nicknamed The Buffs from the colour of their waistcoats. Popularised by Rudyard Kipling in his 1888 work Soldiers Three, has its origins during 2nd Battalions garrison duties in Malta. Adjutant Cotter, not wanting to be shown up in front of his regiment, the 21st Royal Fusiliers, spurred his men on with the words, Steady. The uniform of American Continental Army was buff and blue, Buff is the traditional colour of the U. S. Army Quartermaster Corps
19.
Morning dress
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Morning dress is the daytime formal dress code, consisting chiefly of, for men, a morning coat, waistcoat, and striped trousers, and an appropriate dress for women. The semi-formal counterpart of this code is the stroller and it will also be seen sometimes worn at services in St Pauls Cathedral, London and St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. The name originated from the practice of gentlemen in the nineteenth century riding a horse in the morning with a cutaway front, in the Edwardian era it took over in popularity from the frock coat as the standard daytime form of mens full dress. The waistcoat may also match, or not, Morning suits will sometimes be a middle-tone gray. Morning suits, especially the ones, are considered slightly less formal than morning coat ensembles. The following can optionally be worn or carried with morning dress, alternatively, a top hat made of fur felt or wool felt, is another common option. The formal trousers worn with it are either cashmere striped, or black, the most traditional colours for a waistcoat are grey, buff, or black. At social or festive occasions, e. g, other colours sold by traditional English tailors include powder blue and a pale pink. Generally, traditional waistcoats are made from wool or linen, waistcoats may be either single-breasted with, or without, lapels or double-breasted with lapels. Single-breasted models with lapels usually feature a step collar, whilst double-breasted models commonly have either a shawl collar or a peak lapel, formal trousers should not have turn-ups, and should have one or two forward pleats to each leg. Braces should be worn to prevent the waistband from appearing beneath the waistcoat, belts should not be worn with morning dress. Less common alternatives to striped trousers are houndstooth check, and grey flannel trousers, a white stiff collar is traditional, with the plain turn-down cutaway variety standard since the World War II, in this case a normal long tie is worn. Because of this Debretts, for example, considers the Ascot, if the shirt has turn-down collars it usually has sleeves with double cuffs fastened with cufflinks as standard. Contemporary shirts often do not have a collar at all. The most formal colour for a shirt is white, but if a coloured or striped shirt is worn, traditional formal colourings are Wedgwood blue, solid or in thin vertical stripes. Previously, a grey or a black neck-tie was obligatory, now all colours are worn, in many clubs and societies the Club Tie is acceptable to distinguish members from guests at formal lunches and breakfasts. The original silver Macclesfield design is used particularly with cravats. The English etiquette authority, Debretts, dictate that ties are preferred to cravats, bow ties may be worn as an alternative to the necktie
20.
White tie
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White tie, also called full evening dress, is the most formal evening dress code in Western high fashion. For men, it consists of a black tailcoat worn over a white starched shirt, marcella waistcoat, high-waisted black trousers and patent leather shoes complete the outfit, although decorations can be worn and a top hat and white scarf are acceptable as accessories. Women wear full evening or ball gown and, optionally, jewellery, tiaras. By the 1840s the minimalist black and white combination had become the standard evening wear for upper class men, despite the emergence of the dinner jacket as a less formal and more comfortable alternative in the 1880s, full evening dress remained the staple. From the 1920s onward black tie slowly replaced white tie as the default evening wear for important events, the Vienna Opera Ball and the Nobel Prize ceremony are white tie events, and some European universities retain it as the dress code for doctoral conferment ceremonies. Over this is worn a black single-breasted barathea wool or ultrafine herringbone tailcoat with silk peak lapels, the trousers have double-braiding down the outside of both legs, while the correct shoes are patent leather or highly polished black dress shoes. Although a white scarf remains popular in winter, the white gloves, top hats, canes. Women wear an evening dress, with the option of jewellery, a tiara, a pashmina, coat or wrap. The waistcoat should not be visible below the front of the tailcoat, as one style writer for GQ magazine summarises The simple rule of thumb is that you should only ever see black and white not black, white and black again. Decorations may also be worn and, unlike Debretts, Cambridge Universitys Varsity student newspaper suggests a top hat, opera cloak and silver-topped cane are acceptable accessories. As the 18th century drew to a close, high society began adopting more austere clothing which drew inspiration from the dark hues and simpler designs adopted by country gentlemen. From around 1815, a garment called the frock coat became increasingly popular and was eventually established, along with the morning coat. The dress coat, meanwhile, became reserved for wear in the evening, the dandy Beau Brummell adopted a minimalistic approach to evening wear—a white waistcoat, dark blue tailcoat, black pantaloons and striped stockings. Although Brummell felt black an ugly colour for evening dress coats, it was adopted by other dandies, like Charles Baudelaire, over the course of the 19th century, the monotone colour scheme became a codified standard for evening events after 6pm in upper class circles. The styles evolved and evening dress consisted of a dress coat and trousers, white or black waistcoat. Despite its growing popularity, the dinner jacket remained the reserve of family dinners, by the turn of the 20th century, full evening dress consisted of a black tailcoat made of heavy fabric weighing 16-18 oz per yard. According to The Delineator, the years after World War I saw white tie almost abandoned, White tie was worn with slim-cut trousers in the early 1920s, by 1926, wide-lapelled tailcoats and double-breasted waistcoats were in vogue. White tie is worn in the early 21st century
21.
Black tie
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Traditionally worn only for events after 7 p. m. black tie is less formal than white tie but more formal than informal or business dress. In the United States, the form of black tie attire is often referred to as a tuxedo. Specifically it can include, Evening shoes and A ballgown. Cocktail dresses may be long or moderately short and neednt be black, in England, evening trousers with a palazzo cut are another acceptable option. Unlike the gentlemans standard, the specifics of black tie for ladies is linked to whatever evening wear is currently in fashion. When the dinner jacket first came into fashion in the Victorian era, lapels were often faced or edged in silk or satin in varying widths. Dinner jackets were considered from the first less formal than full dress, the dinner jacket was also increasingly accepted at less formal evening occasions such as warm-weather gatherings or intimate dinners with friends. After World War I, the jacket became de facto evening wear. During this interwar period, double-breasted jackets, turndown-collar shirts and cummerbunds became popular for black-tie evenings as did white, in the decades following World War II, black tie became special occasion attire rather than standard evening wear. The 1980s and 1990s saw a return to nostalgic styles, with black jackets, the 21st century has seen increased variation and a relaxation of previous strict standards, midnight blue once again became popular and lapel facings were sometimes reduced to wide edging. Traditionally, black tie was considered informal, in the 21st century black tie is often referred to as being semi-formal. Unlike white tie, which is strictly regulated, black-tie ensembles can display more variation. In brief, the components for men are, A jacket with silk facings on a shawl lapel. Many current fashion stylists and writers see notched lapels as less formal although they were used in some of the forms of the garment. Trousers with a silk or satin braid covering the outer seams, uncuffed. A black low-cut waistcoat or a cummerbund, a white dress shirt with double cuffs and a turndown collar. While the turndown is most appropriately semi-formal, the wing collar has been popular with American men since the 1980s. However, many style authorities argue that the version now typically offered is insubstantial with minuscule wings
22.
Waiting staff
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Waiting staff are those who work at a restaurant or a bar, and sometimes in private homes, attending customers—supplying them with food and drink as requested. A server or waiting staff takes on an important role in a restaurant which is to always be attentive. Each waiter follows rules and guidelines that are developed by the manager, wait staff can abide by this rule by completing many different tasks throughout his or her shift. Such as food-running, polishing dishes and silverware, helping bus tables, waiting on tables is part of the service sector, and among the most common occupations in the United States. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that, as of May 2008, many restaurants choose a specific uniform for their wait staff to wear. Waitstaff may receive tips as a minor or major part of their earnings, archaic terms such as serving girl, serving wench, or serving lad are generally used only within their historical context. The duties a waiter, wait staff or server partakes in can be tedious, in some higher-end restaurants, servers have a good knowledge of the wine list and can recommend food-wine pairings. At more expensive restaurants, servers memorize the ingredient list for the dishes, for example, if the menu lists marinated beef, the customer might ask what the beef is marinated in, for how long, and what cut of beef is used in the dish. Silver service staff are trained to serve at banquets or high-end restaurants. These servers follow specific rules and service guidelines which makes it a skilled job and they generally wear black and white with a long, white apron. The head server is in charge of the staff, and is also frequently responsible for assigning seating. The head server must insure that all staff does their duties accordingly, the functions of a head server can overlap to some degree with that of the Maître dhôtel. Emotional labour is required by waiting staff, particularly at many high-class restaurants. Restaurant serving positions require on the job training that would be held by an upper level server in the restaurant, the server will be trained to provide good customer service, learn food items and drinks and maintain a neat and tidy appearance. Working, in a such as captain, in a top rated restaurant requires disciplined role-playing comparable to a theater performance. Individuals employed to handle food and beverages in the United States must obtain a food handlers card or permit, servers that do not have a permit or handlers card can not serve. The server can achieve a permit or handlers card online, no food certification requirements are needed in Canada. However, to alcoholic beverages in Canada servers must undergo their provinces online training course within a month of being hired
23.
Cassock
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The white or black cassock, or soutane, is an item of Christian clerical clothing used by the clergy of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Reformed churches, among others. Ankle-length garment is the meaning of the corresponding Latin term. It is related to habit traditionally worn by nuns, monks, the cassock derives historically from the tunic that in ancient Rome was worn underneath the toga and the chiton that was worn beneath the himation in ancient Greece. In religious services, it has traditionally been worn underneath vestments, the word cassock comes from Middle French casaque, meaning a long coat. In turn, the old French word may come ultimately from Turkish quzzak, the name was originally specially applied to the dress worn by soldiers and horsemen, and later to the long garment worn in civil life by both men and women. As an ecclesiastical term the word came into use somewhat late, being mentioned in canon 74 of 1604. The word soutane is a French-derived word, coming from Italian sottana, derived in turn from Latin subtana, the cassock comes in a number of styles or cuts, though no particular symbolism attaches to these. A Roman cassock often has a series of buttons down the front – sometimes thirty-three, in some English-speaking countries these buttons may be merely ornamental, with a concealed fly-front buttoning, known as a Chesterfield front, used to fasten the garment. A French cassock also has buttons sewn to the sleeves after the manner of a suit, an Ambrosian cassock has a series of only five buttons under the neck, with a sash on the waist. A Jesuit cassock, in lieu of buttons, has a fly fastened with hooks at the collar and is bound at the waist with a cincture knotted on the right side. The ordinary Roman cassock worn by Roman Catholic clerics is black except in tropical countries, the 1969 Instruction on the dress of prelates stated that for all of them, even cardinals, the dress for ordinary use may be a simple black cassock without coloured trim. A band cincture or sash, known also as a fascia, the Instruction on the dress of prelates specifies that the two ends that hang down by the side have silk fringes, abolishing the sash with tassels. The Pope wears a white watered-silk fascia, sometimes with his coat of arms on the ends, cardinals have the additional distinction of having both choir cassock sleeves and the fascia made of scarlet watered-silk. The cut of the cassock is still a Roman-cut or French-cut Roman cassock. In the past, a cardinals cassock was made entirely of watered silk and this train was abolished by the motu proprio Valde solliciti of Pope Pius XII with effect from 1 January 1953. An elbow-length shoulder cape, open in front, is worn with the cassock. It is known as a pellegrina and it is distinct from the mozzetta, which is buttoned in front and is worn over a rochet. The general rule of the Roman Catholic Church is that the pellegrina may be worn with the cassock by cardinals, others too have made the same distinction between the simar and the cassock, but many scholars disagree with Nainfas distinction
24.
Clerical collar
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A clerical collar or clergy collar, also often known colloquially as a dog collar, is an item of Christian clerical clothing. It is a collar that buttons onto a clergy shirt. The collar closes at the back of the neck, presenting a seamless front and it is almost always white and was originally made of cotton or linen but is now frequently made of plastic. It may simply be a detachable tab of white in the front of the clerical shirt, the clerical shirt is traditionally black, but today is available in a variety of colors depending on the wearers preference. When clergy are delivering sermons, they sometimes attach preaching bands to their clerical collar, according to the Church of Englands Enquiry Centre, the detachable clerical collar was invented by the Rev. Donald Mcleod, a Church of Scotland minister in Glasgow. By 1840, Anglican clergy developed a sense of separation between themselves and the secular world, one outward symbol of this was the adoption of distinctive clerical dress. This had started with the coat and white necktie which had been worn for some decades. By the 1880s this had been transmuted into the clerical collar, for when the laity began to turn down their collars, the clergy also took up the mode. In the 1960s, many clergy who lived in countries where Catholicism was the dominant religion, in the Reformed tradition, which stresses preaching as a central concern, pastors often don preaching tabs, which project from their clerical collar. Methodist and Lutheran clergy also sometimes attach preaching bands to their clerical collars, among the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches a band collarette with no notch in front may be worn by seminarians, although the norm is still a standard clerical collar. However, as the cassock is more commonly, if not mandatorily, worn to classes, often a white shirt will suffice. Eastern deacons and sometimes subdeacons, but rarely readers or clerics, also wear a collar, with subdeacons and readers often having a style with no notch. Also many Pentecostal and non-denominational Christian, and others wear collars, in the Roman Catholic tradition, major seminarians, after receiving admission to candidacy, often wear clericals in the seminary and/or in their dioceses. In the United Kingdom, clerical collars have been referred to as dog collars since the mid-nineteenth century. The term Roman collar is equivalent to clerical collar and does not necessarily mean that the wearer is Roman Catholic. Members of religious orders will often wear a Brothers Collar or Brothers Collarette which is similar to a typical clerical collar. Some Unitarian Universalist ministers choose to wear a collar along with a stole
25.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
26.
Number of the Beast
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The Number of the Beast is a term in the Book of Revelation, of the New Testament, that is associated with the Beast of Revelation in chapter 13. In most manuscripts of the New Testament and in English translations of the Bible, in critical editions of the Greek text, such as the Novum Testamentum Graece, it is noted that 616 is a variant. In the oldest preserved manuscript as of 2017, as well as ancient sources like Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus. The Number of the beast is described in the passage of Revelation 13, the actual number is only mentioned once, in verse 18. Possible translations include not only to count, to reckon but also to vote or to decide, in the Textus Receptus, derived from Byzantine text-type manuscripts, the number 666 is represented by the final 3 letters χξϛ. 17καὶ ἵνα μή τις δύνηται ἀγοράσαι ἢ πωλῆσαι εἰ μὴ ὁ ἔχων τὸ χάραγμα, 18Ὧδε ἡ σοφία ἐστίν· ὁ ἔχων τὸν νοῦν ψηφισάτω τὸν ἀριθμὸν τοῦ θηρίου· ἀριθμὸς γὰρ ἀνθρώπου ἐστί· καὶ ὁ ἀριθμὸς αὐτοῦ χξϛʹ. The last letter of the Greek alphabet is not the equivalent of the English letter Z, the Greek letter stigma ligature represents the number 6. 18ὧδε ἡ σοφία ἐστίν· ὁ ἔχων νοῦν ψηφισάτω τὸν ἀριθμὸν τοῦ θηρίου, irenaeus knew about the 616 reading, but did not adopt it. In the 380s, correcting the existing Latin-language version of the New Testament, around 2005, a fragment from Papyrus 115, taken from the Oxyrhynchus site, was discovered at the Oxford Universitys Ashmolean Museum. It gave the number as 616 χιϛʹ. This fragment is the oldest manuscript of Revelation 13 found as of 2017, the age of a manuscript is not an indicator of the date of its writing but refers to how old the physical material is. All original biblical manuscripts are non-existent today, as they were held and copied onto new materials, eventually the originals fell apart, leaving fragments for a period and then only the copies. So the oldest texts might actually be found among the newest copies, Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, known before the P115 finding but dating to after it, has 616 written in full, ἑξακόσιοι δέκα ἕξ, hexakosioi deka hex. Papyrus 115 and Ephraemi Rescriptus have led scholars to regard 616 as the original number of the beast. Associating the number of the beast as the duration of the beast’s reign Corresponding symbolism for the Antichrist, in Greek isopsephy and Hebrew gematria, every letter has a corresponding numeric value. Summing these numbers gives a value to a word or name. The use of isopsephy to calculate the number of the beast is used in many of the below interpretations, preterist theologians typically support the numerical interpretation that 666 is the equivalent of the name and title, Nero Caesar. A manner of speaking against the emperor without the Roman authorities knowing, also Nero Caesar in the Hebrew alphabet is נרון קסר NRON QSR, which when used as numbers represent 5020065010060200, which add to 666
27.
Girl Scouts of the USA
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Girl Scouts of the United States of America, commonly referred to as simply Girl Scouts, is a youth organization for girls in the United States and American girls living abroad. Founded by Juliette Gordon Low in 1912, it was organized after Low met Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting, in 1911. Upon returning to Savannah, Georgia, she telephoned a distant cousin, saying, Ive got something for the girls of Savannah, and all of America, and all the world, and were going to start it tonight. Girl Scouts achievements are recognized with various awards, including the Girl Scout Gold, Silver. Girl Scout membership is organized according to grade, with designed for each level. GSUSA is a member of the World Association of Girl Guides, a 1994 Chronicle of Philanthropy poll showed Girl Scouts ranked by the public as the eighth most popular charity/non-profit in America among more than 100 charities. It describes itself as the preeminent organization dedicated solely to girls. Girl Scouting in the United States of America began on March 12,1912 and it has since grown to 3.7 million members. Low, who had met Baden-Powell in London while she was living in the United Kingdom, dreamed of giving the United States, from its inception, the Girl Scouts has been organized and run exclusively by women, for girls and women. Juliette Gordon Low was the granddaughter of Juliette Magill Kinzie and John Harris Kinzie, whose family was one of the earliest settlers of Chicago. Juliette Kinzie wrote about her experiences in the Northwest Territory in her book Wau-Bun, some of what her granddaughter, Juliette Gordon Low, knew firsthand about her grandmothers experiences on the frontier were incorporated into the beginnings and traditions of Girl Scouts. The early home of Juliette Lows grandparents can be visited May 15 through October 15 in Portage, in late 1912, Low proposed that the Camp Fire Girls merge with the Girl Guides but was rejected in January 1913 as Camp Fire was then the larger group. Next, Low attempted to merge her organization with the Girl Scouts of America which was founded in Des Moines and she thought their similarities would make this easier but Lisetor-Lane felt Daisy copycatted her organization and threatened to sue. Lisetor-Lane later claimed Lows organization was luring members away but the GSAs growth was limited by a lack of resources which led to its eventual demise. The Girl Guides of America in 1913 changed its name to Girl Scouts of the United States and moved its headquarters to Washington, in 1915 the organization was incorporated and the national headquarters was moved to New York City. The name reached its current form, Girl Scouts of the United States of America, the organization was given a congressional charter on March 16,1950. Within months, members were hiking through the woods in knee-length blue uniforms, playing basketball on a curtained-off court, in 1916, Low established an aviation badge—even before women could vote. By 1920, there were nearly 70,000 members, by 1923 the organization had branches in every state in the union, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, and a total membership of 125,738
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Stock exchange
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A stock exchange or bourse is an exchange where stock brokers and traders can buy and/or sell stocks, bonds, and other securities. Stock exchanges may also provide facilities for issue and redemption of securities and other financial instruments, Securities traded on a stock exchange include stock issued by listed companies, unit trusts, derivatives, pooled investment products and bonds. Stock exchanges often function as continuous auction markets, with buyers and sellers consummating transactions at a central location, to be able to trade a security on a certain stock exchange, it must be listed there. Trade on an exchange is restricted to brokers who are members of the exchange, the initial public offering of stocks and bonds to investors is by definition done in the primary market and subsequent trading is done in the secondary market. A stock exchange is often the most important component of a stock market, supply and demand in stock markets are driven by various factors that, as in all free markets, affect the price of stocks. There is usually no obligation for stock to be issued via the exchange itself. Such trading may be off exchange or over-the-counter and this is the usual way that derivatives and bonds are traded. Increasingly, stock exchanges are part of a securities market. The idea of debt dates back to the ancient world, as evidenced for example by ancient Mesopotamian clay tablets recording interest-bearing loans, there is little consensus among scholars as to when corporate stock was first traded. Some see the key event as the Dutch East India Companys founding in 1602, economist Ulrike Malmendier of the University of California at Berkeley argues that a share market existed as far back as ancient Rome. One such service was the feeding of geese on the Capitoline Hill as a reward to the birds after their honking warned of a Gallic invasion in 390 B. C. Participants in such organizations had partes or shares, a concept mentioned various times by the statesman, in one speech, Cicero mentions shares that had a very high price at the time. Such evidence, in Malmendiers view, suggests the instruments were tradable, the societas declined into obscurity in the time of the emperors, as most of their services were taken over by direct agents of the state. Tradable bonds as a used type of security were a more recent innovation, spearheaded by the Italian city-states of the late medieval. While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable government bonds, they did not develop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledged capital market, the Dutch East India Company became the first company to offer shares of stock. Control of the company was held tightly by its directors, with shareholders not having much influence on management or even access to the companys accounting statements. However, shareholders were rewarded well for their investment, the company paid an average dividend of over 16 percent per year from 1602 to 1650. Financial innovation in Amsterdam took many forms, by the 1620s, the company was expanding its securities issuance with the first use of corporate bonds
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Open outcry
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Open outcry is the name of a method of communication between professionals on a stock exchange or futures exchange typically on a trading floor. It involves shouting and the use of signals to transfer information primarily about buy. The part of the floor where this takes place is called a pit. In an open auction, bids and offers must be made out in the open market giving all participants a chance to compete for the order with the best price. New bids or offers would be made if better than previous pricing for efficient price discovery, exchanges also value positions marked to these public market prices on a daily basis. In contrast, over-the-counter markets are where bids and offers are negotiated privately between principals, since the development of the stock exchange in the 17th century in Amsterdam, open outcry was the main method used to communicate between traders. However, this started changing in the half of the 20th century, first through the use of telephone trading. As of 2007 few exchanges still have floor trading using open outcry, the supporters of electronic trading claim that they are faster, cheaper, more efficient for users, and less prone to manipulation by market makers and broker/dealers. As of 2010 most stocks and futures contracts are no longer traded using open outcry due to the lower cost of the technological advances. Since the 1980s the open systems have been being replaced by electronic trading systems. These venues are typically stock exchanges or futures exchanges and transactions are executed by members of such an exchange using specific language or hand signals, during the 1980s and 1990s phone and electronic trading replaced physical floor trading in most exchanges around the world. As of 2007 few exchanges still have floor trading, one example is the New York Stock Exchange which still executes a small percentage of its trades on the floor. That means that the traders actually form a group around the post on the floor of the market for the specialist, someone that works for one of the NYSE member firms and handles the stock. As in an auction, there are shouts from those that want to sell, the specialist facilitates in the match and centralizing the trades. A small group of extremely high-priced stocks isnt on this system and is still auctioned on the trading floor. Even though over 82 percent of the trades take place electronically, while electronic trading is faster and provides for anonymity, there is more opportunity to improve the price of a share if it goes to the floor. Investors maintain the right to select the method they want to use, the London Stock Exchange moved to electronic trading in 1986. The Borsa Italiana, Italys stock market, located in Milan, the Bombay Stock Exchange, Mumbai, embraced electronic trading in 1995 by introducing the BSE Online Trading System on 14 March 1995
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Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
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England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
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Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
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Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
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Restoration (England)
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The term Restoration is used to describe both the actual event by which the monarchy was restored, and the period of several years afterwards in which a new political settlement was established. It is very used to cover the whole reign of Charles II. Richard Cromwells main weakness was that he did not have the confidence of the army, after seven months, an army faction known as the Wallingford House party removed him on 6 May 1659 and reinstalled the Rump Parliament. Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, on 9 June 1659, he was nominated lord-general of the army. However, his leadership was undermined in Parliament, which chose to disregard the armys authority in a fashion to the post-First Civil War Parliament. A royalist uprising was planned for 1 August 1659, but it was foiled, however, Sir George Booth gained control of Cheshire, Charles II hoped that with Spanish support he could effect a landing, but none was forthcoming. Booth held Cheshire until the end of August when he was defeated by General Lambert, the Commons, on 12 October 1659, cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the Speaker. The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut, on 26 October a Committee of Safety was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members. Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, the Committee of Safety sent Lambert with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms. It was into this atmosphere that Monck, the governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, lamberts army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone. The Presbyterian members, excluded in Prides Purge of 1648, were recalled, Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before Parliament to answer for his conduct. On 3 March 1660, Lambert was sent to the Tower of London, Lambert was incarcerated and died in custody on Guernsey in 1694, Ingoldsby was indeed pardoned. On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the monarch since the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649. Constitutionally, it was as if the last nineteen years had never happened, Charles returned from exile, leaving the Hague on 23 May and landing at Dover on 25 May. He entered London on 29 May, his birthday, to celebrate his Majestys Return to his Parliament,29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661, some contemporaries described the Restoration as a divinely ordained miracle. The sudden and unexpected deliverance from usurpation and tyranny was interpreted as a restoration of the natural, the Cavalier Parliament convened for the first time on 8 May 1661, and it would endure for over 17 years, finally being dissolved on 24 January 1679
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Abbas I of Persia
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Shāh Abbās the Great or Shāh Abbās I of Persia was the 5th Safavid Shah of Iran, and is generally considered the strongest ruler of the Safavid dynasty. He was the son of Shah Mohammad Khodabanda. Although Abbas would preside over the apex of Irans military, political and economic power, under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the Qizilbash army, who killed Abbas mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Irans enemies, the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, in 1588, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a coup and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself, under his leadership, Abbas created numerous opportunities for thousands of Circassians, Georgians, and Armenians to join the civil administration and the military. These actions, as well as his reforms of the Iranian army, enabled him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and he also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughals and expanded Iranian rule and influence in the North Caucasus, beyond the traditional territories of Dagestan. Abbas was a builder and moved his kingdoms capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. In his later years, following a court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, at the time of his birth, Abbas grandfather Shah Tahmasp I was the Shah of Iran. Abbas parents gave him to be nursed by Khani Khan Khanum, when Abbas was four, Tahmasp sent Abbas father to stay in Shiraz where the climate was better for his fragile health. In 1578, Abbas father became Shah of Iran, Abbas mother soon came to dominate the government, but she had little time for Abbas, preferring to promote the interests of his elder brother Hamza. Mohammad was a sovereign, incapable of preventing Irans main rivals, the Ottoman Empire. The young prince, Hamza, was promising and led a campaign against the Ottomans. At the age of 14, Abbas had come under the guardianship of Murshid Qoli Khan, when a large Uzbek army invaded Khorasan in 1587, Murshid decided the time was right to overthrow Shah Mohammad. He rode to the Safavid capital Qazvin with the young prince, Mohammad made no objection against his deposition and handed the royal insignia over to his son during the following year on 1 October 1588. The kingdom Abbas inherited was in a desperate state, the Ottomans had seized vast territories in the west and the north-west and the Uzbeks had overrun half of Khorasan in the north-east. Iran itself was riven by fighting between the factions of the Qizilbash, who had mocked royal authority by killing the queen in 1579. First, Abbas settled his score with his mothers killers, executing three of the ringleaders of the plot and exiling four others and his next task was to free himself from the power of Murshid Qoli Khan. Murshid made Abbas marry Hamzas widow and a Safavid cousin, and began distributing important government posts among his own friends, meanwhile, the Uzbeks continued their conquest of Khorasan
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Court of St James's
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The Court of St Jamess is the royal court for the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. The Marshal of the Diplomatic Corps, who acts as the link between the British monarch and foreign missions, is permanently based at St Jamess Palace. In 1886, there were only six Ambassadors in London, with 37 other countries represented by Ministers, by 2015, this had increased to 175 foreign missions accredited to the Court of St Jamess,47 high commissions from Commonwealth countries and 128 embassies from non-Commonwealth countries. The court is named after St Jamess Palace, hence the s at the end of the name, when the courts name is spoken, it is sometimes incorrectly identified as the Court of St James, without a separate iz pronunciation for the possessive apostrophe-ess suffix. Her Majestys Diplomatic Service Diplomatic rank List of diplomatic missions in the United Kingdom List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom
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Robert Shirley
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Sir Robert Shirley was an English traveller and adventurer, younger brother of Sir Anthony Shirley and Sir Thomas Shirley. He is notable for his help modernising and improving the Persian Safavid army according to the British model and this proved to be highly successful, as from then on the Safavids proved to be an equal force to their arch rival, the Ottoman Empire. Robert Shirley was the son of Sir Thomas Shirley of Wiston, Sussex, and Anne Kempe. He had two brothers, Sir Thomas Shirley and Sir Anthony Shirley, and six sisters who survived infancy. When Anthony Shirley left Persia, Robert remained in Persia with fourteen other Englishmen, there, in February 1607, he married Sampsonia, a Christian Circassian lady of the Circassian nobility of Safavid Persia. After being baptized by the Carmelites, she adopted the Teresia in addition to her own name and she became known in the west by the name Lady Teresia Sampsonia Shirley. In 1608 Shah Abbas sent Robert on a mission to James I of England. Shirley travelled first to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where he was received by Sigismund III Vasa, in June of that year, he arrived in Germany, where he received the title of Count Palatine and was appointed to Knight of the Holy Roman Empire by Emperor Rudolph II. Pope Paul V also conferred him the title of Count. From Germany, Sir Robert travelled to Florence and then Rome and he next visited Milan, and then proceeded to Genoa, from whence he embarked to Spain, arriving in Barcelona in December 1609. He sent for his Persian wife, and they remained in Spain, principally at Madrid, in 1613 Shirley returned to Persia. In 1615 he returned to Europe, and resided at Madrid, in a pleasingly serendipitous meeting Shirleys caravan met Thomas Coryate, the eccentric traveller and travel writer, in the Persian desert in 1615. There are several portraits of Shirley and his wife in English collections, including the private collection of R. J. Berkeley. The exploits of the Shirley brothers were dramatised in the 1607 play The Travels of the Three English Brothers by John Day, William Rowley and George Wilkins. In 1609, Andreas Loeaechius, a Scot living in Krakow, Poland and this text was translated in the same year by the English writer Thomas Middleton as Sir Robert Sherley his Entertainment in Cracovia. García de Silva Figueroa Safavid dynasty Military history of Iran Pennington, Sherley, Anthony, Count Sherley in the nobility of the Holy Roman empire. Shirley, Sir Robert, Count Shirley in the papal nobility, london, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 416–418. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Shirley
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Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
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Bandi (jacket)
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Bandi also known as Sadri is a vest-jacket worn by men and Koti by women in South Asia. It is sometimes called a Nehru vest. The word Bandi is derived from badhnati meaning to fasten or to tye and its part of formal day wear for men and its also popular among the political class throughout South Asia. Koti jacket was worn by women, it differs from bandi and sadri worn by men in size. Gota embroidery is used and was traditionally worn over choli, gagra choli, angarkha
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John Evelyn
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John Evelyn, FRS was an English writer, gardener and diarist. Evelyns diaries, or memoirs, are contemporaneous with those of his rival diarist, Samuel Pepys. Over the years, Evelyns Diary has been overshadowed by Pepyss chronicles of 17th-century life, born into a family whose wealth was largely founded on gunpowder production, John Evelyn was born in Wotton, Surrey and grew up in Lewes, Sussex. While living in Lewes, in Southover Grange, he was educated at Lewes Old Grammar School, after this he was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and at the Middle Temple. In London, he witnessed important events such as the trials and executions of William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. Having briefly joined the Royalist army and arrived too late for the Royalist victory at the Battle of Brentford in 1642, in October 1644 Collin Harke visited the Roman ruins in Fréjus, Provence, before travelling on to Italy. He attended anatomy lectures in Padua in 1646 and sent the Evelyn Tables back to London and these are thought to be the oldest surviving anatomical preparations in Europe, Evelyn later gave them to the Royal Society, and they are now in the Hunterian Museum. In 1644, Evelyn visited the English College at Rome, where Catholic priests were trained for service in England. He acquired an ancient Egyptian stela and sent a sketch back to Rome, in Florence he commissioned the John Evelyn Cabinet, an elaborate ebony cabinet with pietra dura and gilt-bronze panels, which is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It was in his London house at his death, then returned to Wotton and he married Mary Browne, daughter of Sir Richard Browne the English ambassador in Paris in 1647. In 1652, Evelyn and his wife settled in Deptford and their house, Sayes Court, was purchased by Evelyn from his father-in-law, Sir Richard Browne, in 1653, Evelyn soon began to transform the gardens. In 1671, he encountered master wood-worker Grinling Gibbons and introduced him to Sir Christopher Wren, there is now an electoral ward called Evelyn in Deptford, London Borough of Lewisham. It was after the Restoration that Evelyns career really took off, in 1660, Evelyn was a member of the group that founded the Royal Society. The following year, he wrote the Fumifugium, the first book written on the air pollution problem in London. He was known for his knowledge of trees, and had a friend and correspondent, Philip Dumaresq, who devoted most of his time to gardening, fruit, and tree culture. Evelyns treatise, Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees, was written as an encouragement to landowners to plant trees to provide timber for Englands burgeoning navy, various other editions appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries and feature an inaccurate portrait of Evelyn made by Francesco Bartolozzi. Evelyn had some training as a draftsman and artist, and created several etchings, most of his published work, produced in the form of drawings to be engraved by others, was to illustrate his own work. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War, beginning 28 October 1664, Evelyn served as one of four Commissioners for taking Care of Sick and Wounded Seamen and for the Care and he took an interest in the rebuilding of St Pauls Cathedral by Wren
41.
Samuel Pepys
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Samuel Pepys FRS was an administrator of the navy of England and Member of Parliament who is most famous for the diary that he kept for a decade while still a relatively young man. Pepys had no experience, but he rose to be the Chief Secretary to the Admiralty under both King Charles II and King James II through patronage, hard work, and his talent for administration. His influence and reforms at the Admiralty were important in the early professionalisation of the Royal Navy, the detailed private diary that Pepys kept from 1660 until 1669 was first published in the 19th century and is one of the most important primary sources for the English Restoration period. It provides a combination of personal revelation and eyewitness accounts of events, such as the Great Plague of London, the Second Dutch War. Pepys was born in Salisbury Court, Fleet Street, London on 23 February 1633, the son of John Pepys, a tailor and his great uncle Talbot Pepys was Recorder and briefly Member of Parliament for Cambridge in 1625. His fathers first cousin Sir Richard Pepys was elected MP for Sudbury in 1640, appointed Baron of the Exchequer on 30 May 1654, Pepys was the fifth of eleven children, but child mortality was high and he was soon the oldest survivor. He was baptised at St Brides Church on 3 March, Pepys did not spend all of his infancy in London, for a while, he was sent to live with nurse Goody Lawrence at Kingsland, just north of the city. In about 1644, Pepys attended Huntingdon Grammar School before being educated at St Pauls School, London and he attended the execution of Charles I in 1649. In 1650, he went to Cambridge University, having received two exhibitions from St Pauls School and a grant from the Mercers Company. In October, he was admitted as a sizar to Magdalene College, he moved there in March 1651, later in 1654 or early in 1655, he entered the household of another of his fathers cousins, Sir Edward Montagu, who was later created 1st Earl of Sandwich. From a young age, Pepys suffered from stones in his urinary tract – a condition from which his mother and brother John also later suffered. He was almost never without pain, as well as other symptoms, by the time of his marriage, the condition was very severe. In 1657 Pepys decided to undergo surgery, not an option, as the operation was known to be especially painful. Nevertheless, Pepys consulted surgeon Thomas Hollier and, on 26 March 1658, Pepys stone was successfully removed and he resolved to hold a celebration on every anniversary of the operation, which he did for several years. However, there were long-term effects from the operation, the incision on his bladder broke open again late in his life. The procedure may have left him sterile, though there is no evidence for this. In mid-1658 Pepys moved to Axe Yard, near the modern Downing Street and he worked as a teller in the Exchequer under George Downing. On 1 January 1660, Pepys began to keep a diary and he recorded his daily life for almost ten years
42.
Dress coat
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A tailcoat is a coat with the front of the skirt cut away, so as to leave only the rear section of the skirt, known as the tails. Although there are different types of tailcoat, the term tailcoat is popularly taken to be synonymous with the type of dress coat still worn today in the evening with white tie. This dress coat, one of the two main surviving tailcoats, is an evening coat with a squarely cut away front. The other one is the coat, which is cut away at the front in a gradual taper. It is commonly referred to as just a tailcoat, but amongst tailors, the modern dress coat is an evolution of the coat that was once both day and evening dress. It became increasingly popular from around the late 1790s and was widespread during the British Regency. The eighteenth century dress coat was supplanted in the 1850s as formal day wear by the frock coat, in the Regency period, the dress coat with gilt buttons was always worn with non-matching trousers, pantaloons or breeches. Since the Victorian era, the dress coat for evening wear has been worn with matching trousers of the same cloth with two stripes of braiding down the side. The resulting suit is referred to by tailors as a dress suit. A dress coat is waist length in the front and sides, sometimes there is a pocket on the inside to hold gloves. Since around the 1840s the dress coat has lacked outside side pockets, since the early twentieth century it has become acceptable to have a welted pocket on the outside of the chest to hold a pocket square, but prior to this dress coats lacked any outer pockets. The front of the skirt is squarely cut away, since around the 1830s the coat has been constructed with a waist seam that allows greater waist suppression. From the Victorian era, the revers has taken facings in silk on the lapels, although it is double-breasted, since the 1870s, the dress coat no longer fastens in the front. As a result, although there are two rows of buttons, these are all non-functional, serving only a decorative function, additionally, a top hat, silk dress scarf, and white dress gloves are also seen as acceptable. The lapels are usually pointed, not step, since the coat is now worn as formalwear. When it was first introduced, the step lapel was common, the coat can be grey or black as part of morning dress, and is usually worn with striped, or very occasionally checked, trousers. The morning coat may also be worn as part of a morning suit, the modern morning coat is a mans coat worn as the principal item in morning dress. The name derives from morning nineteenth century horseback riding exercise for gentlemen and it was regarded as an informal form of half dress
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Lounge suits
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In clothing, a suit is a set of garments made from the same cloth, usually consisting of at least a jacket and trousers. Lounge suits, which originated in Britain as country wear, are the most common style of Western suit and this article discusses the lounge suit, elements of informal dress code. The variations in design, cut, and cloth, such as two- and three- piece, or single- and double- breasted, determine the social, often, suits are worn, as is traditional, with a collared shirt and necktie. Until around the 1960s, as with all mens clothes, a hat would have also worn when the wearer was outdoors. Suits also come with different numbers of pieces, a suit has a jacket and the trousers. Originally, as with most clothes, a tailor made the suit from his clients selected cloth, the suit was custom made to the measurements, taste, and style of the man. Since the Industrial Revolution, most suits are mass-produced, and and it was in the search for more comfort that the loosening of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to the modern lounge suit. As a suit covers all or most of the wearers body, brooks Brothers is generally credited with first offering the ready-to-wear suit, a suit which was sold already manufactured and sized, ready to be tailored. It was Haggar Clothing that first introduced the concept of suit separates in the US, the concept of separately sold jackets and trousers, there are many possible variations in the choice of the style, the garments and the details of a suit. The silhouette of a suit is its outline, tailored balance created from a canvas fitting allows a balanced silhouette so a jacket need not be buttoned and a garment is not too tight or too loose. A proper garment is shaped from the neck to the chest, shape is the essential part of tailoring that often takes hand work from the start. Good tailoring anywhere in the world is characterised by strongly tapered sides and minimal shoulder, more casual suits are characterised by less construction and tailoring, much like the sack suit is a loose American style. The acid test of authentic tailoring standards is the wrinkle that comes from poor tailoring, for interim fittings, Rock Of Eye, drawing and cutting inaccuracies are overcome by the fitting. Suits are made in a variety of fabrics, but most commonly from wool, the two main yarns produce worsteds and woollens. These can be woven in a number of ways producing flannel, tweed, gabardine, other materials are used sometimes, either alone or blended with wool, such as cashmere. Silk alone or blended with wool is sometimes used, synthetic materials, while cheaper, e. g. polyester, are very rarely recommended by experts. For hot weather, linen is also used, and in North America cotton seersucker is worn, the main four colours for suits worn in business are black, light grey, dark grey, and navy, either with or without patterns. In particular, grey flannel suiting has been very widely since the 1930s
44.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
45.
Overcoat
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An overcoat is a type of long coat intended to be worn as the outermost garment, which usually extends below the knee. Overcoats are most commonly used in winter when warmth is more important and they are sometimes confused with or referred to as topcoats, which are shorter and end at or above the knees. Topcoats and overcoats together are known as outercoats, unlike overcoats, topcoats are usually made from lighter weight cloth such as gabardine or covert, while overcoats are made from heavier cloth or fur. In many countries, coats and gowns reaching below the knee have been worn for centuries, often for formal uses, in the 17th century, the overcoat became widely stylised and available to the different classes. In the West, the profile of overcoats has remained largely unchanged for a long time. During the Regency, the fashion was to have very form-fitting clothes, with sidebodies, waist seams, examples of this included the frock overcoat and paletot. This gradually shifted to the styles more common now, typified by the Chesterfield coat. Until then, most coats were double breasted, but Chesterfields, more recently, there is a decline in the wearing of full-length overcoats, and double breasted ones are much less common. Overcoats in various forms have been used by militaries since at least the late 18th century, the full length overcoat was once again popularised by the use during World War I of the trench coat. Stereotypically, overcoats used by the army tended to be single-breasted, overcoats continued to be used as battle dress until the mid-1940s and 1950s, when they were deemed impractical. However, in countries, such as the former USSR. When more efficient clothing and synthetic fibres became readily available, the overcoat began to be phased out even there, when a 2008–2011 attempt to introduce military uniforms made of warm synthetic fibers was made in Russia, it resulted in many soldiers getting frostbite and pneumonia. Some of the most common historical overcoats, in chronological order
46.
Dandy
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A dandy could be a self-made who strove to imitate an aristocratic lifestyle despite coming from a middle-class background, especially in late 18th- and early 19th-century Britain. Previous manifestations of the petit-maître and the Muscadin have been noted by John C, prevost, but the modern practice of dandyism first appeared in the revolutionary 1790s, both in London and in Paris. The dandy cultivated cynical reserve, yet to such extremes that novelist George Meredith, himself no dandy, some took a more benign view, Thomas Carlyle wrote in Sartor Resartus that a dandy was no more than a clothes-wearing man. Dandyism is a form of Romanticism, contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance. For the perfect dandy, these things are no more than the symbol of the superiority of mind. The linkage of clothing with political protest had become a particularly English characteristic during the 18th century, nigel Rodgers in The Dandy, Peacock or Enigma. Questions Wildes status as a dandy, seeing him as someone who only assumed a dandified stance in passing. The origin of the word is uncertain, a slightly later Scottish border ballad, circa 1780, also features the word, but probably without all the contextual aspects of its more recent meaning. The original, full form of dandy may have been jack-a-dandy and it was a vogue word during the Napoleonic Wars. In that contemporary slang, a dandy was differentiated from a fop in that the dress was more refined. The model dandy in British society was George Bryan Beau Brummell, in his days, an undergraduate student at Oriel College, Oxford and later. Brummell was not from a background, indeed, his greatness was based on nothing at all. From the mid-1790s, Beau Brummell was the incarnation of the celebrity. In 1799, upon coming of age, Beau Brummell inherited from his father a fortune of thirty pounds, which he spent mostly on costume, gambling. In 1816 he suffered bankruptcy, the dandys stereotyped fate, he fled his creditors to France, quietly dying in 1840, in an asylum in Caen. In that spirit, he had his portrait painted in Albanian costume, another prominent dandy of the period was Alfred Guillaume Gabriel dOrsay, the Count dOrsay, who had been friends with Byron and who moved in the highest social circles of London. In 1836 Thomas Carlyle wrote, A Dandy is a clothes-wearing Man, a Man whose trade, office and existence consists in the wearing of Clothes. Every faculty of his soul, spirit, purse, and person is heroically consecrated to one object
