1.
Personal stereo
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A personal stereo is a portable audio player using an audiocassette player, battery power and in some cases an AM/FM radio. This allows the user to listen to music through headphones while walking, jogging or relaxing, personal stereos typically have a belt clip or a shoulder strap so a user can attach the device to a belt or wear it over his or her shoulder. Some personal stereos came with a separate battery case, the first personal stereo was the Stereobelt invented and patented by West German-Brazilian inventor Andreas Pavel in 1977. Pavel attempted to commercialise this invention but failed to do so, the first commercial personal stereo was the Sony Walkman released in 1979, created by Akio Morita, Masaru Ibuka and Kozo Ohsone. It became a popular and widely imitated consumer item in the 1980s, in the 1990s, portable CD players became the most popular personal stereos. In the 2000s, digital players like the iPod became the dominant personal stereos, during this period, smart phones like the iPhone also became popular music listening devices. Essays on Sound, Listening, and Modernity, New York, chapter 9, Thinking About Sound, Proximity, and Distance in Western Experience, The Case of Odysseuss Walkman by Michael Bull
2.
Sony
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Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation that is headquartered in Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo. Its diversified business includes consumer and professional electronics, gaming, entertainment, the company is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for the consumer and professional markets. Sony was ranked 116th on the 2015 list of Fortune Global 500 and these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world. The group consists of Sony Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Financial Holdings and others. Sony is among the Semiconductor sales leaders by year and as of 2013, the companys current slogan is BE MOVED. Their former slogans were make. believe, like. no. other, Sony has a weak tie to the SMFG keiretsu, the successor to the Mitsui keiretsu. Sony began in the wake of World War II, in 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees, in the following year he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo 東京通信工業. The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G, in 1958 the company changed its name to Sony. When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK, the company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name, the name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was sonny, a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a boy. In the 1950s Japan sonny boys, was a word into Japanese which connoted smart and presentable young men. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955, at the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition, TTKs principal bank at the time and they pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval, according to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U. S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics
3.
Portable media player
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A portable media player or digital audio player is a portable consumer electronics device capable of storing and playing digital media such as audio, images, and video files. The data is stored on a CD, DVD, flash memory, microdrive. Most portable media players are equipped with a 3.5 mm headphone jack, in contrast, analog portable audio players play music from non-digital media that use analog signal storage, such as cassette tapes or vinyl records. Often mobile digital audio players are marketed and sold as portable MP3 players, even if they support other file formats. Portable DVD players are still manufactured by brands across the world and this article focuses on portable devices that have the main function of playing media. The immediate predecessor in the place of the digital audio player was the portable CD player and prior to that. British scientist Kane Kramer invented the first digital audio player, which he called the IXI and his 1979 prototypes were capable of approximately one hour of audio playback but did not enter commercial production. His UK patent application was not filed until 1981 and was issued in 1985 in the UK and 1987 in the US. However, in 1988 Kramers failure to raise the £60,000 required to renew the patent meant it entering the public domain, but he still owns the designs. Apple Inc. hired Kramer as a consultant and presented his work as an example of art in the field of digital audio players during their litigation with Burst. com almost two decades later. At about the same time AT&T also developed an internal Web based music streaming service that had the ability to download music to FlashPAC, AAC and such music downloading services later formed the foundation for the Apple iPod and iTunes. The first portable MP3 player was launched in 1997 by Saehan Information Systems, in mid-1998, the South Korean company licensed the players for North American distribution to Eiger Labs, which rebranded them as the EigerMan F10 and F20. The flash-based players were available in 32 MB or 64 MB storage capacity and had a LCD screen to tell the user the song currently playing. The first production-volume portable digital audio player was The Audible Player from Audible. com available for sale in January 1998 and it only supported playback of digital audio in Audibles proprietary, low-bitrate format which was developed for spoken word recordings. Capacity was limited to 4 MB of internal memory, or about 2 hours of play. The unit had no display and rudimentary controls, the Rio PMP300 from Diamond Multimedia was introduced in September 1998, a few months after the MPMan, and also featured a 32 MB storage capacity. It was a success during the season, with sales exceeding expectations. Interest and investment in digital music were subsequently spurred from it, because of the players notoriety as the target of a major lawsuit, the Rio is erroneously assumed to be the first digital audio player
4.
Compact Cassette
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The Compact Cassette or Musicassette, also commonly called cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. It was released by Philips in 1962, having developed in Hasselt. Compact cassettes come in two forms, either already containing content as a cassette, or as a fully recordable blank cassette. Its uses ranged from portable audio to home recording to data storage for early microcomputers, the first cassette player designed for use in car dashes was introduced in 1968. Between the early 1970s and the early 2000s, the cassette was one of the two most common formats for prerecorded music, first alongside the LP record and later the compact disc. Compact Cassettes contain two miniature spools, between which a magnetically coated, polyester-type plastic film is passed and wound and these spools and their attendant parts are held inside a protective plastic shell. This reversal is achieved either by flipping the cassette, or by having the machine itself change the direction of tape movement. In 1935, decades before the introduction of the Compact Cassette, AEG released the first reel-to-reel tape recorder and it was based on the invention of the magnetic tape by Fritz Pfleumer, which used similar technology but with open reels. These instruments were expensive and relatively difficult to use and were therefore used mostly by professionals in radio stations. In 1958, following four years of development, RCA Victor introduced the stereo, quarter-inch, reversible, however, it was a large cassette, and offered few pre-recorded tapes. Despite the multiple versions, it failed, consumer use of tape only took off in the early 1960s, after playback machines reached a comfortable, user-friendly design. This was achieved primarily by the introduction of transistors which replaced the bulky, fragile, reel-to-reel tape then became more suitable to household use, but still remained an esoteric product. The team at Philips was led by Lou Ottens in Hasselt, Philips was competing with Telefunken and Grundig in a race to establish its cassette tape as the worldwide standard, and it wanted support from Japanese electronics manufacturers. However, the Philips Compact Cassette became dominant as a result of Philips decision to license the format free of charge, Philips also released the Norelco Carry-Corder 150 recorder/player in the US in November 1964. By 1966 over 250,000 recorders had been sold in the US alone, by 1968,85 manufacturers had sold over 2.4 million players. By the end of the 1960s, the business was worth an estimated 150 million dollars. In the early years sound quality was mediocre, but it improved dramatically by the early 1970s when it caught up with the quality of 8-track tape, the Compact Cassette went on to become a popular alternative to the 12-inch vinyl LP during the late 1970s. The mass production of blank Compact Cassettes began in 1964 in Hanover, prerecorded music cassettes were launched in Europe in late 1965
5.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
6.
MP3 player
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An MP3 player or Digital Audio Player is an electronic device that can play digital audio files. It is a type of Portable Media Player, the term MP3 player is a misnomer, as most players play more than the MP3 file format. Since the MP3 format is used, almost all players can play that format. In addition, there are many digital audio formats. Some formats are proprietary, such as MP3, Windows Media Audio, some of these formats also may incorporate digital rights management, such as WMA DRM, which are often part of paid download sites. Other formats are patent-free or otherwise open, such as Vorbis, FLAC, in 1981, Kane Kramer filed for a UK patent for the IXI, the first Digital Audio Player. UK patent 2115996 was issued in 1985, and U. S, patent 4,667,088 was issued in 1987. Plans were made for a 10-minute stereo memory card and the system was at one time fitted with a drive which would have enabled over an hour of recorded digital music. However, in 1988 Kramers failure to raise the £60,000 required to renew the patent meant it entering the public domain, but he still owns the designs. In the year 1987 a German Company by the name of Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft started the program for coding music with the high quality. The project was controlled by an expert in mathematics and electronics, the first MP3 player was developed by SaeHan Information Systems in 1997. Nevertheless, the first one on the American market was the Eiger Labs F10, a 32MB portable that appeared in the summer of 1998. It was a basic unit and wasnt user expandable, though owners could upgrade the memory to 64MB by sending the player back to Eiger Labs with a check for $69.00 + $7.95 shipping. The second MP3 player needed was the Rio PMP300 from Diamond Multimedia, the Rio was a big success during the Christmas 1998 season as sales significantly exceeded expectations, spurring interest and investment in digital music. Eiger Labs and Diamond and went on to establish a new segment in the audio player market. Other early MP3 portables include Sensory Sciences Rave MP2100, the I-Jam IJ-100 and these portables were small and light, but only held enough memory to hold around 7 to 20 songs at normal 128kbit/s compression rates. As more users migrated to Win 98 by 2000, all players went USB, at the end of 1999, a company called Remote Solutions significantly broke that barrier by utilizing a laptop drive for song storage rather than low capacity flash memory. The Personal Jukebox had 4. 8GB, which held about 1200 songs and this segment eventually became the dominant type of digital music player
7.
Sony Mobile
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Sony Mobile is a multinational telecommunications company founded on October 1,2001 as a joint venture between Sony and Ericsson, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan and wholly owned by Sony. It was originally incorporated as Sony Ericsson, but Sony acquired Ericssons share in the venture on February 16,2012, Sony Mobile Communications has research and development facilities in Kenya, Africa, Chennai, India, Lund, Sweden, Beijing, China and Silicon Valley, USA. Sony Mobile was the fourth-largest smartphone manufacturer by market share in the quarter of 2012 with 9.8 million units shipped. In the United States, Ericsson partnered with General Electric in the nineties as Ericsson Mobile Communications, primarily to establish a US presence. Ericsson had decided to obtain chips for its phones from a single source—a Philips facility in New Mexico, on March 17,2000, a fire at the Philips factory contaminated the sterile facility. Philips assured Ericsson and Nokia that production would be delayed for no more than a week, when it became clear that production would actually be compromised for months, Ericsson was faced with a serious shortage. Nokia had already begun to obtain parts from alternative sources, but Ericssons position was much worse as production of current models and the launch of new ones was held up. Ericsson, which had been in the phone market for decades. This was mainly due to fire and its inability to produce cheaper phones like Nokia. To curtail the losses, it considered outsourcing production to Asian companies that could produce the handsets for lower costs, speculation began about a possible sale by Ericsson of its mobile phone division, but the companys president, Kurt Hellström, said it had no plans to do so. Hellström said, Mobile phones are really a core business for Ericsson and we wouldnt be as successful if we didnt have phones. Sony was a player in the worldwide mobile phone market with a share of less than 1 percent in 2000. By August 2001, the two companies had finalised the terms of the merger announced in April, Ericsson contributed a majority of the Ericsson Mobile Communications company, excluding a minor part spun off as Ericsson Mobile Platforms. Sony contributed its entire handset division, the company was to have an initial workforce of 3,500 employees. To this end, it released new models which had built-in digital camera. The joint venture continued to make losses in spite of booming sales. In 2007, the companys first 5-Megapixel camera phone, the Sony Ericsson K850i, was announced followed in 2008 by the Sony Ericsson C905, at Mobile World Congress 2009, Sony Ericsson unveiled the first 12-Megapixel phone, named Satio. In 2005, Sony Ericsson agreed to become the title sponsor for the WTA Tour in a deal worth $88 million US dollars over 6 years
8.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
9.
Masaru Ibuka
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Masaru Ibuka was a Japanese electronics industrialist and co-founder of Sony. In 1946, he left the company and navy, and founded a bombed out radio repair shop in Tokyo, in 1946 Ibuka and Akio Morita co-founded Sony Corporation, originally named Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation. Ibuka served as president of Sony from 1950 to 1971, Ibuka received Honorary Doctorates from the Sophia University, Tokyo in 1976, from the Waseda University, Tokyo in 1979, and from Brown University in 1994. The IEEE awarded him the IEEE Founders Medal in 1972 and named the IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award after him in 1987, Ibuka served as the Chairman of the National Board of Governors of the Boy Scouts of Nippon. In 1991 the World Organization of the Scout Movement awarded him the Bronze Wolf, in 1989 he also received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award. Distinguished Services Award from the Institute of Electrical Communication Engineers of Japan,1981, humanism and Technology Award from the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies,1986. Eduard Rhein Ring of Honor, German Eduard Rhein Foundation,1989, designated Person of Cultural Merits by Ministry of Education,199. The Presidential Award and Medallion from the University of Illinois, the books foreword was written by Glenn Doman, founder of The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, an organization that teaches parents about child brain development. Ibuka and Doman agreed that the first years of life were vital for education, Ibuka left Sony in 1976, but maintained close ties as an advisor until his death in December 1997 from heart failure at the age of 89. He was posthumously decorated with the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers, Ibukas books IEEE bio of Ibuka Russian version of Ibukas Kindergarten is Too Late
10.
Stereobelt
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The Stereobelt was the first portable personal stereo audio cassette player. It was invented by the German-Brazilian Andreas Pavel, the Stereobelt was the ancestor of the Walkman and later personal audio devices such as the iPod. The initial test of the device took place in February 1972 in St. Moritz, Switzerland, Germany, the United Kingdom and Japan by the end of 1978. Sony began selling the arguably similar Walkman personal stereo in 1979, in negotiations that began in 1980 and ended in 1986, Sony agreed to pay Pavel limited royalties for the sales of certain Walkman models sold in his home country of Germany only. A second round of battles between Pavel and Sony that began in 1989 in Great Britain ended when the case was dismissed in 1996. The settlement was reported to be a payment of over $10,000,000. US patent 4412106, Andreas Pavel, High fidelity stereophonic reproduction system, patent 4,412,106 full text and images
11.
Sony Watchman
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The Sony Watchman was a line of portable pocket televisions trademarked and produced by Sony. The line was introduced in 1982 and discontinued in 2000, the initial model was introduced in 1982 as the FD-210, which had a grayscale five centimeter display. The device weighed around 650 grams, with a measurement of 87 x 198 x 33 millimeters, the device was sold in Japan with a price of 54,800 yen. Roughly two years later, in 1984, the device was introduced to Europe and North America, Sony manufactured more than 65 models of the Watchman before its discontinuation in 2000. Upon the release of further models after the FD-210, the size increased. The FD-3, introduced in 1987, had a digital clock. The FD-30, introduced in 1984 had a built-in AM/FM Stereo radio, the FD-40/42/44/45 were among the largest Watchmen, utilizing a 4 CRT display. The FD-40 introduced a single composite A/V input, the FD-45, introduced in 1986, was water-resistant. In 1988/1989, the FDL 330S color Watchman TV/Monitor with LCD display was introduced, in 1990, the FDL-310, a Watchman with a color LCD display was introduced. The FD-280/285, made from 1990 to 1994, was the last Watchman to use a black and white CRT display. Due to the switch of over-the-air television to digital, most models of the Sony Watchman in the US have lost their usefulness, a model of the Sony Watchman is seen multiple times in the film Rain Man. Reverse Time Page The Short History of Pocket TV Vintage Micro Television http, //www. visions4. net/journal/time-line/
12.
NT (cassette)
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NT was a digital memo recording system introduced by Sony in 1992, sometimes marketed under the name Scoopman. The system stored memos using helical scanning on special microcassettes, which were 30 ×21.5 ×5 mm with a width of 2.5 mm. The Scoopmen cassettes are offered in three versions, The Sony NTC-60, -90, and -120, each describing the length of time the cassette could record. NT stands for Non-Tracking, meaning the head moves at a slope to that of the tracks on the tape, crossing several during each pass. By making several passes it is possible to reassemble the data for each track. This considerably reduced the complexity and size of the head, and, therefore, audio sampling was in stereo at 32 kHz/12 bit and encoded using a form of linear delta modulation called LDM-2. Due to the buffer memory, it was capable of automatically reversing the tape direction at the end of the reel without an interruption in the sound. The recorder used a single AA-size cell for power, plus a separate CR-1220 lithium cell to provide continuous power to the real-time clock. The Sony NT-2, a successor to the Sony NT-1 Digital Micro Recorder. The devices are considered curiosities for collectors
13.
Discman
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Discman was the product name given to Sonys first portable CD player, the D-5 /D-50, which was the first on the market in 1984, and adopted for Sonys entire portable CD player line. In Japan, all Discman products are referred to as CD Walkman, prior to the development of the CD, cassette tapes were the dominant form of audio storage in regards to the then-fledgling portable audio industry. In 1979, Sony had introduced the Walkman in Japan, as Sony began to realize the potential of the CD, executives pushed for a means to give the CD player market momentum, moving it from audio enthusiasts to the mainstream. With the ability to produce a CD player one-tenth the size of its first unit by August 1983, the original goal was to create a player that was the equivalent size of four CD cases stacked on top of each other. A piece of wood 13.4 cm across and about 4 cm thick was shown to the staff to illustrate the physical dimensions for which they were aiming, the D-50 was released in November 1984, two years after mass production of CDs began. The unit offered the same functionality as the full-size CDP-101 player, but came without a remote, the D-50 retailed for only 49,800 yen, approximately half the cost price of the CDP-101. The unit successfully sparked public interest in CDs, boosting their popularity, and within a year, because of its portable nature and similarity to the Walkman, the nickname Discman was given to the D-50. This name has been used to refer to any Sony portable CD player, however, Sony has since changed the name to CD Walkman, starting in the late 1990s. The release of the D-50 sparked public interest in CDs as an audio format, a portable CD market was created and the price of competing CD players from other manufacturers dropped. The CD industry experienced sudden growth with the number of CD titles available dramatically increasing, Sony Data Discman Notes Sources Sony History. Sony Walkman Personal Stereo Turns 20 Years Old, archived from the original on July 20,2009. - Reference site containing details and pictures of various Discman and Walkman models, eEVblog #863 - Sony D50 Discman Teardown - Worlds First Portable CD Player
14.
Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
15.
Sony marketing
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Sony engages in a variety of different marketing efforts, as one of the worlds largest and most pervasive corporations. Sonys former slogans have been The One and Only, Its a Sony, like. no. other and its current slogan is BE MOVED. It was for the TR-6 radio that Sony first contracted Atchan, now known as Sony Boy, the character first appeared in a cartoon ad holding a TR-6 to his ear, but went on to represent the company in ads for a variety of products well into the mid-sixties. Sony announced a brand strategy at IFA2009 to replace the like. no. other moniker, the words make. believe form the Sony Group Brand Message. The words are designed to unify the efforts at communication. This marks the first time any message has served to represent the entire range of products. Previously, the company adopted separate strategies in its promotion of entertainment, following the announcement of the make. believe brand strategy, the company included the logo at the end of advertisements. Not until November 2009 did it launch its first advertisement, Sony expanded the initial ad to print, television, digital, and outdoor advertisements across Europe. The company launched the make. believe strategy in the United States in January 2010, Sony budgeted US$100 million for its make. believe campaign in 2010. That same year, Sony rolled out the portion of the campaign. It broadcast television advertisements featuring American football player Peyton Manning as well as pop singer Justin Timberlake, the ads were intended to teach consumers about 3D and reduce misconceptions about the technology. As a part of the push, the company planned to conduct several thousand demonstrations in retail settings, the BRAVIA brand uses the slogan Color like. no. other. The launch of the BRAVIA was supported by an advertising campaign, the idea was brought to life by director Nicolai Fuglsig with the help of Los Angeles-based special effects guru Barry Conner. In addition to the 12 air mortars, Conner deployed three giant skips, each lifted 50 feet into the air and containing 35,000 colored bouncy balls. The first shot required 50,000 balls to be sent cascading down a hill, a team of 50 interns was on hand to gather up the balls for the six takes it took in the more than four days to film the advertisement. Golf nets were erected at the sides of the street and every drain was blocked, the idea was originally a segment of the Late Show with David Letterman in 1996, in which bouncy balls rolled down the same street. Fallon, the agency involved with the commercial, denied ever having watched the episode. The commercial is accompanied by the song Heartbeats, written by Swedish duo The Knife, the track became very popular on radio stations in the UK after it was released by Peacefrog Records and helped his debut album Veneer reach number 7 in the UK albums chart
16.
Hotline
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An example would be a phone that automatically connects to emergency services on picking up the receiver. Therefore, dedicated hotline phones do not need a rotary dial or keypad, a hotline can also be called an automatic signaling, ringdown, or off-hook service. True hotlines cannot be used to originate calls other than to preselected destinations, however, in common or colloquial usage, a hotline often refers to a call center reachable by dialing a standard telephone number, or sometimes the phone numbers themselves. Increasingly, however, the term is found being applied to any customer service telephone number, the most famous hotline between states is the Moscow–Washington hotline, which is also known as the red telephone, although telephones have never been used in this capacity. From 1943 to 1946, this link was made secure by using the very first voice encryption machine, a hotline connection between Moscow and Beijing was used during the 1969 frontier confrontation between the two countries. The Chinese however refused the Russian peace attempts and ended the communications link, after a reconciliation between the former enemies, the hotline between China and Russia was revived in 1996. On his visit to the Soviet Union in 1966, French President Charles de Gaulle announced that a hotline would be established between Paris and Moscow, the line was upgraded from a telex to a high-speed fax machine in 1989. A London–Moscow hotline was not formally established until a treaty of friendship between the two countries in 1992, an upgrade was announced when Foreign Secretary William Hague visited Moscow in 2011. The hotline was set up with the assistance of United States military officers, the United States and China set up a defense hotline in 2008, but it has rarely been used in crises. India and China announced a hotline for the ministers of both countries while reiterating their commitment to strengthening ties and building mutual political trust. As of August 2015 the hotline was yet to be made operational, in February 2013, the Senkaku Islands dispute gave renewed impetus to a China–Japan hotline, which had been agreed to but due to rising tensions had not been established. The Seoul–Pyongyang hotline was opened on 18 August 1972 and maintained by the Red Cross, north Korea deactivated the hotline on 11 March 2013, as part of increasing tensions on the Korean peninsula. North Korea reopened the hotline on 7 June 2013, in August 2015 the hotline between the White House and New Delhi became operational. The decision of establishing this hotline was taken during Obamas visit to India in January 2015 and this is the first hotline connecting an Indian Prime Minister to a head of state. Bat phone Complaint system Top Level Telecommunications, Bilateral Hotlines Worldwide
17.
Compact disc
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Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres, they are used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. At the time of the introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much space as a thousand CDs. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs, by 2007,200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time. American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s, although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published in 1980, after their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984, by 1988 CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company. In 1974, L. However, due to the performance of the analog format
18.
Digital Audio Tape
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Digital Audio Tape is a signal recording and playback medium developed by Sony and introduced in 1987. In appearance it is similar to a Compact Cassette, using 3.81 mm /0.15 magnetic tape enclosed in a protective shell, as the name suggests, the recording is digital rather than analog. DAT has the ability to record at higher, equal or lower sampling rates than a CD at 16 bits quantization, the format saw moderate success in professional markets and as a computer storage medium, which was developed into the Digital Data Storage format. As Sony has ceased production of new recorders, it become more difficult to play archived recordings in this format unless they are copied to other formats or hard drives. The technology of DAT is closely based on that of video recorders, using a rotating head and this prevents DATs from being physically edited in the cut-and-splice manner of analog tapes, or open-reel digital tapes like ProDigi or DASH. The DAT standard allows for four sampling modes,32 kHz at 12 bits, certain recorders operate outside the specification, allowing recording at 96 kHz and 24 bits. Some early machines aimed at the market did not operate at 44.1 kHz when recording so they could not be used to clone a compact disc. Included in the data are subcodes to indicate the start and end of tracks or to skip a section entirely. Two-channel stereo recording is supported under all sampling rates and bit depths, DAT tapes are between 15 and 180 minutes in length, a 120-minute tape being 60 metres in length. DAT tapes longer than 60 metres tend to be problematic in DAT recorders due to the thinner media, DAT machines running at 48 kHz and 44.1 kHz sample rates transport the tape at 8.15 mm/s. DAT machines running at 32 kHz sample rate transport the tape at 4.075 mm/s, denons development dated from its work with Japans NHK Broadcasting, NHK developed the first high-fidelity PCM audio recorder in the late 1960s. Soundstreams system was used by RCA. Starting in 1978, 3M introduced its own line and format of audio tape recorders for use in a recording studio. One of the first prototypes of 3Ms system was installed in the studios of Sound 80 in Minneapolis and this system was used in June 1978 to record Aaron Coplands Appalachian Spring by the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra conducted by Dennis Russell Davies. That record was the first Grammy-winning digital recording, the production version of the 3M Digital Mastering System was used in 1979 to record the first all-digital rock album, Ry Cooders Bop Till You Drop, made at Warner Brothers Studio in California. The first consumer-oriented PCM format used consumer video tape formats as the storage medium and these systems used the EIAJ digital format, which sampled at 44.056 kHz at 14 bits. The Sony PCM-F1 system debuted in 1981, and Sony from the offered the option of 16-bit wordlength. Other systems were marketed by Akai, JVC, Nakamichi and others, panasonic, via its Technics division, briefly sold a digital recorder that combined an EIAJ digital adapter with a VHS video transport, the SV-P100
19.
MiniDisc
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MiniDisc is a magneto-optical disc-based data storage format offering a capacity of 74 minutes and, later,80 minutes, of digitized audio or 1 gigabyte of Hi-MD data. Sony brand audio players were on the market from September 1992 until March 2013, MiniDisc was announced by Sony in September 1992 and released that November of that year for sale in Japan and in December in Europe, Canada, the USA and other countries. MiniDiscs were very popular outside of the USA, Sony has ceased development of MD devices, with the last of the players sold by March 2013. It took, however, almost 10 years before their idea was commercialized, Sony had originally intended Digital Audio Tape to be the dominant home digital audio recording format, replacing the analog cassette. Due to technical delays, DAT was not launched until 1989, by the time Sony came up with MiniDisc in late 1992, Philips had introduced a competing system, DCC. This created marketing confusion very similar to the Betamax versus VHS battle of the late 1970s, Sony attempted to license MD technology to other manufacturers, with JVC, Sharp, Pioneer, Panasonic and others all producing their own MD systems. However, non-Sony machines were not widely available in North America, despite having a loyal customer base largely of musicians and audio enthusiasts, MiniDisc met with only limited success. It was relatively popular in Japan during the 1990s but did not enjoy comparable sales in other world markets, since then, recordable CDs, flash memory and HDD and solid-state-based digital audio players such as iPods have become increasingly popular as playback devices. The initial low uptake of MiniDisc was attributed to the number of pre-recorded albums available on MD as relatively few record labels embraced the format. The initial high cost of equipment and blank media was also a factor, mains-powered hi-fi MiniDisc player/recorders never got into the lower price ranges, and most consumers had to connect a portable machine to the hi-fi in order to record. This inconvenience contrasted with the common use of cassette decks as a standard part of an ordinary hi-fi set-up. The biggest competition for MiniDisc came from the emergence of MP3 players, with the Diamond Rio player in 1998 and the Apple iPod, the mass market began to eschew physical media in favor of file-based systems. This allowed the MiniDisc to better compete with HD recorders and MP3 players, on 7 July 2011, Sony announced that it would no longer ship MiniDisc Walkman products as of September 2011, effectively killing the format. On 1 February 2013, Sony issued a release on the Nikkei stock exchange that it will cease shipment of MD devices. However, it would continue to sell blank discs and offer repair services, MD Data, a version for storing computer data, was announced by Sony in 1993 but never gained significant ground. Its media were incompatible with standard audio MiniDiscs, which has been cited as one of the reasons behind the formats failure. MD Data could not write to audio-MDs, only the more expensive data blanks. In 1997, MD-Data2 blanks were introduced, which held 650 MB of data and they were only implemented in Sonys short-lived MD-based camcorder as well as a small number of multi-track recorders, Sonys MDM-X4, Tascams 564, and Yamahas MD-8, MD-4, & MD4S
20.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
21.
CNN
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The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky
22.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
23.
Dolby noise-reduction system
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A Dolby noise-reduction system, or Dolby NR, is one of a series of noise reduction systems developed by Dolby Laboratories for use in analog magnetic tape recording. It is common on high fidelity stereo tape players and recorders to the present day, of the noise reduction systems, Dolby A and Dolby SR were developed for professional use. Dolby B, C, and S were designed for the consumer market, aside from Dolby HX, all the Dolby variants work by companding, or compressing the dynamic range of the sound during recording and expanding it during playback. When recording a signal on tape, there is a low level of noise in the background which sounds like hissing. One solution is low-noise tape which records more signal, and less noise, run tape at a higher speed, with 10 to 20 years, the original reel-to-reel high fidelity tape recorders which did not need noise reduction were eventually replaced by cassette decks for home use. The signal to noise ratio is simply how large the music signal is compared to the low level of the noise with no signal. When the music is loud, the low hiss is not noticeable, if the recording level is adjusted so that the music is always loud, then it could in theory be turned down later, and the noise volume would also be turned down. The idea is for electronics to increase the recording volume when it is soft. Some schemes like Dolby B concentrate only on the high frequencies so that the sound of noise will be masked when volume is turned down for playback. Dolby noise reduction is a form of dynamic preemphasis employed during recording, plus a form of dynamic deemphasis used during playback, that work in tandem to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. As the tape is recorded, the amplitude of the signal above 1 kHz is used to determine how much pre-emphasis to apply - a low-level signal is boosted by 10 dB or 20 dB. As the signal rises in amplitude, less and less pre-emphasis is applied until at the Dolby level, on playback, the opposite process is applied, based on the relative signal component above 1 kHz. The two processes are intended to cancel each other out as far as the actual recorded program is concerned, only de-emphasis is applied to the incoming signal and noise during playback. After playback de-emphasis is complete, apparent noise in the signal is reduced. Playback without noise reduction produces a brighter sound, however. This can manifest itself as muffled-sounding playback, or breathing of the level as the signal varies. For accurate off-the-tape monitoring during recording on 3-head decks, both processes must be employed at once, and circuitry provided to accomplish this is marketed under the rubric Double Dolby, Dolby A was the companys first noise reduction system, presented in 1965. It was intended for use in recording studios, where it became commonplace
24.
Phase-locked loop
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A phase-locked loop or phase lock loop abbreviated as PLL is a control system that generates an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of an input signal. While there are several differing types, it is easy to visualize as an electronic circuit consisting of a variable frequency oscillator. The oscillator generates a signal, and the phase detector compares the phase of that signal with the phase of the input periodic signal. Bringing the output signal back toward the signal for comparison is called a feedback loop since the output is fed back toward the input forming a loop. Keeping the input and output phase in lock step also implies keeping the input and output frequencies the same, consequently, in addition to synchronizing signals, a phase-locked loop can track an input frequency, or it can generate a frequency that is a multiple of the input frequency. These properties are used for clock synchronization, demodulation. Phase-locked loops are widely employed in radio, telecommunications, computers, for a practical idea of what is going on, consider an auto race. There are many cars, and the driver of each of them wants to go around the track as fast as possible, each lap corresponds to a complete cycle, and each car will complete dozens of laps per hour. The number of laps per hour corresponds to an angular velocity, but the number of laps corresponds to a phase. During most of the race, each car is on its own and the driver of the car is trying to beat the driver of other car on the course. However, if there is an accident, a car comes out to set a safe speed. None of the cars are permitted to pass the pace car. While it is on the track, the car is a reference. Each driver will measure the difference between him and the pace car. If the driver is far away, he will increase his speed to close the gap. If hes too close to the car, he will slow down. The result is all the race cars lock on to the phase of the pace car, the cars travel around the track in a tight group that is a small fraction of a lap. Phase can be proportional to time, so a difference can be a time difference
25.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
26.
Amorphous metal
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An amorphous metal is a solid metallic material, usually an alloy, with a disordered atomic-scale structure. Most metals are crystalline in their state, which means they have a highly ordered arrangement of atoms. Amorphous metals are non-crystalline, and have a glass-like structure, but unlike common glasses, such as window glass, which are typically electrical insulators, amorphous metals have good electrical conductivity. There are several ways in which amorphous metals can be produced, including extremely rapid cooling, physical vapor deposition, solid-state reaction, ion irradiation, in the past, small batches of amorphous metals have been produced through a variety of quick-cooling methods. For instance, amorphous metal ribbons have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a metal disk. The rapid cooling, on the order of millions of degrees a second, is too fast for crystals to form and the material is locked in a glassy state. More recently a number of alloys with critical cooling rates low enough to allow formation of structure in thick layers have been produced. More recently, batches of amorphous steel with three times the strength of steel alloys have been produced. The first reported metallic glass was an alloy produced at Caltech by W. Klement, Willens and this and other early glass-forming alloys had to be cooled extremely rapidly to avoid crystallization. As a result, metallic glass specimens were limited to thicknesses of less than one hundred micrometers, in 1969, an alloy of 77. 5% palladium, 6% copper, and 16. 5% silicon was found to have critical cooling rate between 100 and 1000 K/s. In 1976, H. Liebermann and C, graham developed a new method of manufacturing thin ribbons of amorphous metal on a supercooled fast-spinning wheel. This was an alloy of iron, nickel, phosphorus and boron, the material, known as Metglas, was commercialized in the early 1980s and is used for low-loss power distribution transformers. Metglas-2605 is composed of 80% iron and 20% boron, has Curie temperature of 373 °C and a room temperature saturation magnetization of 1.56 teslas. In the early 1980s, glassy ingots with 5 mm diameter were produced from the alloy of 55% palladium,22. 5% lead, using boron oxide flux, the achievable thickness was increased to a centimeter. In 1988, alloys of lanthanum, aluminium, and copper ore were found to be highly glass-forming, al-based metallic glasses containing Scandium exhibited a record-type tensile mechanical strength of about 1500 MPa. In the 1990s new alloys were developed that form glasses at cooling rates as low as one kelvin per second and these cooling rates can be achieved by simple casting into metallic molds. These bulk amorphous alloys can be cast into parts of up to several centimeters in thickness while retaining an amorphous structure, the best glass-forming alloys are based on zirconium and palladium, but alloys based on iron, titanium, copper, magnesium, and other metals are also known. Many amorphous alloys are formed by exploiting a phenomenon called the confusion effect, in this way, the random disordered state of the atoms is locked in
27.
AA battery
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The AA battery—also called a double A or Mignon battery—is a standard size single cell cylindrical dry battery. The IEC60086 system calls it size R6, and ANSIC18 calls it size 15, historically, it is known as HP7 in official documentation the United Kingdom, though it is colloquially known as a double A battery. AA batteries are common in electronic devices. An AA battery is composed of an electrochemical cell that may be either a primary battery or a rechargeable battery. The exact terminal voltage and capacity of an AA size battery depends on cell chemistry, however, ANSI and IEC Battery nomenclature gives several designations for cells in this size, depending on cell features and chemistry. An AA cell measures 49. 2–50.5 mm in length, alkaline AA cells have a weight of roughly 23 g, lithium AA cells have a mass around 15 g, and rechargeable Ni-MH cells around 31 g. Primary zinc–carbon AA batteries have around 400–900 milliamp-hours capacity, with measured capacity highly dependent on test conditions, duty cycle, zinc–carbon batteries are usually marketed as general purpose batteries. Zinc-chloride batteries store around 1000 to 1500 mAh are often sold as heavy duty or super heavy duty, alkaline batteries from 1700 mAh to 3000 mAh cost more than zinc-chloride batteries, but last proportionally longer. Lithium iron disulfide batteries are intended for use in equipment compatible with alkaline zinc batteries, a fresh alkaline zinc battery can have an open-circuit voltage of 1.6 volts, but an iron-disulfide battery with an open-circuit voltage below 1.7 volts is entirely discharged. Lithium ion chemistry has a voltage of 3. 6-3.7 volts. Nickel-zinc cell AAs are also available, but not widely used, in 2011, AA cells accounted for approximately 60% of alkaline battery sales in the United States. In Japan, 58% of alkaline batteries sold were AA, known in country as tansan. In Switzerland, AA batteries totaled 55% in both primary and secondary battery sales, list of battery sizes Battery nomenclature Datasheet for Energizer alkaline AA battery Datasheet for Energizer lithium AA battery Datasheet for Duracell alkaline AA battery
28.
High fidelity
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Ideally, high-fidelity equipment has inaudible noise and distortion, and a flat frequency response within the intended frequency range. Bell Laboratories began experimenting with a range of recording techniques in the early 1930s. Performances by Leopold Stokowski and the Philadelphia Orchestra were recorded in 1931 and 1932 using telephone lines between the Academy of Music in Philadelphia and the Bell labs in New Jersey. Some multitrack recordings were made on sound film, which led to new advances used primarily by MGM. RCA Victor began recording performances by several orchestras using optical sound around 1941, during the 1930s, Avery Fisher, an amateur violinist, began experimenting with audio design and acoustics. He wanted to make a radio that would sound like he was listening to a live orchestra—that would achieve high fidelity to the original sound. After World War II, Harry F. Olson conducted an experiment whereby test subjects listened to a live orchestra through a variable acoustic filter. The results proved that listeners preferred high fidelity reproduction, once the noise, the advent of the 33⅓ rpm Long Play microgroove vinyl record, with lower surface noise and quantitatively specified equalization curves as well as noise-reduction and dynamic range systems. Classical music fans, who were leaders in the audio market, quickly adopted LPs because, unlike with older records. FM radio, with wider bandwidth and less susceptibility to signal interference and fading than AM radio. Better amplifier designs, with attention to frequency response and much higher power output capability. New loudspeaker designs, including suspension, developed by Edgar Villchur. In the 1950s, audio manufacturers employed the phrase high fidelity as a term to describe records. Audiophiles paid attention to technical characteristics and bought individual components, such as turntables, radio tuners, preamplifiers. Some enthusiasts even assembled their own loudspeaker systems, in the 1950s, hi-fi became a generic term for home sound equipment, to some extent displacing phonograph and record player. Records were now played on a stereo, the consumer did not have to select and assemble individual components, or be familiar with impedance and power ratings. Purists generally avoid referring to systems as high fidelity, though some are capable of very good quality sound reproduction. Audiophiles in the 1970s and 1980s preferred to buy each component separately and that way, they could choose models of each component with the specifications that they desired
29.
Surface-mount technology
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Surface-mount technology is a method for producing electronic circuits in which the components are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. An electronic device so made is called a surface-mount device, in the industry it has largely replaced the through-hole technology construction method of fitting components with wire leads into holes in the circuit board. By employing SMT, the production process speeds up, but the risk of defects also increase due to the components miniaturization, in those conditions, the failures detection have become critical for any SMT manufacturing process. An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller leads or no leads at all and it may have short pins or leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder balls, or terminations on the body of the component. Surface mounting was originally called planar mounting, surface-mount technology was developed in the 1960s and became widely used in the late 1980s. Much of the work in this technology was by IBM. Components were mechanically redesigned to have metal tabs or end caps that could be directly soldered to the surface of the PCB. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of a board became far more common with surface mounting than through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities. Adhesive is sometimes used to hold SMT components on the side of a board if a wave soldering process is used to solder both SMT and through-hole components simultaneously. Surface mounting lends itself well to a degree of automation, reducing labor cost. SMDs can be one-quarter to one-tenth the size and weight, solder paste, a sticky mixture of flux and tiny solder particles, is first applied to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel stencil using a screen printing process. It can also be applied by a mechanism, similar to an inkjet printer. After pasting, the boards then proceed to the pick-and-place machines, the components to be placed on the boards are usually delivered to the production line in either paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some large integrated circuits are delivered in static-free trays, numerical control pick-and-place machines remove the parts from the tapes, tubes or trays and place them on the PCB. The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven and they first enter a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised. The boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to melt the solder particles in the solder paste, there are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared lamps, this is called infrared reflow, another is to use a hot gas convection. Another technology which is becoming popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling points which use a method called vapor phase reflow, due to environmental concerns, this method was falling out of favor until lead-free legislation was introduced which requires tighter controls on soldering
30.
Henry Rollins
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Henry Rollins is an American musician, actor, writer, television and radio host, and comedian. He hosts a radio show on KCRW, and is a regular columnist for LA Weekly. After performing in the short-lived Washington, D. C. band State of Alert in 1980, Rollins fronted the California hardcore punk band Black Flag from August 1981 until mid-1986. Since Black Flag disbanded, Rollins has hosted radio shows, such as Harmony in My Head on Indie 103, and television shows such as The Henry Rollins Show, MTVs 120 Minutes. He had recurring roles in the second season of Sons of Anarchy, in the final seasons of the animated series The Legend of Korra as Zaheer. Rollins has campaigned for political causes in the United States, including promoting LGBT rights, World Hunger Relief, the West Memphis Three. As of 2013, Rollins is the host of the educational television series 10 Things You Dont Know About, joining the show for its second. Rollins was born in Washington, D. C. the only child of Iris, when he was three years old, his parents divorced and he was raised by his mother in Glover Park, an affluent neighborhood of Washington. As a child and teenager, Rollins was sexually assaulted and he suffered from depression and low self-esteem. In the fourth grade, he was diagnosed with hyperactivity and took Ritalin for several years so that he could focus during school and he attended The Bullis School, an all-male preparatory school in Potomac, Maryland. According to Rollins, the Bullis School helped him to develop a sense of discipline and it was at Bullis that he began writing. In 1987, Rollins said he had not seen his father since he was 18, after high school, Rollins attended American University in Washington D. C. for one semester, but dropped out in December 1979. He began working minimum-wage jobs, including a job as a courier for kidney samples at the National Institutes of Health. Rollins developed an interest in punk rock after he and his friend Ian MacKaye procured a copy of The Ramoness eponymous debut album, from 1979 to 1980, Rollins was working as a roadie for Washington bands, including Teen Idles. When the bands singer Nathan Strejcek failed to appear for practice sessions, Rollins convinced the Teen Idles to let him sing. Word of Rollinss ability spread around the rock scene in Washington. In 1980, the Washington punk band the Extorts lost their frontman Lyle Preslar to Minor Threat, Rollins joined the rest of the band to form State of Alert, and became its frontman and vocalist. He put words to the five songs and wrote several more
31.
Chromium(IV) oxide
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Chromium dioxide or chromium oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula CrO2. It is a synthetic magnetic solid. It once was used in magnetic tape emulsion. With the increasing popularity of CDs and DVDs, the use of chromium oxide has declined, however, it is still used in data tape applications for enterprise-class storage systems. It is still considered by many oxide and tape manufacturers to have one of the best magnetic recording particulates ever invented. CrO2 was first prepared by Friedrich Wöhler by decomposition of chromyl chloride, acicular chromium dioxide was first synthesized in 1956 by Norman L. Cox, a chemist at E. I. DuPont, by decomposing chromium trioxide in the presence of water at a temperature of 800 K, when commercialized in the late 1960s as a recording medium, DuPont assigned it the tradename of Magtrieve. As such each Cr center has octahedral geometry and each oxide is trigonal planar. Chrome tapes did, however, require a new generation of audiocassette recorders equipped with a bias current capability than that used by iron oxide to properly magnetize the tape particles. These bias and EQ settings were later carried over to chrome-equivalent cobalt-modified tapes introduced in the mid 1970s by TDK, Maxell, the resulting product was potentially a competitor to metallic iron pigments but apparently achieved little market penetration. Until manufacturers developed new ways to mill the oxide, the crystals could easily be broken in the process. Output from a tape could drop about 1 dB or so in a years time, the chrome coating was harder than competitive coatings, and that led to accusations of excessive head wear. DuPont licensed the product to Sony in Japan and BASF in Germany in the early 1970s for regional production and distribution, Japanese competitors developed cobalt-adsorbed and cobalt ferrite chrome equivalent Type II audio cassettes and various videotape formats as substitutes. Added to that was the problem that the production of CrO2 yielded toxic by-products of which Japanese manufacturers had great difficulty properly disposing. BASF eventually became the largest producer of both the chromium dioxide pigment and chrome tapes, basing its VHS & S-VHS video tape, audio cassettes, dupont discontinued its production of chromium dioxide particles in the 1990s. Jaleel, V. Abdul, Kannan T. S. Hydrothermal synthesis of chromium dioxide powders, a survey of recent advances in magnetic recording materials. The Technical Argument for Chromium Dioxide, the BASF Inventors Notebook Number 6, http, //www. ant-audio. co. uk/Tape_Recording/Library/Chrome. pdf
32.
Line level
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Line level is the specified strength of an audio signal used to transmit analog sound between audio components such as CD and DVD players, television sets, audio amplifiers, and mixing consoles. As opposed to line level, there are weaker audio signals, such as those from microphones and instrument pickups, the strength of these various signals does not necessarily refer to the output voltage of the source device, it also depends on its output impedance and output power capability. Consumer electronic devices concerned with audio often have a labeled line in and/or line out. Line out provides a signal output and line in receives a signal input. Professional equipment commonly uses balanced connections on 6.35 mm TRS phone jacks or XLR connectors, professional equipment may also use unbalanced connections with TS phone jacks. A line level describes a lines nominal signal level as a ratio, expressed in decibels, the nominal level and the reference voltage against which it is expressed depend on the line level being used. While the nominal levels themselves vary, only two reference voltages are common, decibel volts for consumer applications, and decibels unloaded for professional applications, the decibel volt reference voltage is 1 VRMS =0 dBV. The decibel unloaded reference voltage,0 dBu, is the AC voltage required to produce 1 mW of power across a 600 Ω impedance. This awkward unit is a holdover from the early telephone standards, which used 600 Ω sources and loads, modern audio equipment does not use 600 Ω matched loads, hence dBm unloaded. The most common nominal level for consumer audio equipment is −10 dBV, and the most common nominal level for professional equipment is +4 dBu. Expressed in absolute terms, a signal at −10 dBV is equivalent to a wave signal with a peak amplitude of approximately 0.447 volts. A signal at +4 dBu is equivalent to a wave signal with a peak amplitude of approximately 1.736 volts. Peak-to-peak amplitude refers to the voltage swing of a signal. For instance, a signal with an amplitude of ±0.5 V has a p-p amplitude of 1.0 V. The line level signal is a current signal without a DC offset. Instead, line level circuits use the impedance bridging principle, in which a low impedance output drives a high impedance input, a typical line out connection has an output impedance from 100 to 600 Ω, with lower values being more common in newer equipment. Line inputs present a higher impedance, typically 10 kΩ or more. Most of the voltage asserted by the output appears across the input impedance, the line input acts similarly to a high impedance voltmeter or oscilloscope input, measuring the voltage asserted by the output while drawing minimal current from the source
33.
Flash memory
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Flash memory is electronic non-volatile computer storage medium that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Toshiba developed flash memory from EEPROM in the early 1980s and introduced it to the market in 1984, the two main types of flash memory are named after the NAND and NOR logic gates. The individual flash memory cells exhibit internal characteristics similar to those of the corresponding gates, where EPROMs had to be completely erased before being rewritten, NAND-type flash memory may be written and read in blocks which are generally much smaller than the entire device. NOR-type flash allows a machine word to be written—to an erased location—or read independently. The NAND type operates primarily in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid-state drives, NAND or NOR flash memory is also often used to store configuration data in numerous digital products, a task previously made possible by EEPROM or battery-powered static RAM. One key disadvantage of flash memory is that it can endure a relatively small number of write cycles in a specific block. In addition to being non-volatile, flash memory offers fast read access times, although flash memory is technically a type of EEPROM, the term EEPROM is generally used to refer specifically to non-flash EEPROM which is erasable in small blocks, typically bytes. Because erase cycles are slow, the block sizes used in flash memory erasing give it a significant speed advantage over non-flash EEPROM when writing large amounts of data. As of 2013, flash memory costs much less than byte-programmable EEPROM and had become the dominant memory type wherever a system required a significant amount of non-volatile solid-state storage, Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka while working for Toshiba circa 1980. According to Toshiba, the flash was suggested by Masuokas colleague, Shōji Ariizumi. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention at the IEEE1984 International Electron Devices Meeting held in San Francisco, Intel Corporation saw the massive potential of the invention and introduced the first commercial NOR type flash chip in 1988. NOR-based flash has long erase and write times, but provides full address and data buses, allowing random access to any memory location. This makes it a replacement for older read-only memory chips. Its endurance may be from as little as 100 erase cycles for a flash memory, to a more typical 10,000 or 100,000 erase cycles. NOR-based flash was the basis of early flash-based removable media, CompactFlash was originally based on it, however, the I/O interface of NAND flash does not provide a random-access external address bus. Rather, data must be read on a basis, with typical block sizes of hundreds to thousands of bits. This makes NAND flash unsuitable as a replacement for program ROM. In this regard, NAND flash is similar to other data storage devices, such as hard disks and optical media
34.
Hard disk drive
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The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order. HDDs are a type of storage, retaining stored data even when powered off. Introduced by IBM in 1956, HDDs became the dominant secondary storage device for computers by the early 1960s. Continuously improved, HDDs have maintained this position into the era of servers. More than 200 companies have produced HDDs historically, though after extensive industry consolidation most current units are manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba, as of 2016, HDD production is growing, although unit shipments and sales revenues are declining. While SSDs have higher cost per bit, SSDs are replacing HDDs where speed, power consumption, small size, the primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance. Capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000, the two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3. 5-inch, for desktop computers, and 2. 5-inch, primarily for laptops. HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as PATA, SATA, Hard disk drives were introduced in 1956, as data storage for an IBM real-time transaction processing computer and were developed for use with general-purpose mainframe and minicomputers. The first IBM drive, the 350 RAMAC in 1956, was approximately the size of two medium-sized refrigerators and stored five million six-bit characters on a stack of 50 disks. In 1962 the IBM350 RAMAC disk storage unit was superseded by the IBM1301 disk storage unit, cylinder-mode read/write operations were supported, and the heads flew about 250 micro-inches above the platter surface. Motion of the head array depended upon a binary system of hydraulic actuators which assured repeatable positioning. The 1301 cabinet was about the size of three home refrigerators placed side by side, storing the equivalent of about 21 million eight-bit bytes, access time was about a quarter of a second. Also in 1962, IBM introduced the model 1311 disk drive, users could buy additional packs and interchange them as needed, much like reels of magnetic tape. Later models of removable pack drives, from IBM and others, became the norm in most computer installations, non-removable HDDs were called fixed disk drives. Some high-performance HDDs were manufactured with one head per track so that no time was lost physically moving the heads to a track, known as fixed-head or head-per-track disk drives they were very expensive and are no longer in production. In 1973, IBM introduced a new type of HDD code-named Winchester and its primary distinguishing feature was that the disk heads were not withdrawn completely from the stack of disk platters when the drive was powered down. Instead, the heads were allowed to land on an area of the disk surface upon spin-down
35.
8 mm video format
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The 8mm video format refers informally to three related videocassette formats for the NTSC and PAL/SECAM television systems. These are the original Video8 format and its improved successor Hi8 and their user base consisted mainly of amateur camcorder users, although they also saw important use in the professional television production field. In 1985, Sony of Japan introduced the Handycam, one of the first Video8 cameras with commercial success, much smaller than the competitions VHS and Betamax video cameras, Video8 became very popular in the consumer camcorder market. The three formats are very similar, featuring both the same magnetic tape width and near-identical cassette shells, measuring 95 ×62.5 ×15 mm. This gives a measure of compatibility in some cases. One difference between them is in the quality of the tape itself, but the differences lie in the encoding of the video when it is recorded onto the tape. Video8 was the earliest of the three formats, and is entirely analog and it was followed by Hi8, a version with improved resolution. Although this was still analog, some professional Hi8 equipment could store additional digital stereo PCM sound on a reserved track. Digital8 is the most recent 8mm video format and it retains the same physical cassette shell as its predecessors, and can even record onto Video8 or Hi8 cassettes. However, the format in which video is encoded and stored on the tape itself is the entirely digital DV format, some Digital8 camcorders support Video8 and Hi8 with analog sound, but this is not required by the Digital8 specification. In all three cases, a length of 8mm-wide magnetic tape is wound between two spools and contained within a hard-shell cassette and these cassettes share similar size and appearance with the audio cassette, but their mechanical operation is far closer to that of VHS or Betamax videocassettes. Standard recording time is up to 180 minutes for PAL and 120 minutes for NTSC, like most other videocassette systems, Video8 uses a helical-scan 40mm head drum to read from and write to the magnetic tape. The drum rotates at high speed while the tape is pulled along the drums path, because the tape and drum are oriented at a slight angular offset, the recording tracks are laid down as parallel diagonal stripes on the tape. Unlike preceding systems, 8mm did not use a track on the tape to facilitate the head following the diagonal tracks. Instead 8mm recorded a sequence of four sine waves on each video track such that adjacent tracks would produce one of two heterodyne frequencies if the head mistracked, the system automatically adjusted the tracking such that the two frequencies produced were of equal magnitude. This system was derived from the track following used by the Philips Video 2000 system. Sony rechristened the system as automatic track following as the 8mm system lacked the ability of the heads to physically move within the head drum. The main disadvantage of the ATF system was that unlike in the case of a control track and this made editing using a non linear editing system problematic
36.
Very high frequency
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Very high frequency is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency electromagnetic waves from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, with corresponding wavelengths of ten to one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted high frequency, and the higher frequencies are known as ultra high frequency. Air traffic control communications and air navigation systems work at distances of 100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude, some older DVB-T receivers included channels E2 to E4 but newer ones only go down to channel E5. VHF propagation characteristics are suited for terrestrial communication, with a range generally somewhat farther than line-of-sight from the transmitter. VHF waves are restricted to the radio horizon less than 100 miles. VHF is less affected by noise and interference from electrical equipment than lower frequencies. Unlike high frequencies, the ionosphere does not usually reflect VHF waves, the distance to the radio horizon is slightly extended over the geometric line of sight to the horizon, as radio waves are weakly bent back toward the Earth by the atmosphere. These approximations are only valid for antennas at heights that are compared to the radius of the Earth. They may not necessarily be accurate in mountainous areas, since the landscape may not be transparent enough for radio waves, in engineered communications systems, more complex calculations are required to assess the probable coverage area of a proposed transmitter station. The accuracy of calculations for digital TV signals is being debated. Portable radios usually use whips or rubber ducky antennas, while base stations usually use larger fiberglass whips or collinear arrays of vertical dipoles, for directional antennas, the Yagi antenna is the most widely used as a high gain or beam antenna. For television reception, the Yagi is used, as well as the log periodic antenna due to its wider bandwidth, helical and turnstile antennas are used for satellite communication since they employ circular polarization. For even higher gain, multiple Yagis or helicals can be mounted together to make array antennas, vertical collinear arrays of dipoles can be used to make high gain omnidirectional antennas, in which more of the antennas power is radiated in horizontal directions. Television and FM broadcasting stations use arrays of specialized dipole antennas such as batwing antennas. Certain subparts of the VHF band have the same use around the world, some national uses are detailed below. 108–118 MHz, Air navigation beacons VOR and Instrument Landing System localiser, 118–137 MHz, Airband for air traffic control, AM,121.5 MHz is emergency frequency 144–146 MHz, Amateur radio. Other capital cities and regional areas used a combination of these, the initial commercial services in Hobart and Darwin were respectively allocated channels 6 and 8 rather than 7 or 9. By the early 1960s it became apparent that the 10 VHF channels were insufficient to support the growth of television services and this was rectified by the addition of three additional frequencies—channels 0, 5A and 11
37.
Ultra high frequency
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Ultra high frequency is the ITU designation for radio frequencies in the range between 300 MHz and 3 GHz, also known as the decimetre band as the wavelengths range from one meter to one decimetre. Radio waves with frequencies above the UHF band fall into the SHF or microwave frequency range, lower frequency signals fall into the VHF or lower bands. UHF radio waves propagate mainly by line of sight, they are blocked by hills, the IEEE defines the UHF radar band as frequencies between 300 MHz and 1 GHz. Two other IEEE radar bands overlap the ITU UHF band, the L band between 1 and 2 GHz and the S band between 2 and 4 GHz. Radio waves in the UHF band travel almost entirely by propagation and ground reflection, there is very little reflection from the ionosphere. They are blocked by hills and cannot travel far beyond the horizon, atmospheric moisture reduces, or attenuates, the strength of UHF signals over long distances, and the attenuation increases with frequency. UHF TV signals are generally more degraded by moisture than lower bands, occasionally when conditions are right, UHF radio waves can travel long distances by tropospheric ducting as the atmosphere warms and cools throughout the day. The length of an antenna is related to the length of the radio waves used, the UHF antenna is stubby and short, at UHF frequencies a quarter-wave monopole, the most common omnidirectional antenna is between 2.5 and 25 cm long for example. UHF is widely used in telephones, cell phones, walkie-talkies and other two-way radio systems from short range up to the visual horizon. Their transmissions do not travel far, allowing frequency reuse, public safety, business communications and personal radio services such as GMRS, PMR446, and UHF CB are often found on UHF frequencies as well as IEEE802.11 wireless LANs. The widely adapted GSM and UMTS cellular networks use UHF cellular frequencies, radio repeaters are used to retransmit UHF signals when a distance greater than the line of sight is required. Omnidirectional UHF antennas used on mobile devices are usually short whips, higher gain omnidirectional UHF antennas can be made of collinear arrays of dipoles and are used for mobile base stations and cellular base station antennas. The short wavelengths also allow high gain antennas to be conveniently small, high gain antennas for point-to-point communication links and UHF television reception are usually Yagi, log periodic, corner reflectors, or reflective array antennas. At the top end of the band slot antennas and parabolic dishes become practical, for television broadcasting specialized vertical radiators that are mostly modifications of the slot antenna or helical antenna are used, the slotted cylinder, zig-zag, and panel antennas. UHF television broadcasting fulfilled the demand for additional over-the-air television channels in urban areas, today, much of the bandwidth has been reallocated to land mobile, trunked radio and mobile telephone use. UHF channels are used for digital television. UHF spectrum is used worldwide for mobile radio systems for commercial, industrial, public safety. Many personal radio services use frequencies allocated in the UHF band, major telecommunications providers have deployed voice and data cellular networks in UHF/VHF range
38.
Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding
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Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding is a family of proprietary audio compression algorithms developed by Sony. MiniDisc was the first commercial product to incorporate ATRAC in 1992, ATRAC allowed a relatively small disc like MiniDisc to have the same running time as CD while storing audio information with minimal loss in perceptible quality. Improvements to the codec in the form of ATRAC3, ATRAC3plus, and ATRAC Advanced Lossless followed in 1999,2002, other MiniDisc manufacturers such as Sharp and Panasonic also implemented their own versions of the ATRAC codec. Sony has all but dropped the ATRAC related codecs in the USA and Europe, however, it is being continued in Japan and various other countries. ATRACs original 292 kbit/s bitrate was designed to be close to CD quality acoustically and this is the bitrate used on original MiniDiscs. Years later ATRAC was improved and is considered better than earlier versions at similar bitrates. This is in contrast to other codecs developed on computers with no regard for the constraints of portable hardware and these trade-offs are entirely logical on DSP systems, where memory is often at a premium compared to multiplier performance. Sony Walkmans offer better battery life when playing ATRAC files as compared to MP3 files, however, as Sony only pushed ATRAC compatibility in Sony Ericsson Walkman series phones in the Japanese market, it is not supported in GSM/UMTS market phones. Sonys Xplod series of car audio CD players support ATRAC CDs, minidiscs with ATRAC format songs have, in the past, been supported on Eclipse brand car stereos. ATRAC1 was first used in Sonys own theater format SDDS system in the 1990s, SDDS uses ATRAC1 with 8 channel encoding, and with a total encoding rate over all the channels of 1168 kbit/s. Two stacked quadrature mirror filters split the signal into 3 parts,0 to 5.5125 kHz 5.5125 to 11.025 kHz 11.025 to 22.05 kHz Full stereo encoding with a rate of 292 kbit/s. High-frequency lowpass depends on the complexity of the material, some encodings have content clear up to 22.05 kHz, ATRAC1 can also be used in mono mode, doubling recording time. FFmpeg has an implementation of an ATRAC1 decoder, like ATRAC1 and MP3, ATRAC3 is also a hybrid subband-MDCT encoder, but with several differences. Unlike nearly all formats, the transform length cannot be varied to optimize coding transients. Additionally, prior to quantization, tonal components are subtracted from the signal, during decoding, they are separately reconstructed and added back to reform the original MDCT coefficients. Sony claims the advantage of ATRAC3 is its coding efficiency. However, as ATRAC is a hybrid subband-MDCT codec that is very similar to MP3. LP2 Mode This uses a 132 kbit/s data rate, the quality of which is advertised to be similar to that of MP3 encoded at a bit rate
39.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
40.
IPod
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The iPod is a line of portable media players and multi-purpose pocket computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The first version was released on October 23,2001, about 8½ months after iTunes was released, the most recent iPod redesigns were announced on July 15,2015. There are three current versions of the iPod, the ultra-compact iPod Shuffle, the compact iPod Nano, like other digital music players, iPods can serve as external data storage devices. Storage capacity varies by model, ranging from 2 GB for the iPod Shuffle to 128 GB for the iPod Touch. Before the release of iOS5, the branding was used for the media player included with the iPhone and iPad. As of iOS5, separate apps named Music and Videos are standardized across all iOS-powered products, while the iPhone and iPad have essentially the same media player capabilities as the iPod line, they are generally treated as separate products. During the middle of 2010, iPhone sales overtook those of the iPod, in mid-2015, a new model of the iPod Touch was announced by Apple, and was officially released on the Apple store on July 15,2015. The sixth generation iPod Touch includes a variety of spec improvements such as the upgraded A8 processor. The core is over 5 times faster than models and is built to be roughly on par with the iPhone 5S. It is available in 5 different colors, Space grey, pink, gold, silver, though the iPod was released in 2001, its price and Mac-only compatibility caused sales to be relatively slow until 2004. The iPod line came from Apples digital hub category, when the company began creating software for the market of personal digital devices. The aesthetic was inspired by the 1958 Braun T3 transistor radio designed by Dieter Rams, the product was developed in less than one year and unveiled on October 23,2001. Jobs announced it as a Mac-compatible product with a 5 GB hard drive that put 1,000 songs in your pocket, Apple did not develop the iPod software entirely in-house, instead using PortalPlayers reference platform based on two ARM cores. The platform had rudimentary software running on a commercial microkernel embedded operating system, portalPlayer had previously been working on an IBM-branded MP3 player with Bluetooth headphones. Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to design and implement the user interface under the direct supervision of Steve Jobs. As development progressed, Apple continued to refine the softwares look, starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apples corporate font, color display iPods then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock. In 2006 Apple presented an edition for iPod 5G of Irish rock band U2
41.
ITunes
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ITunes is a media player, media library, online radio broadcaster, and mobile device management application developed by Apple Inc. It is used to play, download, and organize digital downloads of music and video on personal computers running the macOS, the iTunes Store is also available on the iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch. Application software for the iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch can be downloaded from the App Store. ITunes 12.5 is the most recent major version of iTunes, available for Mac OS X v10.9.5 or later and Windows 7 or later, it was released on September 13,2016. ITunes 12.2 added Apple Music to the application, along with the Beats 1 radio station, soundJam MP, developed by Bill Kincaid and released by Casady & Greene in 1998, was renamed iTunes when Apple purchased it in 2000. Jeff Robbin, Kincaid, and Dave Heller moved to Apple as part of the acquisition and they simplified SoundJams user interface, added the ability to burn CDs, and removed its recording feature and skin support. On January 9,2001, iTunes 1.0 was released at Macworld San Francisco, originally a Mac OS 9-only application, iTunes began to support Mac OS X when version 2.0 was released nine months later, which also added support for the original iPod. Version 3 dropped Mac OS9 support but added smart playlists, in April 2003, version 4.0 introduced the iTunes Store, in October, version 4.1 added support for Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP. Introduced at Macworld 2005 with the new iPod Shuffle, Version 4.7, Version 7.0 introduced gapless playback and Cover Flow in September 2006. In March 2007, iTunes 7.1 added support for Windows Vista, iTunes lacked support for 64-bit versions of Windows until the 7.6 update on January 16,2008. ITunes is supported under any 64-bit version of Windows Vista, although the iTunes executable is still 32-bit, the 64-bit versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are not supported by Apple, but a workaround has been devised for both operating systems. Version 8.0 added Genius playlists, grid view, iTunes 9 added Homeshare, enabling automatic updating of purchased items across other computers on the same subnet and offers a new iTunes Store UI. Genius Mixes were added, as well as improved app synchronization abilities and it also adds iTunes LPs to the store, which provides additional media with an album. Apple added iTunes Extras as well to the store, which adds content usually reserved for films on DVD, both iTunes LPs and Extras use web-standards HTML, JavaScript and CSS. iTunes acts as a front end for Apples QuickTime media framework. Officially, it is required in order to manage the data of an iPod, iPhone, or iPad. In addition, users are able to add PDF files to their library, the PDFs can be synchronized with and read on several devices except the regular iPod. iTunes 8.0 saw the removal of several options in the Preferences window. For example, iTunes once gave users the option to display arrows beside the selected songs title, artist, album and these arrows are no longer removable, except through the direct editing of a preferences file. ITunes keeps track of songs by creating a library, allowing users to access
42.
MP3
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Compared to CD quality digital audio, MP3 compression commonly achieves 75 to 95% reduction in size. MP3 files are thus 1/4 to 1/20 the size of the digital audio stream. This is important for both transmission and storage concerns, the basis for such comparison is the CD digital audio format which requires 1411200 bit/s. A commonly used MP3 encoding setting is CBR128 kbit/s resulting in file size 1/11 of the original CD-quality file, the MP3 lossy compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a continuous sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is referred to as perceptual coding or psychoacoustics. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce the precision of less audible to human hearing. MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group as part of its MPEG-1 standard, the first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hanover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio, which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992. A backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio extension with lower sample and bit rates was published in 1995, MP3 is a streaming or broadcast format meaning that individual frames can be lost without affecting the ability to decode successfully delivered frames. Storing an MP3 stream in a file enables time-shifted playback, the MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency, in 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy and this work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths. A wide variety of compression algorithms were reported in IEEEs refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. The genesis of the MP3 technology is described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years. The immediate predecessors of MP3 were Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain, the first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder in hardware, was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips. Another predecessor of the MP3 format and technology is to be found in the perceptual codec MUSICAM based on an integer arithmetics 32 sub-bands filterbank, driven by a psychoacoustic model. It was primarily designed for Digital Audio Broadcasting and digital TV and this codec incorporated into a broadcasting system using COFDM modulation was demonstrated on air and on the field together with Radio Canada and CRC Canada during the NAB show in 1991. F. As a doctoral student at Germanys University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on music compression in the early 1980s
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