1.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
2.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
3.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
6.
Alma Mahler
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Alma Maria Mahler Gropius Werfel was a Viennese-born composer and socialite. Musically active from her teens, she was the composer of at least seventeen songs for voice, in later years her salon became part of the artistic scene, first in Vienna, then in Los Angeles. Alma Schindler was born in Vienna, Austria, to the landscape painter Emil Jakob Schindler and his wife Anna Bergen, although later in life Mahler characterized her upbringing as privileged, the family is said to have been only moderately successful. After her fathers death, her married her late husbands former pupil, Carl Moll. Almas social interactions in her youth included friendships with the artists of the Vienna Secession, as a young woman she had a series of flirtations, including Gustav Klimt, theater director Max Burckhard and composer Alexander von Zemlinsky. On 9 March 1902 she married Gustav Mahler, who was nineteen years her senior, with him she had two daughters, Maria Anna, who died of scarlet fever or diphtheria, and Anna, who became a sculptor. The terms of Almas marriage with Gustav were that she would abandon her own interest in composing, artistically stifled herself, she embraced her role as a loving wife and supporter of Gustavs music, together regularly attending the salon of Adele Bloch-Bauer. Later in their marriage, after becoming depressed in the wake of Marias death, she began an affair with the young architect Walter Gropius. Upon his urging, and under his guidance, she prepared five of her songs for publication, after this turbulent period in their marriage, Alma and Gustav traveled to New York, where Gustav was seasonally engaged as a conductor. In February,1911, he fell ill with an infection related to a heart defect that had been diagnosed several years earlier. He died in May, shortly after their return to Vienna, after Mahlers death, she did not immediately resume contact with Gropius. Between 1912 and 1914 she had an affair with the artist Oskar Kokoschka. Kokoschkas possessiveness wore on Alma, and the vicissitudes of the relationship tired them both. She and Gropius married in 1915 during one of his military leaves and they had a daughter together, Manon Gropius, who grew up being friends with Maria Altmann. After Manon died of polio at the age of 18, composer Alban Berg wrote his Violin Concerto in memory of her and she became pregnant and gave birth to a son, Martin Carl Johannes Gropius. Gropius at first believed that the child was his, but Almas ongoing affair with Werfel was common knowledge in Vienna by this time, within a year, they agreed to a divorce. In the meantime, Martin, who had been born prematurely, developed hydrocephalus and her divorce from Gropius became final in 1920. While Gropiuss military duties were keeping him absent, she met and began an affair with Prague-born poet
7.
Manon Gropius
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Alma Manon Gropius was the daughter of the architect Walter Gropius and the composer and diarist Alma Mahler and the stepdaughter of the novelist and poet Franz Werfel. She is a Randfigur whose importance lies in her key relationships to major figures, a muse who inspired the composer Alban Berg as well as Werfel, Manon Gropius is most often cited as the angel and dedicatee of Bergs Violin Concerto. Her parents separated soon after Gropius discovered Almas affair with the writer Franz Werfel in the summer of 1918 and her travels also included many German cities, including Leipzig, where Franz Werfels play Spiegelmensch premiered in 1921. There, the precocious five-year-old saw the rehearsals and began to perform the roles of the heroine as well as declaim lines, from that time on, her mother, Werfel, and others in their milieu cultivated the girls interest in the theater. During the early 1920s, Walter Gropius gave Alma the legal grounds to divorce him for infidelity and his cooperation came with the understanding that Manon would be allowed to stay with him and his new wife, Ise Gropius, at Dessau, where the Bauhaus had relocated. It was not until November 1927 that Alma finally agreed to an extended visit, Walter Gropius enjoyed only one more extended visit in 1932. Manon was educated at home by Schulli and various tutors, like her older half-sister, Anna Mahler, she was given piano lessons but did not distinguish herself as a musician. She attended the same progressive girls school that her mother attended, Institut Hanausek, during the 1930s, she became more tractable, even serene. She had a way with animals and was followed by cats. She could approach and feed wild roe deer and took a special interest in snakes, Manon, who had been baptized a Protestant, converted to Catholicism in 1932 and came under the influence of her mothers admirer, Fr. It was during this time that Elias Canetti saw her and, like the composer Ernst Krenek and others in Almas circle and she radiated timidity even more than beauty, an angelic gazelle, not from the ark but from heaven. You dont mind my saying so, do you, Annerl, whats wrong with having a beautiful sister. The only man who was racially suited to me, all the others who fell in love with me were little Jews. The fact is, I go for both kinds and you can run along now, pussycat. Wait, go and see if Franzl is writing poetry, if he is, dont bother him. If he isnt, tell him I want him, with this commission Manon, the third trophy, slipped out of the room, as untouched as she had come, her errand didnt seem to trouble her. The teenage Manon was used by her mother to attract the kind of sensual male attention that she had readily enjoyed for herself in her youth. Manon had never let go of her desire to act and she had even written the famous Burgtheater actor Raoul Aslan a letter and a poem in which she expressed her desire to one day perform on the same stage
8.
Peter Behrens
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Peter Behrens was a German architect and designer. He was important for the modernist movement, and several of the leading names worked for him in earlier stages of their careers. Behrens attended the Christianeum Hamburg from September 1877 until Easter 1882 and he studied painting in his native Hamburg, as well as in Düsseldorf and Karlsruhe, from 1886 to 1889. In 1890, he married Lilly Kramer and moved to Munich, at first, he worked as a painter, illustrator and book-binder in a sort of artisanal way. He frequented the circles and was interested in subjects related to the reform of life-styles. He was one of the leaders of architectural reform at the turn of the century and was a designer of factories and office buildings in brick, steel. In 1903, Behrens was named director of the Kunstgewerbeschule in Düsseldorf, in 1907, Behrens and ten other people, plus twelve companies, gathered to create the German Werkbund. As an organization, it was indebted to the principles and priorities of the Arts and Crafts movement. Members of the Werkbund were focused on improving the level of taste in Germany by improving the design of everyday objects and products. This very practical aspect made it an influential organization among industrialists, public policy experts, designers, investors. Behrens work for AEG was the first large-scale demonstration of the viability and vitality of the Werkbunds initiatives and objectives, in 1907, AEG retained Behrens as artistic consultant. He designed the corporate identity and for that he is considered the first industrial designer in history. Peter Behrens was never an employee for AEG, but worked in the capacity of artistic consultant, in 1910, Behrens designed the AEG Turbine Factory. From 1907 to 1912, he had students and assistants, and among them were Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Adolf Meyer, from 1920 and 1924, he was responsible for the design and construction of the Technical Administration Building of Hoechst AG in Höchst. In 1922, he accepted an invitation to teach at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, peter Behrens remained head of the Department of Architecture at the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin. In 1926, Behrens was commissioned by the Englishman Wenman Joseph Bassett-Lowke to design him a home in Northampton. The house, named New Ways is often regarded as the first modernist house in Britain, in 1928 Behrens won an international competition for the construction of the New Synagogue, Žilina. The building survives as a cultural centre, Behrens became associated with Hitlers urbanistic dreams for Berlin with the commission for the new headquarters of the AEG on Albert Speers famous planned north-south axis
9.
The Architects Collaborative
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The Architects Collaborative was an American architectural firm formed by Walter Gropius and seven younger architects in 1945 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The other partners were Norman C, Harkness, Sarah P. Harkness, Robert S. McMillan, Louis A. McMillen and Benjamin C. Thompson. TAC created many projects, and was well respected for its broad range of designs. The firms philosophy reflected Gropius central preoccupation with the social responsibilities of architecture, the idea of collaboration, which was the basis of TAC. It was carried out in that a group of architects have their input on a project. There would be a partner-in-charge, who would meet with clients and have the decision of what goes into the design. Originally, each of the eight partners would hold meetings on a Thursday to discuss their projects and be open to design input. However, as the firm grew larger there were more people on a team. Therefore, many groups of architects within the firm were formed and carried out the same original objective. The position of the president would be rotated amongst the senior partners. TACs initial work consisted of projects, mainly single-family houses. The most notable design was Six Moon Hill in Lexington, Massachusetts, another one of TACs specialties in this period was school buildings, which included many elementary and secondary public schools throughout Massachusetts and New England. TAC also designed buildings for universities, among which was the Harvard Graduate Center, a small campus of dormitories. TAC also designed and planned the campus for the University of Baghdad starting the late 1950s. The project was met with financial and political difficulties over several years which hampered a timely completion. TACs other work included many corporate, government, and recreational buildings in both the United States and internationally, in its initial decades, TACs architecture was mainly in the International Style, early examples of which had been created by Gropius and his colleagues at the Bauhaus and elsewhere. Starting in the 1970s, TACs style largely shifted from modernism to postmodernism, as the firms staff increased and the scope of the projects became more complex, and an office in Rome was opened in the 1960s, which oversaw projects primarily in Europe and the Middle East. This was followed by the opening of an office in San Francisco in 1985, Gropius was a part of TAC until his death in 1969 at age 86
10.
Fagus Factory
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The Fagus Factory, a shoe last factory in Alfeld on the Leine, Lower Saxony, Germany, is an important example of early modern architecture. Commissioned by owner Carl Benscheidt who wanted a structure to express the companys break from the past. It was constructed between 1911 and 1913, with additions and interiors completed in 1925, the building that had the greater influence on the design of Fagus was AEG’s Turbine factory designed by Peter Behrens. Gropius and Meyer had both worked on the project and with Fagus they presented their interpretation and criticism of their teacher’s work, the Fagus main building can be seen as an inversion of the Turbine factory. Both have corners free of supports, and glass surfaces between piers that cover the whole height of the building, however, in the Turbine factory the corners are covered by heavy elements that slant inside. The glass surfaces also slant inside and are recessed in relation to the piers, the load-bearing elements are attenuated and the building has an image of stability and monumentality. In Fagus exactly the opposite happens, the corners are left open, the design of these American factories was also a source of inspiration for Fagus. Carl Benscheidt founded the Fagus company in 1910 and he had then started by working for Arnold Rikkli, who practised naturopathic medicine, and it was there that he learned about orthopedic shoe lasts. In 1887 Benscheidt was hired by the shoe last manufacturer Carl Behrens as works manager in his factory in Alfeld. After the death of Behrens in 1896, Benscheidt became general manager of the company, in October 1910, he resigned from his position because of differences with Behrens’s son. After his resignation Benscheidt immediately started his own company and he established a partnership with an American company acquiring both capital and expertise. He bought the land directly opposite Behrens’s factory and hired the architect Eduard Werner, although Werner was a specialist in factory design, Benscheidt was not pleased with the outside appearance of his design. His factory was separated from Behrens’s by a line and Benscheidt thought of the building’s elevation on that side as a permanent advertisement for his factory. In January 1911 he contacted Walter Gropius and offered him the job of redesigning the facades of Werner’s plan, Gropius accepted the offer and a long collaboration began that continued until 1925 when the last buildings on the site were completed. During construction, Gropius and his partner Meyer were under pressure to keep up to the rhythm of work. Construction started in May 1911 based on Werner’s plans and Benscheidt wanted the factory to be running by winter of the same year and this was achieved in great part and in 1912 Gropius and Meyer were designing the interiors of the main building and secondary smaller buildings on the site. In order to pay the costs of Gropius’s design, Benscheidt. By winter 1912 it was clear that the factory could not keep up with the number of orders and this time the contract went directly to Gropius and Meyer and, from now on, they were to be the only architects of the Fagus buildings
11.
Werkbund Exhibition (1914)
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The first Werkbund Exhibition of 1914 was held at Rheinpark in Cologne, Germany. Bruno Tauts best-known building, the dome of the Glass Pavilion of which only black. Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer designed a factory for the exhibition. The Belgian architect Henri van de Velde designed a model theatre, the exhibition happened mainly on the initiative of the later German chancellor Konrad Adenauer, then a 36 years old aspiring inventor, Werkbund member and local politician at Cologne. The city spent the sum of 5 million Goldmarks on the event. Planning began in earnest in 1912, and construction started in early 1914. The exhibition was opened to the public by Van de Velde on May 15th,1914, there were two more Werkbund Exhibitions after the war. The second was the Stuttgart Exhibition of 1927, which included the Weissenhof Estate and it finally took place on a reduced scale in 1949, back in Cologne, and turned out to be the last Werkbund Exhibition. Expressionism Deutscher Werkbund Werkbund Exhibition at the archINFORM database
12.
Bauhaus
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The Bauhaus was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. Nonetheless, it was founded with the idea of creating a work of art in which all arts, including architecture. The Bauhaus style later became one of the most influential currents in modern design, Modernist architecture and art, design, the Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography. Although the school was closed, the continued to spread its idealistic precepts as they left Germany. The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated, Gropius did not share these radical views, thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the body on questions of design in Germany. The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen, beginning in June 1907, Peter Behrens pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. Behrens was a member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer worked for him in this period. The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist had turned from emotional Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity, beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise of a minimal dwelling written into the new Weimar Constitution, ernst May, Bruno Taut, and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, the Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization, the two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner. Vkhutemas was a school than the Bauhaus, but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union. With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus. In addition, El Lissitzkys book Russia, an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there. The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906
13.
Gropius House
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The Gropius House was the family residence of noted architect Walter Gropius at 68 Baker Bridge Road, Lincoln, Massachusetts. It is now a house museum, owned by Historic New England. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2000 for its association with Gropius, the house includes a collection of Bauhaus-related materials that is unparalleled outside Germany. As the first director of the Bauhaus, Gropius was concerned with combining useful modern technologies with consumer need, while placing emphasis on architectural integrity. Gropius and his came to the United States after a three-year stay in London. Gropius went to Massachusetts to accept a position at Harvard Universitys Graduate School of Design. Fellow architect and prominent Boston figure Henry Shepley convinced philanthropist Helen Storrow to provide the land and fund both the designing and building process of a home and he designed the home in 1937 and it was built with local builder Casper J. Jenney in 1938. Gropius used his new home as a showcase for his Harvard students as well as an example of modernist landscape architecture in America and he chose the area because of its proximity to Concord Academy which his daughter, Ati, was going to attend. It remained Gropiuss home from 1938 until his death in 1969, Marcel Breuer, a fellow architect and friend of the Gropius family, came to the U. S. shortly after the Gropius family, also to become part of the Harvard design faculty. Mrs. Helen Storrow provided a plot of land to Breuer. Gropius and Breuer assisted one another in the construction of their homes, completing their dwellings in 1938 and 1939, the Gropius House continues to have many pieces of Breuer furniture on display. The house also contains works by Eero Saarinen, Joan Miró, at the time of the building of the Gropius House, Walter and Ises adopted daughter Ati was 12 years old. Gropius took much care in making sure Ati was happy and comfortable, while allowing her a great deal of input into the design of her own space. Ati chose her warm-toned color palette and much of her furniture, atis room was the largest of the three bedrooms, with her own private entrance that included a spiral wrought-iron staircase. Though Gropius could not give her the sand floor and glass ceiling she requested, in keeping with Bauhaus philosophy, every aspect of the house and its surrounding landscape was planned for maximum efficiency and simplicity. Although the house sits on a rather flat plot of land, by keeping the well maintained, the Gropiuses were able to retain a broad view of the south, east. His screened porch was placed in such a way that it helps to divide the land around the house into multiple zones, the house was conceived as part of an organic landscape, where Gropius utilized indoor/outdoor spaces to accentuate a relationship between the structure and the site. Before the homes design was complete, Walter Gropius was hard at work creating the ideal landscape
14.
Max von Laue
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Max Theodor Felix von Laue was a German physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1914 for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals. A strong objector to National Socialism, he was instrumental in re-establishing and organizing German science after World War II, Laue was born in Pfaffendorf, now part of Koblenz, to Julius Laue and Minna Zerrenner. At Göttingen, he was influenced by the physicists Woldemar Voigt and Max Abraham. After only one semester at Munich, he went to the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Berlin in 1902, there, he studied under Max Planck, who gave birth to the quantum theory revolution on 14 December 1900, when he delivered his famous paper before the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. Thereafter, Laue spent 1903 to 1905 at Göttingen, Laue completed his Habilitation in 1906 under Arnold Sommerfeld at LMU. In 1906, Laue became a Privatdozent in Berlin and an assistant to Planck and he also met Albert Einstein for the first time, they became friends and Laue went on to contribute to the acceptance and development of Einstein’s theory of relativity. Laue continued as assistant to Planck until 1909, in Berlin, he worked on the application of entropy to radiation fields and on the thermodynamic significance of the coherence of light waves. From 1909 to 1912, Laue was a Privatdozent at the Institute for Theoretical Physics, under Arnold Sommerfeld, during the 1911 Christmas recess and in January 1912, Paul Peter Ewald was finishing the writing of his doctoral thesis under Sommerfeld. It was on a walk through the Englischer Garten in Munich in January, the wavelengths of concern to Ewald were in the visible region of the spectrum and hence much larger than the spacing between the resonators in Ewald’s crystal model. Laue seemed distracted and wanted to know what would be the effect if much smaller wavelengths were considered, while at Munich, he wrote the first volume of his book on relativity during the period 1910 to 1911. In 1912, Laue was called to the University of Zurich as a professor of physics. In 1913, his father was raised to the ranks of hereditary nobility, in 1914 a new professor extraordinarius chair of theoretical physics had been created at the University of Berlin. Laue was offered the position but turned it down, and it was offered to Max Born, but Born was in the army until WW I ended, and before he had occupied the chair, Laue changed his mind and accepted the position. From 1914 to 1919, Laue was at the University of Frankfurt as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics, from 1916, he was engaged in vacuum tube development, at the University of Würzburg, for use in military telephony and wireless communications. At the university in 1919, other notables were Walther Nernst, Fritz Haber, among Laue’s notable students at the university were Leó Szilárd, Fritz London, Max Kohler, and Erna Weber. In 1921, he published the volume of his book on relativity. As a consultant to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Laue met Walther Meissner who was working there on superconductivity, Meissner had discovered that a weak magnetic field decays rapidly to zero in the interior of a superconductor, which is known as the Meissner effect. Laue showed in 1932 that the threshold of the magnetic field which destroys superconductivity varies with the shape of the body
15.
University of Baghdad
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The University of Baghdad is the largest university in Iraq and the second largest Arab university, behind the University of Cairo. The building is constructed by an Indian based construction company NBCC, both University of Baghdad and Baghdad University are used interchangeably. The College of Islamic Sciences claims that it originated in 1067 A. D. as Abu-Haneefa, however, the College of Law, the earliest of the modern institutions that were to become the first constituent Colleges of the University of Baghdad, was founded in 1908. In 1942, the first higher institution for girls, Queen Alia College, was established. In 1943, proposals for further new Colleges appeared, leading to the foundation of the College of Arts and the College of Science in 1949, and Abu Ghraib College of Agriculture in 1950. In 1922, a scheme had been initiated by the King for the organisation of a university at Bab al-Mu’azzam, nonetheless, a start was made on the creation of the university with the building of the Theological College. In January 1925, however, the Engineering School was transferred to the vacant upper floor of the Theological College building. In 1935, the Monroe Commission had argued that Iraq was not ready for a university, then the ‘Morgan Report’ was prepared for the Iraqi government in 1947 by a senior member of the British Council’s staff. In 1948, however, the British Council’s proposals were rejected in favour of a plan drawn up by the Ministry, but no action followed. In May 1953, the British Council sponsored a visit to Baghdad by a group of British university professors to give encouragement, once again. However, the first university in the country, Al-Hikma University, was founded by the American Roman Catholic Fathers in 1956. In the same year, the government announced plans to amalgamate the existing state funded Colleges and its first President was appointed by Royal decree in 1957, and it commenced operations in 1958. Following the Ba’athist coup, in autumn 1968, Al Hikma University was taken over by the state, a new university campus was commissioned by the Royal Government of Iraq in the late 1950s and situated near the Tigris river. The campus was expanded in 1982 to accommodate 20,000 students plus support facilities, architect Hisham N. Ashkouri and Robert Owen developed the full academic space program for the entire campus
16.
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
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John Fitzgerald Kennedy Federal Building is a United States Federal government office building located in the Government Center area of Boston, Massachusetts. It is adjacent to City Hall Plaza and is located diagonally across from Boston City Hall, the two towers stand at a height of 117.96 meters or 387 feet. The building is bounded by Cambridge, Sudbury, and Congress streets, the building consists of twin 26-story high-rise towers, which sit on axis to each other, and a low, 4-story building. This combination of tall towers paired with low buildings is a common Modern form that is used throughout the United States. The double towers increase the number of offices lit by natural light, the building contains 839,000 square feet. The exterior of the towers is constructed of pre-cast reinforced concrete, the lower sections are faced with polished granite. All aluminum work has an anodized finish in a medium gray tone. A glass-enclosed walkway connects the building to the towers. Like the towers, the low buildings facade is made of concrete, overall, the exterior lacks ornamentation, instead displaying a stark functionality. Bands of windows wrap around the towers, corner windows have rounded edges, the bases of the towers have arcades with entrances set back beneath a covered area supported by piers. The tops of the towers are distinguished by metal louvers, an exposed glass atrium connects the two towers at the ground level. A glass-enclosed walkway connects the building to the towers. Like the towers, the low buildings facade is made of concrete, vertical slabs form piers that interrupt the horizontality of the building and create the off-center entrance, which is articulated by a cantilevered porch. A protruding second story creates a pathway to shelter visitors. The buildings design result in 45%4. 6-acre of the space being occupied by the structure. The remaining portion contains terraces, plazas, landscaping, a sunken patio, plazas are surfaced with stone in most sections. A tiered stair platform of cement and brick leads to the low building, in 1963, Gropius and Glaser saw sculpture by artist Dimitri Hadzi, who worked in Modern abstract forms, and decided Hadzis style would be appropriate for the federal building. They commissioned Hadzi to produce a sculpture called Thermopylae, which is located in front of one of the towers
17.
MetLife Building
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The MetLife Building is a 59-story skyscraper at 200 Park Avenue at East 45th Street above Grand Central Terminal in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Built in 1960–63 as the Pan Am Building, the then-headquarters of Pan American World Airways, it was designed by Emery Roth & Sons, Pietro Belluschi and Walter Gropius in the International style. The worlds largest commercial space by square footage at its opening. When it opened on March 7,1963, the Pan Am Building was the largest commercial space in the world by square footage. It was initially an unpopular sight due to its lack of proportion and huge scale—it dwarfed the New York Central Building to the north, the building was surpassed in size by the World Trade Center in 1970–71 as well as 55 Water Street in 1972. Pan Am originally occupied 15 floors of the building and it remained Pan Ams headquarters even after Metropolitan Life Insurance Company bought the building in 1981. By 1991, Pan Ams presence had dwindled to four floors, shortly afterwards, the airline ceased operations. On Thursday September 3,1992, MetLife announced that it would remove Pan Am signage from the building. Robert G. Schwartz, the chairman, chief executive, and president of MetLife, at the time MetLife was headquartered in the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower. In 2005, MetLife sold the building for $1.72 billion, the buyer was a joint venture of Tishman Speyer Properties, the New York City Employees Retirement System, and the New York City Teachers Retirement System. In 2015, it was revealed that billionaire Donald Bren, the owner of the Newport Beach, California-based Irvine Company, while Tishman Speyer remains the managing partner of the property, the companys stake in the MetLife Building has been reduced to less than 3 percent. For a short part of time, they also offered service to Teterboro Airport. Service to JFK resumed in early 1977 using Sikorsky S-61s, one of the five 20-foot blades broke off and flew into a crowd of passengers waiting to board. Three men were killed instantly and another died later in a hospital, the blade sailed over the side of the building and killed a female pedestrian on the corner of Madison Avenue and 43rd Street. Two other people were seriously injured, helicopter service was quickly suspended, and has never resumed. The building was the site of the suicide of Eli M. Black on February 3,1975, the CEO of United Brands Company used his briefcase to shatter an external window and then jumped out of the 44th-story window to his death on Park Avenue. The building remains one of the citys most recognizable skyscrapers and it has been popular with tenants, not least because of its location next to Grand Central Terminal. In 1987, a poll conducted by the lifestyle periodical New York indicated that the tower was the building that New Yorkers would most like to see demolished, perhaps contributing to the hatred of the building is the fact that it is so visible
18.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
19.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
20.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
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Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was a German-American architect. He is commonly referred to and was addressed as Mies, his surname, along with Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Frank Lloyd Wright, he is widely regarded as one of the pioneers of modernist architecture. Mies, like many of his post-World War I contemporaries, sought to establish a new style that could represent modern times just as Classical. He created an influential twentieth-century architectural style, stated with clarity and simplicity. His mature buildings made use of materials such as industrial steel. He strove toward an architecture with a framework of structural order balanced against the implied freedom of unobstructed free-flowing open space. He called his buildings skin and bones architecture and he sought an objective approach that would guide the creative process of architectural design, but he was always concerned with expressing the spirit of the modern era. He is often associated with his quotation of the aphorisms, less is more, Mies was born March 27,1886 in Aachen, Germany. He worked in his fathers stone carving shop and at several design firms before he moved to Berlin. Mies served as manager of the Embassy of the German Empire in Saint Petersburg under Behrens. His talent was recognized and he soon began independent commissions. He began his independent professional career designing upper-class homes, joining the movement seeking a return to the purity of early 19th-century Germanic domestic styles and he rejected the eclectic and cluttered classical styles so common at the turn of the 20th century as irrelevant to the modern times. In 1913, Mies married Adele Auguste Bruhn, the daughter of a wealthy industrialist, during his military service in 1917, Mies fathered a son out of wedlock. In 1925 Mies began a relationship with designer Lilly Reich that ended when he moved to the United States, from 1940 until his death, artist Lora Marx was his primary companion. Mies carried on a relationship with sculptor and art collector Mary Callery for whom he designed an artists studio in Huntington, Long Island. He also was rumored to have a relationship with Edith Farnsworth. Mariannes son Dirk Lohan studied under, and later worked for, after World War I, Mies began, while still designing traditional neoclassical homes, a parallel experimental effort. He joined his avant-garde peers in the search for a new style that would be suitable for the modern industrial age
21.
Le Corbusier
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Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner, writer, and one of the pioneers of what is now called modern architecture. He was born in Switzerland and became a French citizen in 1930 and his career spanned five decades, he constructed buildings in Europe, Japan, India, and North and South America. Le Corbusier prepared the plan for the city of Chandigarh in India. On July 17,2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites as an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement and it was an industrial town, devoted to the manufacture of watches. His father was an artisan who enameled boxes and watches, while his mother gave piano lessons and his elder brother Albert was an amateur violinist. He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods, like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier did not have formal academic training as an architect. He was attracted to the arts and at the age of fifteen he entered the municipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the applied arts connected with watchmaking. Three years later he attended the course of decoration, founded by the painter Charles LEplattenier. Le Corbusier wrote later that LEplattenier had made him a man of the woods and his father took him frequently into the mountains around the town. He wrote later, we were constantly on mountaintops, we grew accustomed to a vast horizon and his architecture teacher in the Art School was the architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusiers earliest house designs. However, he reported later that it was the art teacher LEplattenier who made him choose architecture, I had a horror of architecture and architects, he wrote. I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed. Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the library to read about architecture and philosophy, by visiting museums, by sketching buildings, located on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds. It was a chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style. The success of this led to his construction of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer, in the same area. In Florence, he visited the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made an impression on him. I would have liked to live in one of what they called their cells and it was the solution for a unique kind of workers housing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise. In 1911, he traveled again for five months, this time he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome. Filling nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw—including many sketches of the Parthenon and he spoke of what he saw during this trip in many of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, Le Voyage dOrient
22.
Frank Lloyd Wright
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Frank Lloyd Wright was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures,532 of which were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment and this philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater, which has been called the best all-time work of American architecture. Wright was a leader of the Prairie School movement of architecture and developed the concept of the Usonian home and his creative period spanned more than 70 years. In addition to his houses, Wright designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums and he often designed interior elements for these buildings as well, including furniture and stained glass. Wright wrote 20 books and many articles and was a lecturer in the United States. His colorful personal life made headlines, most notably for the 1914 fire. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as the greatest American architect of all time, Frank Lloyd Wright was born Frank Lincoln Wright in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. His father, William Carey Wright, was an orator, music teacher, occasional lawyer, William Wright met and married Anna Lloyd Jones, a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for Richland County. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family of Unitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to Spring Green, Wisconsin. One of Annas brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, who would become an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Western United States, both of Wrights parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to him. According to his biography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings and she decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infants ambition. In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation, in 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where she saw an exhibit of educational blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his innovative kindergarten curriculum, Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which young Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions, the Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society, although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children. Soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated, Anna had been unhappy for some time with Williams inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection, William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time he changed his name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mothers family
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Modern architecture
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Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
24.
Martin Gropius
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Martin Carl Philipp Gropius was a German architect. Gropius studied at the Bauakademie in Berlin and after worked as a private architect. He received artistic direction from Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Karl Bötticher and continued his studies with prolonged trips through Greece, until his death he worked with Heino Schmieden to develop Fa. Gropius & Schmieden, one of the largest architecture firms in Berlin, Martin Gropius was the great-uncle of architect and Bauhaus founder Walter Gropius. The present-day Martin Gropius Bau in Berlin was built in 1881 based on plans by Martin Gropius and it was constructed in the style of the Italian Renaissance and has a central atrium. Mosaics with allegories from various ages and the coats of arms of German states decorate the spaces between windows, after World War I the Bau housed the Museum of Pre- and Early History as well as the oriental art collection. In the last weeks of the Second World War the building was bombed, reconstruction of the building began in 1978 after it was placed under protection for historic preservation in 1966. Another restoration took place in 1999/2000, today the Martin Gropius Bau is an important space for special exhibits of all kinds. Martin Gropius is buried at Dreifaltigkeitsfriedhof 2 in the Kreuzberg neighborhood of Berlin, along with representative buildings, many clinics and hospitals were built in Berlin and Brandenburg based on Gropiuss designs. Old Library at the University of Greifswald Bureau of Mines in Saarbrücken Many houses and villas in Berlin, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Dekorationen innerer Räume. Acht Blatt, hrsg. von Martin Gropius, Martin Gropius, Das Städtische Allgemeine Krankenhaus im Friedrichshain zu Berlin. Martin Gropius, Heino Schmieden, Dekorationen innerer Räume, Martin Gropius, Archiv für ornamentale Kunst. Durch Martin Gropius, hrsg. v. Deutsches Gewerbe-Museum Berlin, V. von Weltzien, Das zweite Garnison-Lazareth für Berlin bei Tempelhof. Nach dem vom Königlichen Kriegs-Ministerium aufgestellten Bauprogramm entworfen und ausgeführt von Gropius & Schmieden, ISBN 3-89809-036-1 Barbara Happe, Martin S. Fischer, Haus Auerbach von Walter Gropius mit Adolf Meyer. ISBN 3-8030-0635-X Martin Gropius in the German National Library catalogue Martin Gropius at the archINFORM database
25.
Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin
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The Kunstgewerbemuseum, or Museum of Decorative Arts, is an internationally important museum of the decorative arts in Berlin, Germany, part of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. The collection is split between the Kunstgewerbemuseum building at the Kulturforum and Köpenick Palace and it was founded in 1868 as the Deutsches Gewerbe-Museum zu Berlin, and was originally a teaching institute as well as a public museum. The collection grew significantly in the 1870s, and it was renamed Kunstgewerbemuseum in 1879, in 1881 it relocated into the Martin-Gropius-Bau – where Priams Treasure was also on display for a time – and in 1921 it moved into the Stadtschloss. Parts of the collection were destroyed in World War II, the Eastern collection moved into Köpenick Palace in 1963, while the Western exhibits moved first into Charlottenburg Palace, then into the new museum building in the Kulturforum in 1985. There is an important collection of Late Antique objects in many media. The items from the Middle Ages include a number of gold reliquaries. The Renaissance is represented by silverware from the city councillors of Lüneburg, the Baroque era is represented by faiences from Delft, and glass items. There is also European porcelain, and decorative crockery from the rococo, classicist, historicist, the New Collection of 20th century craftwork includes industrially-manufactured products. Cloth of St Gereon, the oldest European tapestry still existing
26.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
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Karl Friedrich Schinkel was a Prussian architect, city planner, and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed both neoclassical and neogothic buildings and his most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin. Schinkel was born in Neuruppin, Margraviate of Brandenburg, when he was six, his father died in the disastrous Neuruppin fire of 1787. He became a student of architect Friedrich Gilly and his father, David Gilly, after returning to Berlin from his first trip to Italy in 1805, he started to earn his living as a painter. When he saw Caspar David Friedrichs painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog at the 1810 Berlin art exhibition he decided that he would never reach such mastery of painting, after Napoleons defeat, Schinkel oversaw the Prussian Building Commission. From 1808 to 1817 Schinkel renovated and reconstructed Schloss Rosenau, Coburg and he also rebuilt the ruins of Chorin Abbey. He believed that in order to avoid sterility and have a soul, a building must contain elements of the poetic and the past and his most famous extant buildings are found in and around Berlin. He also carried out improvements to the Crown Princes Palace and to Schloss Charlottenburg, Schinkel was also responsible for the interior decoration of a number of private Berlin residences. Later, Schinkel moved away from classicism altogether, embracing the Neo-Gothic in his Friedrichswerder Church, Schinkel died in Berlin, Province of Brandenburg. Schinkel, however, is noted as much for his theoretical work and these and other designs may be studied in his Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe and his Werke der höheren Baukunst. He also designed the famed Iron Cross medal of Prussia, with essays by Kurt W. Forster and Wolfgang Pehnt, ISBN 0-86559-105-9. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-88221-866-4, die Geschichte vom Leben und Sterben des Baumeisters Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Christoph von Wolzogen, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Unter dem bestirnten Himmel, edition Fichter, Frankfurt 2016, ISBN 978-3-943856-33-0. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, The Last Great Architect. Prefatory essay from Collection of Architectural Designs including those designs which have been executed and objects whose execution was intended by Karl Friedrich Schinkel
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Gustav Mahler
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Gustav Mahler was an Austrian late-Romantic composer, and one of the leading conductors of his generation. As a composer he acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century, born in Bohemia as a German-speaking Jew of humble circumstances, Mahler displayed his musical gifts at an early age. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler—who had converted to Catholicism to secure the regular opposition. Late in his life he was director of New Yorks Metropolitan Opera. Mahlers œuvre is relatively limited, for much of his composing was necessarily a part-time activity while he earned his living as a conductor. Some of Mahlers immediate musical successors included the composers of the Second Viennese School, notably Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten are among later 20th-century composers who admired and were influenced by Mahler. The International Gustav Mahler Institute was established in 1955 to honour the composers life, the Mahler family came from eastern Bohemia and were of humble circumstances, the composers grandmother had been a street pedlar. Bohemia was then part of the Austrian Empire, the Mahler family belonged to a German-speaking minority among Bohemians, from this background the future composer developed early on a permanent sense of exile, always an intruder, never welcomed. Bernhard Mahler, the son and the composers father, elevated himself to the ranks of the petite bourgeoisie by becoming a coachman. He bought a modest house in the village of Kalischt, halfway between Prague in Bohemia and Brno in Moravia, in the center of todays Czech Republic. Bernhards wife, Marie, gave birth to the first of the couples 14 children, a son Isidor, two years later, on 7 July 1860, their second son, Gustav, was born. In December 1860, Bernhard Mahler moved with his wife and infant son, Gustav, to the town of Iglau,25 km to the south-east, the family grew rapidly, but of the 12 children born to the family in Iglau only six survived infancy. All of these elements would later contribute to his musical vocabulary. When he was four years old, Gustav discovered his grandparents piano and he developed his performing skills sufficiently to be considered a local Wunderkind and gave his first public performance at the town theatre when he was ten years old. Although Gustav loved making music, his reports from the Iglau Gymnasium portrayed him as absent-minded. In 1871, in the hope of improving the results, his father sent him to the New Town Gymnasium in Prague. In 1874 he suffered a personal loss when his younger brother Ernst died after a long illness. Mahler sought to express his feelings in music, with the help of a friend, Josef Steiner, he work on an opera
28.
Alban Berg
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Alban Maria Johannes Berg was an Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School. His compositional style combined Romantic lyricism with twelve-tone technique, Berg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Conrad Berg. His family lived comfortably until the death of his father in 1900 and he was more interested in literature than music as a child and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music. In late February or early March 1902 he fathered a child with Marie Scheuchl and his daughter, Albine, was born on December 4,1902. Berg had little formal education before he became a student of Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904. With Schoenberg he studied counterpoint, music theory, and harmony, by 1906, he was studying music full-time, by 1907, he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas and he also wrote songs, including his Seven Early Songs, three of which were Bergs first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenbergs pupils in Vienna that year. The early sonata sketches eventually culminated in Bergs Piano Sonata, Op.1, Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Berg admired him as a composer and mentor, and they remained lifelong friends. Among Schoenbergs teaching was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a basic idea. The Piano Sonata is a whole composition is derived from the works opening quartal gesture. Berg was a part of Viennas cultural elite during the fin de siècle period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg. In 1906, Berg met the singer Helene Nahowski, daughter of a family, despite the outward hostility of her family. In 1913, two of Bergs Five Songs on Picture Postcard Texts by Peter Altenberg were premièred in Vienna, settings of aphoristic poetic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted, the full score remained unpublished until 1966. From 1915 to 1918, Berg served in the Austro-Hungarian Army and during a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera, after the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna, where he taught private pupils. Berg had a particular interest in the number 23, using it to several works
29.
Violin Concerto (Berg)
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Alban Bergs Violin Concerto was written in 1935. It is probably Bergs best-known and most frequently performed piece, in which the composer sought to reconcile diatonicism. Berg composed it on a commission from Louis Krasner, and it became the last work that he completed, Krasner performed the solo part in the premiere at the Palau de la Música Catalana, Barcelona on 19 April 1936, after the composers death. The piece stemmed from a commission from the violinist Louis Krasner, when he first received the commission, Berg was working on his opera Lulu, and he did not begin work on the concerto for some months. The event that spurred him into writing was the death by polio of 18-year-old Manon Gropius, Berg set Lulu aside to write the concerto, which he dedicated To the memory of an angel. The violin concerto was the last work that Berg completed, in a letter to Krasner dated 16 July 1935, Berg confessed, Yesterday I finished the composition of our Violin Concerto. I am probably more surprised by it than you will be the work gave me more and more joy, I hope - no, I have the confident belief - that I have succeeded. The concerto is scored for 2 flutes,2 oboes, alto saxophone,2 clarinets, bass clarinet,2 bassoons, contrabassoon,4 horns,2 trumpets,2 trombones, tuba, timpani, percussion, harp and strings. Berg described the structure of the concerto in a letter to Schoenberg and it is in two movements, each divided into two sections, The work begins with an Andante in classical sonata form, followed by the Allegretto, a dance-like section. The second movement starts with an Allegro largely based on a recurring rhythmic cell. The orchestration becomes rather violent at its climax, the fourth and final section, the first two sections are meant to represent life, the last two death and transfiguration. The score integrates serialism and tonality in a remarkable fashion, the roots of the four triads correspond to the open strings of the violin, which is highlighted in the opening passage of the piece. The resulting triads are thus fifth-related and form a cadence, which we hear directly before the row is played by the violin for the first time. The last four notes of the row, ascending whole tones, are also the first four notes of the melody, Es ist genug. Bach composed a setting of the hymn by Franz Burmeister to conclude his cantata O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort. Berg quotes this chorale directly in the last movement of the piece and this is perhaps the only section which does not derive its materials from the row. World premiere,19 April 1936, Palau de la Música Catalana, Barcelona, Louis Krasner played the solo part, and the performance was conducted by Hermann Scherchen. Anton Webern was intended to be the conductor, reports vary as to whether he was ill or was emotionally unable to cope with the subject matter of the music
30.
Franz Werfel
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Franz Viktor Werfel was an Austrian-Bohemian novelist, playwright, and poet whose career spanned World War I, the Interwar period, and World War II. Born in Prague, Werfel was the first of three children of a manufacturer of gloves and leather goods, Rudolf Werfel. His mother, Albine Kussi, was the daughter of a mill owner and his two sisters were Hanna and Marianne Amalie. As a child, Werfel was raised by his Czech Catholic governess, Barbara Šimůnková, in 1912, Werfel moved to Leipzig, where he became an editor for Kurt Wolff’s new publishing firm, where Werfel championed and edited Georg Trakl’s first book of poetry. With the outbreak of World War I, Werfel served in the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Russian front as a telephone operator. His duties both exposed him to the vicissitudes of war as well as provided him with enough of a haven to continue writing Expressionist poems, ambitious plays. His strange mix of humanism, confessionalism, autobiography, as well as mythology and religiosity developed further during this time. His poems and plays ranged from scenes of ancient Egypt to occult allusions and incorporate a parable from the Baháí Faith in the poem “Jesus and the Carrion Path. ”His bias for Christian subjects, as well as his antipathy for Zionism, eventually alienated many of his Jewish friends and readers, including early champions such as Karl Kraus. Others, however, stood by him, including, Martin Buber and their love affair culminated in the premature birth of a son, Martin, in August 1918. Martin, who was given the surname of Gropius, died in May of the following year, despite attempts to save his marriage to Alma, with whom he had a young daughter, Manon, Gropius reluctantly agreed to a divorce in 1920. Ironically, Alma refused to marry Werfel for the nine years. They married on 6 July 1929, in April 1924, Verdi - Roman der Oper was published by Zsolnay Verlag, establishing Werfels reputation as a novelist. In 1926, Werfel was awarded the Grillparzer Prize by the Austrian Academy of Sciences, by the end of the decade, Werfel had become one of the most important and established writers in German and Austrian literature and had already merited one full-length critical biography. Werfel lectured on this subject across Germany, the Nazi newspaper Das Schwarze Corps denounced him as a propagandist of alleged Turkish horrors perpetrated against the Armenians. The same newspaper, suggesting a link between the Armenian and the later Jewish genocide, condemned Americas Armenian Jews for promoting in the U. S. A. the sale of Werfels book, Werfel was forced to leave the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933. His books were burned by the Nazis, Werfel left Austria after the Anschluss in 1938 and went to France, where they lived in a fishing village near Marseille. Visitors to their home at this time included Bertolt Brecht and Thomas Mann, after the German invasion and occupation of France during World War II, and the deportation of French Jews to the Nazi concentration camps, Werfel had to flee again. With the assistance of Varian Fry and the Emergency Rescue Committee in Marseille, he and his wife escaped the Nazi regime
31.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
32.
Adolf Meyer (architect)
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Adolf Meyer was a German architect. A student and employee of Peter Behrens, Meyer became the boss of the firm of Walter Gropius around 1915. In 1919 Gropius appointed Meyer as a master at the Bauhaus, Meyer is also credited as co-designer of the Gropius entry for the 1922 Chicago Tribune Tower competition. From 1926 he practiced as an architect in the New Frankfurt-project, building Culture, Ernst May and the New Frankfurt Initiative, 1926-1931
33.
Alfeld
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For the town in the district of Nürnberger Land, see Alfeld, Bavaria. Alfeld is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany, located on the Leine river, it is the second biggest city in the district of Hildesheim in southern Lower Saxony and part of the Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg. Alfeld is a member of the Leinebergland region and on the German Timber-Frame Road, the town was founded before 1214, with the name Alvelde recorded in 1214,1221, and 1233. The toponymic element -feld means open area, an undeveloped, open field, al- likely derives from the Indoeuropean root el-/ol- meaning water, damp, or flowing. In 1426, Alfeld joined the Saxon League of Towns, thus becoming a member of the Hanseatic League. The town was one of the smallest cities in the Hanseatic League, but had become prosperous in the fourteenth and fifteenth century through its trade in beer, hops, linen, and yarn. Alfeld originally belonged to the Diocese of Hildesheim, but was transferred to the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel after the Hildesheim Diocesan Feud, in retrospect, this Brunswick period constituted Alfelds Golden Age, its economy and culture flourishing before the Thirty Years War. More famous are the Seven Hills in the north and the Lippoldshöhle, the assertion that the popular fairy tale of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was born in Alfeld is false. Even though the miners who mined ore In the Seven Mountains believed in the existence of dwarfs, the version the brothers Grimm heard and wrote down, as they travelled through the Seven Mountains, on the so-called Märchenstrasse is just one of many. The biggest employer of the city is the SAPPI factory with its big chimney, even more famous than SAPPI is the Fagus Werk, rebuilt in 1910-1915 after the blueprints of architect Walter-Gropius, what is said to be trend-setting for modern architecture. Alfeld is an important town fought for repeatedly by both NATO and Soviet forces in Tom Clancys novel Red Storm Rising
34.
Last
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A last is a mechanical form that has a shape similar to that of a human foot. It is used by shoemakers and cordwainers in the manufacture and repair of shoes, Lasts typically come in pairs and have been made from various materials, including hardwoods, cast iron, and high-density plastics. Lasts come in many styles and sizes, depending on the job they are designed for. Common variations include simple one-size lasts used for repairing soles and heels, durable lasts used in mass production. Though a last is made approximately in the shape of a human foot, for example, a boot last would be designed to hug the instep for a close fit. Modern last shapes are designed using dedicated computer-aided design software. Today, wooden lasts are generally used only for bespoke shoemaking, particularly in Europe, such plastics also have the benefit that they can be recycled and remoulded when they wear out. Cordwainers, or bespoke shoemakers, often use lasts that are designed to the proportions of individual customers feet. Media related to Lasts at Wikimedia Commons Lastmakingschool. com
35.
Form follows function
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Form follows function is a principle associated with modernist architecture and industrial design in the 20th century. The principle is that the shape of a building or object should be based upon its intended function or purpose. Here Sullivan actually said form ever follows function, but the phrase is the one usually remembered. For Sullivan this was distilled wisdom, a credo, the single rule that shall permit of no exception. If the shape of the building was not going to be out of the old pattern book something had to determine form. It was form follows function, as opposed to form follows precedent, Sullivans assistant Frank Lloyd Wright adopted and professed the same principle in slightly different form—perhaps because shaking off the old styles gave them more freedom and latitude. In 1908 the Austrian architect Adolf Loos wrote an essay titled Ornament. Modernists adopted Looss moralistic argument as well as Sullivans maxim form follows function, Loos had worked as a carpenter in the USA. He celebrated efficient plumbing and industrial artifacts like corn silos and steel water towers as examples of functional design, louis Sullivans phrase form follows function became a battle-cry of Modernist architects after the 1930s. The credo was taken to imply that decorative elements, which architects call ornament, were superfluous in modern buildings, however, Sullivan himself neither thought nor designed along such dogmatic lines during the peak of his career. Probably the most famous example is the writhing green ironwork that covers the entrance canopies of the Carson, Pirie, Scott, some car makers thought that aerodynamic efficiency would result in a single optimal auto-body shape, a teardrop shape, which would not be good for unit sales. GM thereafter adopted two different positions on streamlining, one meant for its internal engineering community, the other meant for its customers, like the annual model year change, so-called aerodynamic styling is often meaningless in terms of technical performance. Subsequently drag coefficient has become both a tool and a means of improving the sale-ability of a car by reducing its fuel consumption, slightly. Loewy formulated his MAYA principle to express that designs are bounded by functional constraints of math and materials and logic. By honestly applying form follows function, industrial designers had the potential to put their clients out of business, some simple single-purpose objects like screwdrivers and pencils and teapots might be reducible to a single optimal form, precluding product differentiation. Some objects made too durable would prevent sales of replacements, from the standpoint of functionality, some products are simply unnecessary. Victor Papanek was an influential recent designer and design philosopher who taught and this does not mean that process is irrelevant, but that processes compatible with an artifacts requirements lead to roughly similar results. The principle can also be applied to Enterprise Application Architectures of modern business where function is the Business processes which should be assisted by the enterprise architecture, if the architecture dictates how the business operates then the business is likely to suffer from inflexibility unable to adapt to change
36.
Cologne
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Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
37.
Grain elevator
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Grain elevator is an agrarian facility complex designed to stock pile or store grain. In grain trade it also could mean a tower containing an elevator or a pneumatic conveyor. In most cases, the grain elevator also covers the entire elevator complex, including receiving and testing offices, weighbridges. It may also mean organizations that operate or control several individual elevators, in Australia the term grain elevator refers to the lifting mechanism only. Prior to the advent of the elevator, grain was usually handled in bags rather than in bulk. However, Darts Elevator was a major innovation and it was invented by a merchant named Joseph Dart and an engineer named Robert Dunbar during 1842–43, in Buffalo, New York. Using the steam-powered flour mills of Oliver Evans as their model, they invented the marine leg, early grain elevators and bins were often constructed of framed or cribbed wood, and were prone to fire. Grain elevator bins, tanks and silos are now constructed of steel or reinforced concrete. Bucket elevators are used to lift grain to a distributor or consignor, from where it falls through spouts and/or conveyors and into one of a number of bins, when desired, silos, bins and tanks are emptied by gravity flow, sweep augers and conveyors. Large-scale grain receival, storage and logistics operations are known in Australia as bulk handling, specifically there are several types of grain elevators under Canadian law, defined in the Canadian Grain Act, Section 2. Primary elevators receive grain directly from producers for storage, or forwarding, process elevators receive and store grain for direct manufacture or processing into other products. Terminal elevators receive grain on or after official inspection and weighing and clean, store, transfer elevators transfer grain that has been officially inspected and weighed at another elevator. In the Eastern Division, transfer elevators also receive, clean and it was both necessity and the prospect of making a lot of money that gave birth to the steam-powered grain elevator in Buffalo, New York, in 1843. Due to the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, Buffalo enjoyed a position in American geography. All through the 1830s, Buffalo benefited tremendously from its position, in particular, it was the recipient of most of the increasing quantities of grain that was being grown on farms in Ohio and Indiana, and shipped on Lake Erie for transshipment to the Erie Canal. If Buffalo hadnt been there, or when things got backed up there, by 1842, it was clear that Buffalos port facilities were antiquated. It would take days, sometimes even a week, to service a single grain-laden boat. Grain shipments were going down the Mississippi River, not over the Great Lakes/Erie Canal system, a merchant named Joseph Dart, Jr
38.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
39.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
40.
Iron Cross
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The Iron Cross was a military decoration in the Kingdom of Prussia, and later in the German Empire and Nazi Germany. It was established by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia in March 1813 backdated to the birthday of his late wife Queen Louise on 10 March 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars, Louise was the first person to receive this decoration. The recommissioned Iron Cross was also awarded during the Franco-Prussian War, World War I, the Iron Cross was normally a military decoration only, though there were instances of it being awarded to civilians for performing military functions. The design of the symbol was black with a white or silver outline. It was ultimately derived from the cross pattée occasionally used by the Teutonic Order from the 13th century, the black cross patty was also used as the symbol of the German Army from 1871 to March/April 1918, when it was replaced by the Balkenkreuz. In 1956, it was re-introduced as the symbol of the Bundeswehr, the Black Cross is the emblem used by the Prussian Army, and by the army of Germany from 1871 to present. It was designed on the occasion of the German Campaign of 1813, from this time, the Black Cross also featured on the Prussian war flag alongside the Black Eagle. The design is due to neoclassical architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, based on a sketch by Frederick William, the design is ultimately derivative of the black cross used by the Teutonic Order. This heraldic cross took various forms throughout the history, including a simple Latin cross. When the Quadriga of the Goddess of Peace was retrieved from Paris at Napoleons fall, an Iron Cross was inserted into her laurel wreath, making her into a Goddess of Victory. The Black Cross was used on the naval and war flags of the German Empire, the Black Cross was used as the symbol of the German Army until 1915, when it was replaced by a simpler Balkenkreuz. The Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany, the traditional design in black is used on armored vehicles and aircraft, while after German reunification, a new design in blue and silver was introduced for use in other contexts. The ribbon for the 1813,1870 and 1914 Iron Cross was black with two white bands, the colors of Prussia. The non-combatant version of this award had the same medal, but the black, the ribbon color for the 1939 EKII was black/white/red/white/black. Since the Iron Cross was issued several different periods of German history. For example, an Iron Cross from World War I bears the year 1914, the reverse of the 1870,1914 and 1939 series of Iron Crosses have the year 1813 appearing on the lower arm, symbolizing the year the award was created. The 1813 decoration also has the initials FW for King Frederick William III, the final version shows a swastika. There was also the 1957 issue, a replacement medal for holders of the 1939 series which substituted an oak-leaf cluster for the banned swastika
41.
Kapp Putsch
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It was supported by parts of the Reichswehr and other conservative, nationalist and monarchist factions. The coup took place in the capital, Berlin, and the legitimate German government was forced to flee the city, the coup failed after a few days, when large sections of the German population followed a call by the government to join a general strike. Most civil servants refused to cooperate with Kapp and his allies, despite its failure, the putsch had significant consequences for the future of the Weimar Republic. It was the cause of the left-wing Ruhr Uprising of March 1920 and these events polarized the electorate, resulting in a shift in the majority after the June Reichstag elections. In 1919–20, the government of Germany was formed by the Weimar Coalition, consisting of the Social Democratic Party, German Democratic Party, President Friedrich Ebert, Chancellor Gustav Bauer and Defence Minister Gustav Noske were all members of the SPD. According to the constitution, the president was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, the most senior officer of the land forces was called Chef der Heeresleitung, a post held in early 1920 by General Walther Reinhardt. Gustav Bauer was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the German government had repeatedly used Freikorp troops to put down Communist uprisings after the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which came into effect on 10 January 1920, the initial deadline was set for 31 March 1920. Freikorps units were expected to be disbanded, since the reason for their creation—internal repression—had become obsolete with the crushing of the leftist uprisings, they were becoming a threat to the government. Some senior military commanders had started discussing the possibility of a coup as early as July 1919, on 29 February 1920, the Defence Minister Noske ordered the disbandment of two of the most powerful Freikorps, the Marinebrigade Loewenfeld and Marinebrigade Ehrhardt. The latter numbered from 5, 000–6,000 men and had stationed at the Truppenübungsplatz Döberitz, near Berlin. An elite force, it had created from former Imperial Navy officers and NCOs. During the civil war in 1919, the brigade had seen action in Munich and it was extremely opposed to the democratic government of Friedrich Ebert. Its commander, Korvettenkapitän Hermann Ehrhardt, declared that the unit would refuse its dissolution, on 1 March, it staged a parade without inviting Noske. Lüttwitz listened to and remembered their ideas but was not dissuaded from his course of action, Noske then removed the Marinebrigade from Lüttwitz command and assigned it to the leadership of the Navy, hoping that they would disband the unit. Lüttwitz ignored the order but agreed to a meeting with President Ebert, in the evening of 10 March, Lüttwitz came with his staff to Eberts office. Ebert had also asked Noske to attend, Ebert and Noske rejected these demands and Noske told Lüttwitz that he expected his resignation the next day. Lüttwitz went to Döberitz on 11 March and asked Ehrhardt whether he would be able to occupy Berlin that evening, Ehrhardt said he needed another day but in the morning of 13 March he could be in the centre of Berlin with his men
42.
Henry van de Velde
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Henry Clemens van de Velde was a Belgian painter, architect and interior designer. Together with Victor Horta and Paul Hankar he could be considered as one of the main founders, Van de Velde spent the most important part of his career in Germany and had a decisive influence on German architecture and design at the beginning of the 20th century. Van de Velde was born in Antwerp, where he studied painting under Charles Verlat at the famous Royal Academy of Fine Arts and he then went on to study at Carolus-Duran in Paris. As a young painter he was influenced by Paul Signac and Georges Seurat. In 1889 he became a member of the Brussels-based artist group Les XX, after Vincent van Gogh exhibited some work on the yearly exhibition of Les XX van de Velde became one of the first artists to be influenced by the Dutch painter. During this period he developed a friendship with the painter Théo van Rysselberghe. In 1892 he abandoned painting, devoting his time to arts of decoration and his own house, Bloemenwerf in Ukkel, was his first attempt at architecture, and was inspired by the British and American Arts and Crafts Movement. He also designed interiors and furniture for the art gallery LArt Nouveau of Samuel Bing in Paris in 1895. This gave the movement its first designation as Art Nouveau, bing’s pavilion at the 1900 Paris world fair also exhibited work by Van de Velde. Van de Velde set his face against copying historical styles, resolutely opting for original design, banning banality, Van de Veldes design work received good exposure in Germany, through periodicals like Innen-Dekoration, and subsequently he received commissions for interior designs in Berlin. Around the turn of the century, he designed Villa Leuring in the Netherlands and he also designed the interior of the Folkwang Museum in Hagen and the Nietzsche House in Weimar. In 1899 he settled in Weimar, Germany, where in 1905 he established the Grand-Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and he would oppose Hermann Muthesius at the Werkbund meeting of 1914 and their debate would mark the history of Modern Architecture. Van de Velde called for the upholding of the individuality of artists while Hermann Muthesius called for standardization as a key to development, during World War I, Van de Velde, as a foreign national, was obliged to leave Weimar, and returned to his native Belgium. Later, he lived in Switzerland and in the Netherlands where he designed the Kröller-Müller Museum in Otterlo, in 1925 he was appointed professor at the Ghent University Institute of Art History and Archaeology, where he lectured architecture and applied arts from 1926 to 1936. He was instrumental in founding in Brussels, in 1926, todays renowned architecture and visual arts school La Cambre and he continued his practice in architecture and design, which had demarcated itself significantly from the Art Nouveau phase, whose popularity was by 1910 in decline. During this period, he mentored the great Belgian architect, Victor Bourgeois, in 1933 he was commissioned to design the new building for the university library. Construction started in 1936, but the work would not be completed until the end of the Second World War, for budget reasons, the eventual construction did not entirely match the original design. For instance, the reading room floor was executed in marble instead of the black rubber Van de Velde originally intended and he was also involved in the construction of the Ghent University Hospital
43.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
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